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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A detailed account of various applications and uses of transparent ceramics and the future of the industry
In Transparent Ceramics: Materials, Engineering, and Applications, readers will discover the necessary foundation for understanding transparent ceramics (TCs) and the technical and economic factors that determine the overall worth of TCs. This book provides readers with a thorough history of TCs, as well as a detailed account of the materials, engineering and applications of TC in its various forms; fabrication and characterization specifics are also described. With this book, researchers, engineers, and students find a definitive guide to past and present use cases, and a glimpse into the future of TC materials.
The book covers a variety of TC topics, including:
● The methods employed for materials produced in a transparent state
● Detailed applications of TCs for use in lasers, IR domes, armor-windows, and various medical prosthetics
● A review of traditionally used transparent materials that highlights the benefits of TCs
● Theoretical science and engineering theories presented in correlation with learned data
● A look at past, present, and future use-cases of TCs
This insightful guide to ceramics that can be fabricated into bulk transparent parts will serve as a must-read for professionals in the industry, as well as students looking to gain a more thorough understanding of the field.
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Seitenzahl: 1155
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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Table of Contents
Cover
Foreword
Acknowledgments
General Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Transparent Ceramics: The Book's Rationale Topic and Aims
1.2 Factors Determining the Overall Worth of Transparent Ceramics
1.3 Spectral Domain for Ceramics High Transmission Targeted in This Book
1.4 Definition of Transparency Levels
1.5 Evolution of Transmissive Ability Along the Ceramics Development History
2 Electromagnetic Radiation: Interaction with Matter
2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation: Phenomenology and Characterizing Parameters
2.2 Interference and Polarization
2.3 Main Processes which Disturb Electromagnetic Radiation After Incidence on a Solid
2.4 Physical Processes Controlling Light Absorption in the Optical Window Vicinity
2.5 Thermal Emissivity
2.6 Color of Solids
3 Ceramics Engineering: Aspects Specific to Those Transparent
3.1 Processing
3.2 Characterization
4 Materials and Their Processing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Principal Materials Description
5 TC Applications
5.1 General Aspects
5.2 Brief Description of Main Applications
6 Future Developments
7 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Terms derived from
d
q
electronic configurations.
Table 2.2 Terms derived from f
q
electronic configurations.
Table 2.3 Racah's energies for all
d
q
and a few relevant
f
q
configurations.
Table 2.4 Empiric
B
and
C
Constants for different representative
3d
q
configura...
Table 2.5 Empiric
B
,
C
, and
D
Racah Constants for different representative fre...
Table 2.6 Correlation table among atomic and ionic states' wave functions in
O
...
Table 2.7 Correlation table among atomic and ionic states' wave-function spec...
Table 2.8 Color data of individual spinel samples obtained from transmission ...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comments on particle size distribution records by different light s...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Nonoptical properties of selected transparent ceramics.
Table 4.2 Optical properties of selected transparent ceramics.
Table 4.3 Characteristics of spinel/LiF (0–3.5%) discs (diameter = 58 mm) aft...
Table 4.4 Main properties of transparent spinel ceramics.
Table 4.5 Frequency of spinel lattice fundamental vibrations.
Table 4.6 Properties of AlON ceramics.
Table 4.7 Properties of alumina ceramics.
Table 4.8 Properties of MgO ceramics.
Table 4.9 Properties of YAG ceramics.
Table 4.10 Properties of Y
2
O
3
ceramics.
Table 4.11 Most frequent oxide impurities present in zirconia powders.
Table 4.12 Properties of zirconia ceramics.
Table 4.13 The density of a few types of zirconia ceramic.
Table 4.14 Space group (for cubic lattices, also the “a” values are given) me...
Table 4.15 Properties of ZnS and ZnSe ceramics.
Table 4.16 PLZT general properties.
Table 4.17 Electro-optic properties of PLZT; comparison with other ferroelect...
Table 4.18 Electro-optic properties of PMN and PZN-PT ceramics.
Table 4.19 Diamond properties.
Table 4.20 Properties of GaP.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Guiding quality criteria for transparent ceramics in major fields o...
Table 5.2 Properties of some transparent glass-ceramics usable in armor appli...
Table 5.3 Properties of some armor glasses.
Table 5.4 Radii of TM
+
and RE
+
cations.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Overall wavelength range of the spectrum of EMR (domain to which ...
Figure 1.2 Transmission range of a few transparent ceramics and glasses show...
Figure 1.3 Evolution of transparency during ceramic history (a) clay pitcher...
Figure 1.4 First translucent, all-crystalline ceramic: imaging and microstru...
Figure 1.5 Lamp (high pressure Na vapor) including vapors, envelope made of ...
Figure 1.6 Nd:YAG rod-shaped ceramic gain media for solid-state lasers. Top:...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of a spatial slice (temporal snapshot imag...
Figure 2.2 Demonstration of constructive and destructive interference cases ...
Figure 2.3 Various light polarization forms: (a) linearly polarized and (b) ...
Figure 2.4 Graphic representation of the refraction process.
Figure 2.5 Dependence of optical lens focal length on the value of refractio...
Figure 2.6 Wavelength dependence (“dispersion”) of the refractive index
n
(
λ
...
Figure 2.7 Relationship between refraction index and dispersion for optical ...
Figure 2.8 Deleterious effect of chromatic aberration.
Figure 2.9 Plot of the partial dispersion ratio
θ
g
,
F
against refractive...
Figure 2.10 Plot of partial dispersion against Abbé number
ν
d
. Two exam...
Figure 2.11 Light reflectance vs. incidence angle of its
S
and
P
polarizatio...
Figure 2.12 Use of total reflection, at the core/cladding interface, for kee...
Figure 2.13 The refraction index ellipsoid and graphic determination of the ...
Figure 2.14 Cross section of the refractive index ellipsoid of a uniaxial cr...
Figure 2.15 Schematic demonstration of light scattering by randomly disperse...
Figure 2.16 Scattering form factor as function of the dimensionless
u
scatte...
Figure 2.17 Relative scattering intensity as function of scattering angle in...
Figure 2.18 Effect of pore size/
λ
ratio on scattering intensity. (a) Th...
Figure 2.19 Measured in-line transmission of single and polycrystalline Mg–A...
Figure 2.20 In-line transmittance as a function of wavelength for polycrysta...
Figure 2.21 Changes of transmission, for high density, variable grain size, ...
Figure 2.22 Scattering parameters dependence on grain size. (a) Scattering i...
Figure 2.23 Energy scheme of a
Cr
4+
ion calculated par Racah constants o...
Figure 2.24 Ni
2+
cation's
3
F ground-state level splitting by the spin/or...
Figure 2.25 Correlation map (Terms scheme) demonstrating changes in the symm...
Figure 2.26 Absorption curve and electronic levels scheme (deduced from spec...
Figure 2.27 A Tanabe–Sugano diagram providing the energy separations between...
Figure 2.28 Illustrated schematic scheme of the vibrational energy in a mult...
Figure 2.29 Energy scheme of vibrational levels belonging to two different e...
Figure 2.30 Squared vibrational wave functions describing the normal coordin...
Figure 2.31 Correlation map for the
3
H ground Term of an
n
f
2
configuration f...
Figure 2.32 Energy scheme of Nd
3+
ions of 4f
3
configuration residing in ...
Figure 2.33 Absorption spectrum of Fe
3+
in disordered hosts (an aqueous ...
Figure 2.34 Effective fluorescence lifetime of an excited, doubly ionized co...
Figure 2.35 Schematic illustration of a
J
= 2
state splittin...
Figure 2.36 Schematic demonstration of possible resonance absorption peaks i...
Figure 2.37 Energy levels considering the splitting of the states of a
D
3
(u...
Figure 2.38 Schematic energy level scheme related to an electron spin resona...
Figure 2.39 Computer-generated spectrum of absorbed radio frequency power de...
Figure 2.40 Electronic spectrum of a spinel containing 0.1% TiO
2
, subjected ...
Figure 2.41 Electron paramagnetic resonance signal (RT) of the specimen rele...
Figure 2.42 The transmission spectra generated by the Cu species present in ...
Figure 2.43 Cu 2p X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy signal in Zn-phosphate gl...
Figure 2.44 EPR signal of Cu
2+
, located in various Zn-phosphate glasses....
Figure 2.45 Optical spectrum of Cu accommodated (as Cu
2+
in two coordina...
Figure 2.46 Optical spectrum generated by Cu accommodated in a YAG host, whi...
Figure 2.47 Cu
0
nanometric clusters in P-Zn red glass (STEM image).
Figure 2.48 Electronic states scheme of Er
3+
cation.
Figure 2.49 Electronic states of Yb
3+
cation.
Figure 2.50 Spectra produced by Nd
3+
and Er
3+
, respectively, located...
Figure 2.51 Energy schemes describing the classification of solid materials ...
Figure 2.52 Fermi–Dirac distribution function (occupancy of electronic state...
Figure 2.53 Schematic illustration of a Morse potential, and its related har...
Figure 2.54 Temporal snapshots of the atomic base normal mode states for dif...
Figure 2.55 Graphic representation of acoustic vibration modes: (b) transver...
Figure 2.56 Schematic illustration of transverse and longitudinal dispersion...
Figure 2.57 Schematic illustration of optical transverse and longitudinal di...
Figure 2.58 First Brillouin zone image of a face-centered cubic crystal (als...
Figure 2.59 Phonon dispersion curves in GaAs along major symmetry directions...
Figure 2.60 Calculated optical front surface reflectance of a dielectric cry...
Figure 2.61 Semi-logarithmic plot of room temperature absorption coefficient...
Figure 2.62 Black body radiation spectra at different temperatures. The spec...
Figure 2.63 Complementary colors at opposing positions of a color wheel (giv...
Figure 2.64 Transmission spectra of oxide ceramics with different coloring a...
Figure 2.65 CIE 1931 Standard Observer. Virtual color matching functions.
Figure 2.66 CIE 1931 color space chromaticity diagram. The outer curve is th...
Figure 2.67
a
-
b
plane with
L
-scale of the CIE-Lab color space diagram. In th...
Figure 2.68 In-line transmission spectra of polished MgAl
2
O
4
spinel discs: T...
Figure 2.69 Position of color of the transparent spinel discs of Table 2.8 i...
Figure 2.70 Position of transparent spinel samples in CIE-Lab color space fo...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Pores average size, size distribution, morphology, and characteri...
Figure 3.2 Monosized (∼1 μm), spherical amorphous silica particles arranged ...
Figure 3.3 Silica glass parts fabricated by fast MW heating of compacts like...
Figure 3.4 Yttria monosized spherical particles synthesized by wet chemistry...
Figure 3.5 Selected, by centrifugation, fraction of Yb:SrF
2
powder. (a) Coar...
Figure 3.6 Discs resulting from hot pressing of (a) the coarse and (b) the f...
Figure 3.7 Morphology of YAG powder prepared by spray-coprecipitation (state...
Figure 3.8 Commercial spinel (MgAl
2
O
4
) powders with different particle sizes...
Figure 3.9 Cryo-HRSEM micrographs of an aqueous suspension with 60% solid lo...
Figure 3.10 Imaging of granules formed by various procedures (at ICSI, Haifa...
Figure 3.11 Green density (as a function of compaction pressure) and microst...
Figure 3.12 Schematic of surfactant molecules contact to particles surface (...
Figure 3.13 Hydraulic pressure distribution across the cast and the mold in ...
Figure 3.14 Cast porosity level as a function of particles size, shape, and ...
Figure 3.15 Large (10 × 10 cm
2
) plate formed by slip-casting (AS + HIP). (a)...
Figure 3.16 Photo of alumina ceramic disc formed by slip-casting under magne...
Figure 3.17 Degree of orientation achieved, in the green-specimen from which...
Figure 3.18 Transmission spectra of alumina discs, slip-casted under magneti...
Figure 3.19 Schematic presentation of the mechanism by which an external mag...
Figure 3.20 Schematic description of the slip-casting under magnetic field. ...
Figure 3.21 Pore size of green cakes formed by centrifugal deposition (initi...
Figure 3.22 Agglomerates of particles, present in the green bodies and the i...
Figure 3.23 Voids system pattern and distribution, in the microstructure of ...
Figure 3.24 The void space distribution, at the start of the last stage of s...
Figure 3.25 The pores coalescence process that may occur, as a result of mas...
Figure 3.26 Pore coordination (by grains) number (
N
) in sintering ceramics. ...
Figure 3.27 Equilibrium shape of a pore, during ceramics sintering, surround...
Figure 3.28 Matter transport paths (ionic diffusion mechanism) as a function...
Figure 3.29 Dependence of pore-boundary interaction on microstructural featu...
Figure 3.30 Plot of the effective pressure divided by the applied pressure v...
Figure 3.31 Pressure application configuration with indication of the type o...
Figure 3.32 Applicator of an MW (2.45 GHz) sintering system (large
L
/
λ
...
Figure 3.33 Schematic of CVD reactor.
Figure 3.34 Corning ware (opaque bowl) in both finished state (left) and ini...
Figure 3.35 Rate, as a function of temperature (within the
t
g
–
t
f
range) leve...
Figure 3.36 Free energy, as a function of composition and the ensuing phase ...
Figure 3.37 Examples of phase separated glasses that may lead to glass-ceram...
Figure 3.38 Transmission spectrum of typical soda-lime silicate glass. Band ...
Figure 3.39 Transparent (moderately) ceramics fabricated by full glass cryst...
Figure 3.40 Processing routes one can base on a sol–gel approach and types o...
Figure 3.41 Bulk sol–gel transparent (nanometers pore containing gamma alumi...
Figure 3.42 Pore size distribution curves of alumina xerogel fired, for 24 h...
Figure 3.43 Massive shrinkage during sintering of xerogels (gel prepared fro...
Figure 3.44 Transformation of polycrystalline ceramic to single crystal part...
Figure 3.45 Demonstration of solid-state single-crystal formation I the case...
Figure 3.46 Lasing efficiency of Nd:YAG ceramic compared with that of solid-...
Figure 3.47 Spherical shape individual YAG single-crystals prepared by the s...
Figure 3.48 Transmission spectrum of thin (0.8 mm) plates of BMT and distort...
Figure 3.49 Ion beam preparation of ceramic granules (IKTS Dresden). (a) Ful...
Figure 3.50 Schematics of green ceramic bodies of identical green density. (...
Figure 3.51 Preparation of sections through highly porous Al
2
O
3
bodies prepa...
Figure 3.54 Pore size distributions of green bodies prepared by slip-casting...
Figure 3.52 Pore size distribution of green bodies formed by, respectively, ...
Figure 3.53 Green microstructures of bodies made (a) by gel-casting and (b) ...
Figure 3.55 Setup of laser tomography system used for scattering defects loc...
Figure 3.56 Image of scattering defects topography in a single-crystal YAG (...
Figure 3.57 Different visual evaluation of 0.06 mm thin translucent organic ...
Figure 3.58 Effect of specimen thickness on the scattering loses. (a) Scatte...
Figure 3.59 Chemical composition of grain-boundaries. (a) Map of Eu distribu...
Figure 3.60 HRTEM image of a grain boundary in transparent spinel. (a) Undop...
Figure 3.61 Segregation of Y
3+
(1000 ppm of dopant) at the grain boundar...
Figure 3.62 Nd penetration depth as a function of the plane type in alumina ...
Figure 3.63 Distribution of Ce
3+
over a YAG grain. (a) According to conf...
Figure 3.64 Reflection spectra of TiO
2
sintered in air (shows Ti
3+
absor...
Figure 3.65 Optical transmission curve of a Zr doped YAG and its EPR signal....
Figure 3.66 Influences of (a) grain sizes and (b) of testing load on the Vic...
Figure 3.67 The influence of grain size on the indentation size effect (the ...
Figure 3.68 Increasing grain size of Al
2
O
3
ceramics promotes pull-out of gra...
Figure 3.69 Improved performance of transparent spinel ceramic (MgAl
2
O
4
; by ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Phase diagram of the Al
2
O
3
–MgO system.
Figure 4.2 Spinel (MgAl
2
O
4
) lattice. (1) oxide anions. (2) Al
3+
cation. ...
Figure 4.3 Morphology, size, and clustering pattern of three different spine...
Figure 4.4 Pore size distribution of green bodies derived from SN1–SN3 powde...
Figure 4.5 Particles (agglomerates) size distribution of SN1 and SN2 materia...
Figure 4.6 Sintering curves of SN1–3 powders.
Figure 4.7 Opaque white spots (regions not fully densified) frequently seen ...
Figure 4.8 Transmission spectra of some spinel discs with different amounts ...
Figure 4.9 Imaging of some transparent, medium size, spinel discs fabricated...
Figure 4.10 Large transparent spinel windows fabricated by AS + HIP and HPin...
Figure 4.11 HPing schedule when MgF
2
is used as a sintering aid (see transmi...
Figure 4.12 Large disc, produced by pressing followed by sinter/HIP at the N...
Figure 4.13 Average and maximal grain size, as a function of sintering tempe...
Figure 4.14 Microstructural patterns of transparent spinel ceramics fabricat...
Figure 4.15 Carbon penetration into dense spinel. (a) Poorly sintered (white...
Figure 4.16 Spectral effects of carbon penetration in spinel during HIPing. ...
Figure 4.17 Transmission curves of spinel discs (
t
= 3 mm) fabricated by sin...
Figure 4.18 Bidimensional scatter function of spinel plates. IF – instrument...
Figure 4.19 EPR signal of minute Fe
3+
impurity present in spinel.
Figure 4.20 Electronic spectra of sintered/HIPed spinel doped with TiO
2
. (a)...
Figure 4.21 Optical spectra of sulfur-containing materials. (1) Reflection c...
Figure 4.22 Transmission spectra of T-gahnite ceramics. (a) First transparen...
Figure 4.23 Phase diagram of the AlN–Al
2
O
3
pseudo binary system.
Figure 4.24 AlON (Al
8
(Al
15
Vac.)O
27
N
5
) lattice model; projection along the [1...
Figure 4.25 Shrinkage during dilatometric heating of two AlON powders.
Figure 4.26 Diffraction patterns produced by translucent AlON specimens. (a)...
Figure 4.27 Microstructure of dense AlON (polished and etched surface).
Figure 4.28 Microstructure of dense AlON ( fracture surface).
Figure 4.29 Transmission curves of commercial (Surmet) plate (2) and specime...
Figure 4.30 Imaging of an edge-on impact between a steel ball and an AlON pl...
Figure 4.31 Lattice structure of corundum (α-Al
2
O
3
); oxide ions in red.
Figure 4.32 Microstructure of dense alumina ceramics (derived from highly si...
Figure 4.33 Effect of residual pores content (a function of green body sinte...
Figure 4.34 Characteristics of transparent alumina parts fabricated by the t...
Figure 4.35 Characteristics of translucent alumina discs fabricated by PECS....
Figure 4.36 Transmission spectrum of hot pressed MgO ceramics as a function ...
Figure 4.37 Transmittance of MgO ceramics densified at low temperature by PE...
Figure 4.38 Characteristics of MgO powder and dense ceramics used in fabrica...
Figure 4.39 (a) Imaging and (b) transmission spectra of translucent CaO cera...
Figure 4.40 Phase diagram of the Y
2
O
3
–Al
2
O
3
binary system.
Figure 4.41 Fragment of garnet lattice and examples of T-YAG-based parts. (a...
Figure 4.42 Morphology and basic particle size of YAG powder prepared by the...
Figure 4.43 Shrinkage, during reaction-preceded sintering of YAG derived fro...
Figure 4.44 Imaging and microstructure of YAG disc fabricated by sinter(air)...
Figure 4.45 Transmission curves of undoped YAG discs fabricated at ICSI, Hai...
Figure 4.46 Transmission spectra of Ce
3+
containing YAG and the impurity...
Figure 4.48 Electronic spectra generated by Y
2+
(a d
1
-type ion) formed i...
Figure 4.47 Energy level diagram of Ce
3+
in YAG assuming that its cubic ...
Figure 4.49 Thermal conductivity of two garnets (single crystal state): YAG ...
Figure 4.50 Optical spectrum of Yb-doped garnets: YAG (1) and LuAG (2) ceram...
Figure 4.51 Transmission spectra of TAG ceramics, fabricated by vacuum sinte...
Figure 4.52 Imaging and transmission spectra of some TGG ceramics, as a func...
Figure 4.53 Images of Y
2
O
3
lattice. (a) Structure (cubic) stable at
RT
. 1 Ox...
Figure 4.54 Sintered Y
2
O
3
ceramic exhibiting some transparency (central regi...
Figure 4.55 Microstructure of sintered Y
2
O
3
ceramics. (a) Pure yttria showin...
Figure 4.56 Transmission curve of transparent yttria ceramic (YTTRALOX) comp...
Figure 4.57 Microstructure and transmission spectra of thoria-doped yttria c...
Figure 4.58 Transmission spectrum of Nd-doped yttria (thoria) transparent ce...
Figure 4.59 Lasing efficiency of specimen shown in Figure 4.58 (poor efficie...
Figure 4.60 Effect of doping on the grain boundary mobility (Mb), at various...
Figure 4.61 Dopants segregation at the GBs of yttria ceramics without amorph...
Figure 4.62 Thermal conductivity variation, as a function of their Yb
3+
...
Figure 4.63 Transmission spectrum of Yb-doped Scandia transparent ceramic....
Figure 4.64
RT
, emission spectra of Yb, and Nd co-doped scandia ceramic host...
Figure 4.65 Imaging and transmission spectra of two 10 mol% Yb containing lu...
Figure 4.66 Unit cells of various zirconia polymorphs (states the oxide assu...
Figure 4.67 Mechanism of crack arresting, operating in TZP ceramics of fine ...
Figure 4.68 Dark field image of overaged PSZ-type zirconia ceramic showing t...
Figure 4.69 TEM images of yttria-stabilized, superfine powder synthesized by...
Figure 4.70 Stabilized zirconia powders, based on microspherical particles, ...
Figure 4.71 The basic grains of the particles of Figure 4.67 (SEM on thermal...
Figure 4.72 Sintering curves of zirconia green bodies formed by various proc...
Figure 4.73 Transparent tiles of tetragonal ZrO
2
(+3 mol% Y
2
O
3
) ceramic made...
Figure 4.74 Microstructure of transparent cubic zirconia parts fabricated by...
Figure 4.75 Optical spectrum of cubic (stabilized with 8 mol% yttria) zircon...
Figure 4.76 Imaging of transparent plates, made of cubic zirconia, having va...
Figure 4.77 XRD patterns of monoclinic zirconia powder compacts as a functio...
Figure 4.78 Imaging of monoclinic zirconia discs (
t
= 0.35 mm) as a function...
Figure 4.79 Transmission spectra of as-grown zirconia single crystal and the...
Figure 4.80 Transmission spectra of cubic and tetragonal zirconia ceramics d...
Figure 4.81 Calculated transmission curves of sintered cubic ceramics with t...
Figure 4.82 Imaging of CaF
2
lattice. (1) Ca, (2) F.
Figure 4.83 Imaging of transparent CaF
2
ceramic disc and its absorption spec...
Figure 4.84 HAADF-STEM image of Yb segregation at the grain boundaries of a ...
Figure 4.85 Transmission spectrum (MIR range) of transparent CaF
2
ceramics....
Figure 4.86 Microstructure and imaging of Er-doped CaF
2
. (a) Microstructure ...
Figure 4.87 ZnS lattice. (1) Zn, (2) S.
Figure 4.88 Transmission spectra of different grades of ZnS ceramics.
Figure 4.89 Transmission spectra of two grades of ZnSe ceramic.
Figure 4.90 Absorption spectra of some Cr
2+
-doped ZnSe ceramics. (A) Pol...
Figure 4.91 The unit cell of BaTiO
3
.
Figure 4.92 Phase diagram of the pseudo-ternary system PbTiO
3
–PbZrO
3
–La
2
O
3
....
Figure 4.93 Imaging and transmission spectrum of PLZT thin plate fabricated ...
Figure 4.94 Schematic of hot pressing system used for fabrication of transpa...
Figure 4.95 Microstructure of PLZT ceramic (SEM on plasma etched surface)....
Figure 4.96 The
Δ
n
as a function of external electrical field strength ...
Figure 4.97 The value of the
R
eff
coefficient as a function of temperature f...
Figure 4.98 Transmission window, in the NIR range, of ferroelectric lead-fre...
Figure 4.99 Imaging and optical spectra of lead-free translucent ceramics de...
Figure 4.100 Projections along the
c
-axis of α- and β-quartz lattices. (a) α...
Figure 4.101 Transmission of grade Zerodur transparent glass-ceramic (Schott...
Figure 4.102 The glass-forming regions of the SiO
2
–Li
2
O
3
–Al
2
O
3
system. Q = q...
Figure 4.103 XRD pattern of transparent glass-ceramic derived from the SiO
2
–...
Figure 4.104 Microstructure of phase-separated binary aluminosilicate glass ...
Figure 4.105 Transmission spectra of a float glass plate and that of doped a...
Figure 4.106 Imaging of the LaF
3
nanocrystallites developed in a FOG-type gl...
Figure 4.107 Fluorescence and lasing gain spectra of Nd
3+
-doped FOG-type...
Figure 4.108 Effect of mother glass composition on the habitus of crystals p...
Figure 4.109 Dependence of transmittance of glass-ceramics and glass/crystal...
Figure 4.110 Imaging and transmission spectra of transparent ceramics fabric...
Figure 4.111 Imaging of ceramics, produced by full ceramming of glasses havi...
Figure 4.112 Transmission spectrum (
t
= 0.9 mm) of transparent ferroelectric...
Figure 4.113 Variation of the dielectric constant, as a function of temperat...
Figure 4.114 Hysteresis loops (the polarization vs. field strength curve) as...
Figure 4.115 Characteristics of mother glass and transparent ferroelectric g...
Figure 4.116 Transmission spectrum of TeO
2
-based glass.
Figure 4.117 Second harmonic signal generated by stress, induced by expansio...
Figure 4.118 Transparent (IR range) glass-ceramic based on a chalcogenide mo...
Figure 4.119 Electron density spatial distribution in chemical bonds connect...
Figure 4.120 Imaging (b-panel) and lattice model of five shell basic particl...
Figure 4.121 Phase diagram of carbon showing a region of stability of diamon...
Figure 4.122 Bonding scheme and atom coordination pattern in diamond lattice...
Figure 4.123 Transmission of diamond thin plates; CVD bulk diamond and type ...
Figure 4.124 Industrial scale dc arc jet-type diamond deposition reactor in ...
Figure 4.125 Imaging of the as-deposited surface of polycrystalline diamond ...
Figure 4.126 Comparison of GaP transmission spectrum with those of competito...
Figure 4.127 Bulk GaP plate produced by CVD; bottom piece is in as-deposited...
Figure 4.128 Transmission spectrum of thin cubic SiC freestanding, polycryst...
Figure 4.129 Small transparent Si
3
N
4
ceramic disc and its transmission spect...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Imaging and thermal mapping of a 400 W metal-halide lamp with PCA...
Figure 5.2 Various small, armor piercing, projectiles (medium-to-high threat...
Figure 5.3 Schematic presentation of the way a copper shaped-charge forms....
Figure 5.4 Imaging of the core of a 7.62 mm FFV AP round before impact (left...
Figure 5.5 (a) Schematic of an impact in which the armor thickness is large ...
Figure 5.6 The main wave types that form consecutive to the impacting of a c...
Figure 5.7 Schematic of the main stages of the penetration process; small ar...
Figure 5.8 Cracks system generated in an alumina target by a 6.35 mm steel b...
Figure 5.9 Comminution zone, developing in the armor tile, under the nose (f...
Figure 5.10 Schematic of the setup used in a depth of penetration (DoP) type...
Figure 5.11 (a) Schematic and (b) imaging of an
edge-on impact
(
EOI
) test by...
Figure 5.12 Ballistic cinematography of the impact, on B
4
C/Al plate, of a st...
Figure 5.13 Dependence of the cracking pattern on the nature of the target. ...
Figure 5.14 High speed photography of EOI event (a, TiB
2
plate) and simulati...
Figure 5.15 Flash X-ray cinematography of impact of 7.62 mm AP projectile (s...
Figure 5.16 Options for structured ceramic top layers on glass backing. (a) ...
Figure 5.17 Mosaic of transparent Mg–Al spinel tiles with sub-micrometer mic...
Figure 5.18 Ceramic Mg–Al spinel tiles (refractive index
n
= 1.72) with poli...
Figure 5.19 Imaging of a transparent spinel (4 mm)/glass (46 mm)/polycarbona...
Figure 5.20 Multilayer transparent laminate (2 mm thin sub-μm transparent Al
Figure 5.21 Imaging of armor windows of the all-glass type (panel (a): bulle...
Figure 5.22 Imaging and ballistic testing of transparent corundum single cry...
Figure 5.23 Crater and cracks produced by the impact (at 540 m/s) of a 2.3 m...
Figure 5.24 Pattern of the fracture system produced, on a spinel dome, by it...
Figure 5.25 IR sensors protective dome made from alumina.
Figure 5.26 IR sensors protective dome made of spinel ceramic.
Figure 5.27 Very large cryo-vacuum chamber window, made of transparent ZnSe-...
Figure 5.28 Polished polycrystalline diamond dome fabricated by CVD (
t
= 1 m...
Figure 5.29 Radome (transparent to MW range radiation) made of cordierite cr...
Figure 5.30 Grand Canyon Skywalk imaging. (a) Laminated glass floor.(b) ...
Figure 5.31 Composite windows made of fully-transparent colored tiles (each ...
Figure 5.32 Cubic zirconia single crystal, ground and polished as a brillian...
Figure 5.33 (a) Purple, (b) multi-color, and (c) tree-tone cubic zirconia si...
Figure 5.34 Single-crystalline colored Al
2
O
3
gemstones: (a) Red r...
Figure 5.35 Sintered polycrystalline gemstones made of different ceramics. B...
Figure 5.36 Polycrystalline sintered Al
2
O
3
gemstone ceramics covering the ci...
Figure 5.37 “Mysterium” watch by Krieger, made in Switzerland, with transluc...
Figure 5.38 The Abbe diagram showing the relationship between the refraction...
Figure 5.39 Tuning anomalous dispersion (partial dispersion ratio
θ
g
,
F
...
Figure 5.40 Small size ceramic zirconia lens fabricated at Fraunhofer, IKTS-...
Figure 5.41 Porous near-green preforms (viz presintered at around 1000 °C), ...
Figure 5.42 Pores size distribution in presintered zirconia preform.
Figure 5.43 Dental products made of translucent ceramics. (a) Translucent al...
Figure 5.44 Preforms and tooth parts made of translucent glass-ceramic.
Figure 5.45 Operational configurations, hysteresis loops, and profiles of th...
Figure 5.46 Electrooptic characteristics of PLZT slotted plate (6/95/3 compo...
Figure 5.47 Anti-glare goggles based on PLZT plates kept under electric fiel...
Figure 5.48 Vidicon type night-vision device the sensitive element of which ...
Figure 5.49 Schematic illustration of radiative transitions between energy s...
Figure 5.50 Energy schemes of amplifying media termed “Three-state system” (...
Figure 5.51 Energy levels scheme of Nd
3+
cations hosted by c-type site o...
Figure 5.52 Schematic representation of a basic laser system layout.
Figure 5.53 Comparison between the frequency profile of a fluorescence and l...
Figure 5.54 Output frequency tuning by the aid of a triangular prism.
Figure 5.55 Typical energy levels scheme of a material able to act as passiv...
Figure 5.56 Reduction of pulse fluence by its travel through a passive switc...
Figure 5.57 Theoretical bulk optical transmission of a saturable absorber as...
Figure 5.58 Theoretical bulk optical transmission of a fast saturable absorb...
Figure 5.59 Fresnel reflection corrected optical transmission of a 1.43 mm t...
Figure 5.60 Examples of TEM profiles in the case of beams of cylindrical rad...
Figure 5.61 Fundamental parameters describing the propagation contour of a s...
Figure 5.62 Schematic representation of a laser system designed so as to sel...
Figure 5.63 Output vs. input pump energy of an
Nd : YAG
laser un...
Figure 5.64 Resonances fitting within the gain band-width of a laser.
Figure 5.65 A laser system configuration (ThinZag design of Textron) allowin...
Figure 5.66 Schematic of laser system design that includes a virtual point s...
Figure 5.67 Lasing efficiency curves of some lasers based on rod shaped gain...
Figure 5.68 Upconversion intensity at 410 nm (squares), 550 nm (circles), an...
Figure 5.69 Ceramic YAG transparent fiber.
Figure 5.70 Nd:YAG planar wave guide based laser-amplifier. (a) Schematic of...
Figure 5.71 Radial distribution of temperature values in an Nd
3+
doped Y...
Figure 5.72 Cracking and breaking of Nd:YAG gain media as a result of therma...
Figure 5.73 Radial variation of tensile stress level in YAG rod.
Figure 5.74 Results of TRS related Weibull analysis for the case of as-recei...
Figure 5.75 Results of thermal shock resistance data Weibull analysis.
Figure 5.76 Transmission spectrum profile of ceramic Nd:YAG disc fabricated ...
Figure 5.77 Fluorescence intensity of Nd:YSAG ceramic (
x
= 0.3–2.0) and Nd:Y...
Figure 5.78 Concentration profile, along a line passing over a GB, in the ca...
Figure 5.79 Lu
2
O
3
doped with 10% Yb
2
O
3
specimens fabricated by HP + HIP: ima...
Figure 5.80 Slope efficiency and transmission spectrum of heavily Yb doped t...
Figure 5.81 Absorption and emission spectra of Yb
3+
located in a transpa...
Figure 5.82 Variation with temperature of the broad Yb
3+
emission spectr...
Figure 5.83 Transmission spectrum of YAG doped with Er
3+
.
Figure 5.84 (a) Lasing efficiency and (b) emission peak position of Ho
3+
Figure 5.85 Nd:YAG ceramic laser based car engine igniter; (a) the gain medi...
Figure 5.86 Nd:YAG ceramic based laser ignitor for breech mounted howitzer....
Figure 5.87 Schematic of the system (includes 192 Nd:glass plates generated ...
Figure 5.88 Lasing frequencies for which the specified TM
+
cations may f...
Figure 5.89 Co
2+
: spinel ceramic's transmission spectrum.
Figure 5.90 Absorption spectrum of Co
2+
: spinel ceramic with highlightin...
Figure 5.91 Imaging of different optical quality Co
2+
: spinel ceramic sp...
Figure 5.92 Detailed calculated electronic level scheme of Co
2+
located ...
Figure 5.93 Plot of the absorption vs. incoming laser beam fluence (
λ
=...
Figure 5.94 Schematic of the electronic energy levels of Cr
4+
and Cr
3+
...
Figure 5.95 Absorption spectra of Cr,Ca:YAG crystal subjected to oxidizing a...
Figure 5.96 Effect of temperature on the spectrum of Cr
4+
in the case th...
Figure 5.97 Set up of system used for Q-switched (Cr
4+
based passive abs...
Figure 5.98 Lasing short pulse produced by the system depicted in Figure 5.9...
Figure 5.99 Transmission spectrum of V
3+
doped YAG fabricated at ICSI-Ha...
Figure 5.100 IR absorption band of Cr
2+
located in a ZnSe single crystal...
Figure 5.101 IR absorption spectral envelope of Fe
2+
located in ZnSe sin...
Figure 5.102 Optical spectra of Cr
2+
and Fe
2+
hosted by chalcogenide...
Figure 5.103 Schematic of SSLSs of various structure. (a) White light is pro...
Figure 5.104 Spectral composition of light emitted by various illumination s...
Figure 5.105 Emission spectrum of white light (cool = high CCT) providing SS...
Figure 5.106 Emission spectrum of TC (YAG) type phosphor in which the Ce
3+
...
Figure 5.107 Emission (red line) and excitation (black line) spectra of tran...
Figure 5.108 Emission spectra of Eu
3+
in various transparent oxide ceram...
Figure 5.109 Schematic of the Ce
3+
cation electronic levels energy as a ...
Figure 5.110 The view, along [001] direction, of a Si and Mg doped YAG latti...
Figure 5.111 The position, on the CIE diagram, of Ce doped MYAS and YAMS typ...
Figure 5.112 Schematic of the setup of a luggage inspection device based on ...
Figure 5.113 Schematic of the scintillation process.
Figure 5.114 Imaging and transmission spectrum of Li doped Ce:YAG ceramic us...
Figure 5.115 Excitation and emission spectra of Li, Ce doped YAG ceramic....
Guide
Cover
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Transparent Ceramics
Materials, Engineering, and Applications
Adrian Goldstein, Andreas Krell, and Zeev Burshtein
Copyright © 2020 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Adrian Goldstein, Andreas Krell and Zeev Burshtein to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Goldstein, Adrian, 1951- author. | Krell, Andreas, author. | Burshtein, Zeev, author.
Title: Transparent ceramics : materials, engineering, and applications / Adrian Goldstein, Andreas Krell, Zeev Burshtein.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2020.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019035288 (print) | LCCN 2019035289 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119429494 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119429487 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119429555 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Transparent ceramics. | Ceramic materials.
Classification: LCC QC378.5 .G65 2010 (print) | LCC QC378.5 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/404295—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035288
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035289
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: Corporations/Companies – Used with permission Fraunhofer IKTS
I dedicate this book to my mother Sia and my wife Piticul
- Adrian Goldstein
Foreword
Who had imagined in 1964 that the first solid-state laser of Nd3+-doped Y3Al5O12 (YAG) single crystals might be replaced by Nd3+-doped YAG transparent laser ceramics? Requests to fabricate such transparent ceramics are at the frontier of materials science and everyone considered at this time that transparent ceramic materials could not be used for laser or optical materials. However, dreams came true in 1995 and now garnet transparent laser ceramics are commercialized and have been extended also to Ce3+-doped YAG as phosphors associated with blue LED for high power white lighting. Recently, the list of application of transparent ceramics, for which some of them are highly sophisticated, for laser media, phosphors, scintillators, armor windows, infrared domes, and electro-optical components have widely increase in all domains and have impacted our daily life.
This book addresses precise topics on available transparent ceramics (TCs) materials, how they are processed, their applications, and aspects of the progress made in their engineering as well as our scientific understanding. Adrian Goldstein, Andreas Krell, and Zeev Burshtein, well-known authorities in the international community of the ceramics, animated during all their scientific lives by the passion of the field and the desire to communicate it, were able to pause and review carefully the accomplishments of this period, the remaining challenges, and future prospects.
Clearly, the data presented are well explained, in correlation with the theoretical science and engineering background. This book answers well with the evolution of the transparent ceramics so that it will successfully help students and researchers for any developments still in a laboratory stage. As an example, data help to understand relationships between microstructures (porosity and size distribution of pores) and optical properties, and also processing strategies of densification and transparency. Their upgrading in the near future has to be relevant for industrial operations and will likely lead to significantly strengthen the economic relevance of the transparent ceramics.
Students, scientists, and engineers working with ceramics should get this book providing extensive references to contemporary works and being a basis for studying the field. It covers applications through detailed case studies and therefore a comprehensive guide to the current status of transparent ceramics, well suited to readers who wish to use it, either to understand these materials or to solve specific problems.
UCB Lyon 1, France
Georges Boulon
Emeritus Professor
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank some of the people who, in one way or other, had helped us in bringing this book to life: Prof. Julius Menessy, Dr. Michael Katz, Prof. Georges Boulon, Smadar Karpas, Prof. Ken-ichi Ueda, and Prof. Lisa Klein.
Dr. Zeev Burshtein has authored Sections: 2.1–2.5 (with minor contributions from A. Krell and A. Goldstein) and Sections 5.2.9.1.1–5.2.9.1.3 (included).
General Abbreviations
The “[]” contains units for parameter or molar concentration.
A
absorptance
A
BET
powder specific surface area [m
2
/g], determined by the same calculation model applied to experimental gas adsorption data
AR
anti-reflective
ArS
sintering under 1 atm. of argon
AS
sintering under 1 atm. of air
a-SiO
2
(or other
amorphous silica
chemical compound)
Vol%, atm.% or mol %
volume, atomic or molar percentage
wt.%
weight percentage
B
magnetic induction (or magnetic flux density) [
T
(=10
4
G (the gauss (G) is used in (cgs system)))]
BD
bulk density (g/cm
3
or % of
TD
)
BD
f
fired state density
BD
g
green-body density
BET
Brunauer–Emmett–Teller
c
cubic lattice
CAD
computer-assisted design
CAM
computer-assisted machining
CCT
correlated color temperature
CF
crystal field
CFT
crystal field theory (used for electronic spectra interpretation)
CIE
commission int. de l`èclairage
CRI
color rendition index
CVD
chemical vapor deposition
CW
continuous wave laser
D
0
ionic diffusion coefficient at standard temperature [cm
2
or m
2
/s]
D
50
median particles size in a distribution
D
BET
equivalent particle diameter [nm] as calculated by
BET
method
DTA
derivatographic thermal analysis
E
Young modulus [GPa]
EDS (EDX)
energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (for elemental chemical analysis)
EFG
edge defined film fed growth (technique for crystals growth)
EMPA
electron microscope probe elemental analysis
EMR
electromagnetic radiation
EO
electro-optic
EPR
electron paramagnetic resonance
ESR
electron spin resonance
FEA
finite element analysis
FIR
far infrared subdomain (15–1000 μm)
FOG (or FOX)
fluoro-oxide glass
GB
grain boundaries
GS
grain size
GSM
maximal GS
GSm
minimal GS
H
magnetic field strength [A/m; Oe (in cgs system)]
h
Planck's constant
HAADF
high angle annular dark field imaging
HIP
hot isostatic pressing
HK
hardness measured with the Knoop indenter
HP
hot pressing
HR-SEM
high resolution SEM
HR-TEM
high resolution TEM
HV
hardness measured with the Vickers indenter
IR
infrared domain of the spectrum
k
or
k
B
Boltzmann's constant
k
wave vector (magnitude is the wave number)
K
Ic
[MPa m
0.5
]
LCD
liquid crystal display
LED
light-emitting diode
LF
ligand field
LFT
crystal field theory improved by consideration of covalency
m
monoclinic
M
b
grain-boundaries migration rate in pore-free matrix
MIR
middle domain of IR (2.5–15 μm)
MW
microwaves (EMR of wavelength 1 mm to ∼3 dm)
N
C
critical coordination number, in particles, of pores
NIR
near infrared subdomain of the IR (0.75–2.5 μm)
NUV
near ultraviolet subdomain (300–380 nm)
OLED
organic light emitting diode
op
open porosity (%)
OPA
optical parameter amplifier
OPA–CPA
amplifier based on chirped pulse amplification
PCA
polycrystalline (ceramic) alumina
PECS
pulsed electric current sintering (alternative to SPS)
PL
photo luminescence
PLE
photo luminescent emission
PLED
power LED
PLZT
La containing PZT
PMN
plumb magnesium niobate
Po
porosity [vol%]
P
o
SD
pore size distribution
PS
pressureless (viz., at around 1 atm. of gas pressure) sintering
PSD
particle size distribution
PT
ceramic with composition located in the PbO–TiO
2
system
PVDF
polyvinylidene fluoride
PW
power [W]
PZT
ceramic with composition located in the PbO–ZrO
2
–TiO
2
system; main source of piezoceramics
R
gas constant
R
reflectance
RE
+
rare-Earth cation
RIT
real in-line transmission
RT
room temperature
RTP
ready-to-press powder
S
scattered fraction of incident EMR beam intensity
SEM
scanning electron microscope
SIMS
secondary ions mass spectroscopy
SOX
solid oxides
SPS
spark-plasma sintering
STEM
scanning TEM
t
tetragonal
t
a
0
post-sintering annealing (mostly in air) temperature
t
f
melting (fusion) temperature
t
g
glass transition temperature
t
l
liquidus temperature (phase diagrams)
t
s
0
sintering temperature
T
transmittance (
T
% transmission percentage)
T
%
transmission (in %) as a function of wavelength
TC
transparent ceramic
TD
or
ρ
theoretical density [g/cm
3
]
TEM
transmission mode electron microscope
TEOS
tetra-ethyl-ortho-silicate
TFT
total forward transmission
TGC
transparent glass-ceramic
TGG
Terbium, Gadolinium garnet
TM
+
transition element cation
TRS
transversal rupture strength
T-YAG (or other
transparent YAG
transparent ceramic
compound)
TZP
tetragonal zirconia polycrystals
UV
ultraviolet domain of the spectrum (10 to ∼380 nm)
VIS
segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum to which the human eye is sensitive (∼0.38 to ∼0.75 μm)
VS
sintering under vacuum
WLED
white light emitting LED
X
powder particle size
XRD
X-ray diffraction
YAG
Yttrium, Aluminum garnet
YSAG
scandium containing
[K
−1
]
thermal expansion coefficient [
°
C/K]
γ
surface tension [N/m]
Δ
small variation
ε
extinction coeff. [l/(mol cm)]
λ
wavelength [nm, μm]
λ
th
thermal conductivity [W/Km]
ν
frequency [Hz]
ν
-
wave number [cm
−1
]
τ
time
φ
phase of wave
1Introduction
1.1 Importance of Transparent Ceramics: The Book's Rationale Topic and Aims
Ceramics constitute a relatively new family of optical materials belonging to a larger class of transparent solids; other members of this class are glasses, single crystals, and some organic polymers [G21].
Overall performance of certain transparent components of many high-tech optical devices may be improved if manufactured using ceramics rather than alternative transparent solids. This is because transparent ceramics offer improved performance and/or robustness. Potentially they may also provide cost benefits to manufacturers. These claims can be exemplified with the case of the first commercially used transparent ceramic, which was translucent alumina Al2O3 (see details in Section 1.5.2). The material has provided its developer (General Electric of the United States) more than half a billion dollars in revenue during the final decades of the last century [B67]. It has been mostly used in the manufacturing of envelopes for high vapor pressure sodium Na streetlamps. Such feat has yet not been replicated. However a number of later developed optical components like armor, sand-blasting installations or chemical reactor windows, infrared (IR) sensor protective domes, solid-state lighting systems, Nd3+ : Y3Al5O12 (Nd:YAG, yttrium–aluminum garnet) light gain media, scintillators, dental prosthetics, lenses, and various decorative objects are also commercialized (small scale) or in the upscaling to industrial manufacturing phase. Quite probably, transparent ceramics fabrication costs will be reduced (a lot of effort and financial resources are invested in this task worldwide), thanks to current research and development efforts, allowing enhanced commercialization of that important technology.
Transparent ceramics study is also relevant for advancing the general ceramics science, as some basic requirements like densification and purity are more stringent. Achievement of such targets requires innovative thinking and new technological approaches, based on deep and comprehensive understanding of underlying physical and chemical processes involved in ceramics engineering.
The above suggests that transparent ceramics may represent a topic of interest for many ceramists and also for people outside this community, like laser, lighting, or military optical systems developers. That potential interest is the rationale for the writing of this book. It intends to summarize the most interesting information accumulated during the 60-year-long history of the transparent ceramics domain: relevant materials, engineering specifics, properties, and applications. The information presented emanates mostly from published literature, but to some extent also from research performed by this book's authors. Emphasis is made on providing critique comparison between certain ceramics performance and their competitor materials per their targeted applications.
Most of the text was written at an introductory level, the main goal being to offer a one-stop broad scope presentation of the topic. To a certain extent, in-depth discussion was sacrificed for practical brevity. Exhaustive presentation, simultaneous with a wide range of considered issues, is obviously a feat difficult to achieve. Some quite modest background of general physics, chemistry, and ceramics science and engineering is sufficient for reasonable comprehension of most of the discussed issues. For a few, seemingly “arcane” yet basic topics, the book provides its own background. Thus, Chapter 2 in its entirety carries such support information. It is devoted to various aspects of electromagnetic radiation interaction with matter; its most important part is the section dealing with the interpretation of electronic spectra produced by transition element cation (TM+) and RE+ dopants. Chapter 3 deals with engineering and characterization of transparent ceramics. The general procedures encountered when dealing with advanced ceramics are also applicable to transparent ceramics. Certain aspects like severity of the demands related to some characteristics, however, are unique to transparent ceramics. Chapter 3 also focuses on these specifics without offering a detailed presentation of operational procedures. These can be found in dedicated excellent textbooks [G12, R5]. Chapter 4 presents the main transparent ceramic materials currently investigated. For each material, the main addressed issues are their structure and specific processing conditions and approaches, allowing fabrication of transparent samples. Those are discussed because the overall benefit of a transparent ceramic is also determined by its other-than-optical properties. Technological applications are treated in Chapter 5. In the chapter, for some of the more complex applications, like laser gain media, a review of the basics of laser physics and engineering is provided; a brief presentation of the projectiles/armor interaction is also preceding the discussion of transparent ceramics armor. For solid-state light sources, the background presents an extended gamut of historic lighting sources. Chapter 6 discusses briefly the further prospects of the domain. The book ends with conclusions related to the previous chapters.
To the best of our knowledge, only a single previous publication exists [K35] that addresses a similar broad scope of transparent ceramics. For a narrower but important domain of transparent ceramics relevant for laser applications, a useful source book authored by A. Ikesue et al. [I3] is available. It is our pleasure to express our appreciation of these previous efforts.
Note for facilitating reading: The text includes a number of abbreviations. The most ubiquitous are defined in a special section located the opening of the book; others, relevant only for specific sections are defined “locally”. For often used parameters, their label is provided in the list of general abbreviations. However in certain places, a different notation had to be used for a parameter; in such cases the “locally” relevant label is indicated. Conversely a given letter may designate different parameters, in different sections; the local correct parameter letter correspondence is always indicated.
1.2 Factors Determining the Overall Worth of Transparent Ceramics
People are interested in transparent ceramics mostly owing to practical applications of various such products. Some of them exhibit a “large” volume, like lamp envelopes used in public road illumination, phosphors for solid-state lighting sources, or artificial gems. Others are remarkable, owing to their destined high-tech applications, like in outer space-stationed lasers for solar energy harvesting, gain media for laser wake-field charged particle accelerators [B34] or sparkless car engine igniters [T3]. Yet others are impressing owing to the sophisticated technology required for their fabrication, like in the case of the anisotropic derived ceramics gain media (particle orientation under strong magnetic fields [S11]), transparent polycrystalline c-boron nitride and diamond (GPa-range hot pressing [I13, T20]), or solid-state transformation of polycrystalline material into single crystals [I3].
In this section we will briefly discuss the main factors (technical and economical) that determine the worth of transparent ceramics.
1.2.1 Technical Characteristics
The fundamental useful characteristic of a transparent ceramic is obviously its electromagnetic transmission capability, especially in the optical region and its general optical properties [K55, K58]. The spectral transmission window width and/or its level are the most important features. Transmission level is not exactly identical with the transparency concept. The transparency (see Section 1.4) is assessed by the fraction between the total forward transmission (TFT) and the so called real in-line transmission (RIT). For most applications, transparency is the important feature, but in some cases, like streetlamp envelopes, the TFT is the relevant parameter. However it has to be emphasized that transparency alone is rarely sufficient to make a transparent ceramic-based product interesting. The optical transmission property has to be accompanied by other favorable functional properties. The nature of these properties depends on the specific application. For instance, hardness and stiffness are critical properties for use as armored windows; ferroelectric properties count the most for antiglare goggles; a high refractive index coupled with a low optical dispersion are important for lenses. For all transparent ceramics, high resistance to ambient chemical aggressive agents is a fundamental requirement. A transparent ceramic suitability to a destined application is expressed using figures of merit, which take into account a weighted assessment of all relevant properties.
In many cases besides performance, the practical value of a transparent ceramic is strongly affected by the availability of suitable geometric dimensions and/or shapes. For instance, for armor applications, fabrication technology is fully developed for plates, 30–100 cm wide (sometimes exhibiting some curvature). For missile IR sensors, dome or cone-shaped protective noses are needed. Certain laser applications require a thin chip, or fiber geometry.
1.2.2 Fabrication and Characterization Costs
Designed transparent ceramic samples are always in competition with other transparent materials, like glasses or single crystals. A transparent ceramic may become commercially relevant only if in addition to technical performance, it also makes sense economically, namely, it can be manufactured at a competitive cost. For example, spinel MgAl2O4-based transparent armor strike-faces of large size can now be fabricated, exhibiting excellent performance; however, their price is still prohibitive, leaving most of the market to all-glass or glass + glass-ceramic offers. Processing costs are usually the determinant factor, but in some cases characterization costs also need consideration. The relative weight of these two aspects varies among different applications and may also change over time.
1.2.3 Overview of Worth
Transparent ceramics may thus exhibit benefit in two ways. One relates to cases where they provide improved functional abilities. Second relates to (still very few) cases where they provide lower manufacturing cost compared to manufacturing of other competing transparent solids. A best situation is of course when both advantages exist simultaneously. In our view, some transparent ceramics have the potential to achieve this desired goal. In this context, we venture to point out items like phosphors and scintillators, laser gain media, armor (heavy-duty industrial equipment) and IR windows.
1.3 Spectral Domain for Ceramics High Transmission Targeted in This Book
1.3.1 High Transmission Spectral Domain
Many natural or human-caused physical processes are accompanied by emission or absorption of electromagnetic waves, carrying different amounts of energy and particularly exhibiting different wavelengths or frequencies. The said wavelength range is named electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
Let us recall that the energy Eph of an electromagnetic wave quantum (photon) is proportional to its frequency ν or to the inverse of its free-space wavelength λ:
where c = λν is the free space speed of light constant and h is Planck constant. The latter are universal constants: c = 2.9979 × 108 m/s and h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s. The wavelength reciprocal
