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Two-Dimensional Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding
Discover a cutting-edge reference on 2D EMI shielding materials for both industrial and academic audiences
Two-Dimensional Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding delivers a thorough and comprehensive examination of all aspects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and microwave absorption, including fundamentals and applications, as well as emerging 2D materials in the field, like graphene, and MXenes. The book covers basic knowledge on shielding mechanisms and the demanding physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of the 2D materials against betrayed electromagnetic waves.
The benefits of novel 2D materials over existing materials are thoroughly explained and the reader is provided with insight into future developments in shielding materials for highly integrated electrical and electronic equipment. The book offers explanations and in-depth descriptions of graphene and MXenes materials, as well as likely future challenges that will confront practitioners in the field. Ideal for scientists, researchers, and engineers who design novel EMI shielding materials, the book also provides:
- A thorough introduction to electromagnetic field sources and their impact on human beings
- An exploration of EMI shielding mechanism and conversion techniques, including microwave absorption mechanisms and scattering parameter conversion methods
- Discussions of measurements and standards in EMI shielding, including shielding effectiveness measurements
- An examination of graphene, MXenes, and other 2D materials for EMI shielding and microwave absorbing
Perfect for materials scientists, electrochemists, inorganic chemists, physical chemists, and radiation chemists, Two-Dimensional Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding will also earn a place in the libraries of applied physicists and engineering scientists in industry seeking a one-stop reference on cutting-edge 2D electromagnetic interference shielding materials.
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Seitenzahl: 403
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Electromagnetic Interference and Shielding
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Electromagnetic Field Sources and Impact on Human Beings
1.3 EMI Hazards for Data Security
1.4 Economic Aspects and the Global Market for EMI Shielding
1.5 Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations and Standards
1.6 Materials for EMI Shielding
1.7 Summary
References
2 EMI Shielding Mechanism and Conversion Techniques
2.1 Introduction
2.2 EMI Shielding Mechanisms
2.3 Microwave Absorption Mechanisms
2.4 Scattering Parameter Conversion Method for Calculation of Permeability and Permittivity
2.5 Summary
References
3 Measurements and Standards
3.1 Introduction
3.2 EMI Shielding Effectiveness (SE) Measurements
3.3 SE Measurement Systems and Standards
3.4 Methods and Standards
3.5 Summary
References
4 Graphene and Its Derivative for EMI Shielding
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Graphene for EMI Shielding
4.3 Graphene as a Microwave Absorber
4.4 Summary
References
5 MXenes as EMI Shielding Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 MXenes for EMI Shielding
5.3 MXenes as Microwave Absorbers
5.4 Summary
References
6 Other 2D Materials
6.1 Introduction
6.2 2D Materials Beyond Graphene and MXenes
6.3 Summary
References
7 Conclusion and Perspectives
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Fundamental properties of conventional shielding materials and adva...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Comparison between the conversion techniques.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comparison of SE test standards.
Table 3.2 Suitable measurement methods and conversion techniques for various ...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Conditions for the synthesis of various MXenes.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Frequency and wavelength ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum, ...
Figure 1.2 EMW sources and their potential harmful effects on humans.
Figure 1.3 (a) Global market shares in the field of EMI shielding and (b) gl...
Figure 1.4 Summary of global standards and limitations for the safe use of e...
Figure 1.5 Atomic structures of 2D materials used for EMI shielding. The dev...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic representations of the propagation of EMWs with multipl...
Figure 2.2 Dependence of wave impedance on the distance from the source (nor...
Figure 2.3 EMI SE
T
as a function of electrical conductivity and thickness of...
Figure 2.4 Resonant absorber showing out‐of‐phase condition b/w reflected an...
Figure 2.5 Reflection and transmission of EMWs through the transmission line...
Figure 2.6 Transmission line with a short‐circuit termination.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic of coaxial transmission line measurements.
Figure 3.2 Schematic of shielding box SE measurements.
Figure 3.3 Schematic of shielded room SE measurements.
Figure 3.4 Schematic of open‐field SE measurements.
Figure 3.5 Schematic representation of the experimental measurement of SE: (...
Figure 3.6 (a) Basic setup for SE measurements, (b) internal block diagram o...
Figure 3.7 Standards and general measurement kits for TEM cell measurements....
Figure 3.8 (a) ASTM ES7 test cell and (b) washer‐shaped sample.
Figure 3.9 (a) ASTM D4935 test cell, (b) reference sample, and (c) load samp...
Figure 3.10 TEM‐t cell.
Figure 3.11 Dual TEM cell.
Figure 3.12 Waveguide cells.
Figure 3.13 Schematic of SE measurements according to the MIL‐STD‐285 standa...
Figure 3.14 MIL‐G‐83528‐based modified radiation testing method.
Figure 3.15 Dual mode‐stirred chamber facility.
Figure 3.16 Measurement setup for IEEE‐STD‐299: (a) low‐frequency range and ...
Figure 3.17 (a) Free space transmission measurement method and (b) free spac...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Ambipolar electric field effect in single‐layer graphene. The rap...
Figure 4.2 EMI SE,
absorbance loss
(
AL
), and reflection loss (RL) of (a) mon...
Figure 4.3 (a) Synthesis process for graphene hybrid film. (b, c) Qualitativ...
Figure 4.4 (a) Schematic of double‐PEI/RGO film fabrication with a digital i...
Figure 4.5 (a) Schematic diagram of the PMMA‐assisted transfer method, (b) t...
Figure 4.6 (a) Schematic representation of the self‐assembly process for GO ...
Figure 4.7 (a) Schematic representation of the POE/GF‐2000 film with dimensi...
Figure 4.8 SEM images of (a) LGO and (b) SGO. Photographs of (c) the freesta...
Figure 4.9 (a) Stress–strain curves, (b) electrical and thermal conductiviti...
Figure 4.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of PG films ...
Figure 4.11 Dependence of (a) SE
R
, (c) SE
A
, and (e) SE
T
of the Fe
3
O
4
/GN pape...
Figure 4.12 (a) Electrical conductivity of the graphene/epoxy composites as ...
Figure 4.13 Schematic of the fabrication process of segregated RGO/PS (s‐rGO...
Figure 4.14 (a) Stress–strain curves of PMMA and its graphene nanocomposites...
Figure 4.15 (a) Schematic for the preparation of GF/PEDOT:PSS composites. SE...
Figure 4.16 EMI SE of (a) 250rGO, 250SrGO‐10, and 250SrGO‐30; (b) 650rGO, 65...
Figure 4.17 (a) Microwave‐assisted method for the preparation of B,N‐codoped...
Figure 4.18 (a) Electrical conductivity and (b) EMI SE of Fe
3
O
4
@N‐rGO/epoxy ...
Figure 4.19 (a) Schematic representation of the synthesis of GCNT hybrids, (...
Figure 4.20 (a) Schematic of the synthetic process of CNT/G hybrids. (b) Rea...
Figure 4.21 (a) Schematic of the fabrication of PANI/MWCNT/TAGA/epoxy nanoco...
Figure 4.22 (a–d) Schematic of the fabrication process of GN/PAN and CNF–GN–...
Figure 4.23 (a) Schematic representation of the interactions of EMWs with a ...
Figure 4.24 (a) Schematic of the formation mechanism of CoNi/NG hybrids. (b)...
Figure 4.25 (a) Dielectric loss tangents and (b) attenuation constants of Co...
Figure 4.26 (a) Schematic of the synthesis processes of GO, RGO, and NG. (b)...
Figure 4.27 (a) Schematic of the fabrication of CoS
2
@MoS
2
/rGO. (b) Attenuati...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 (a) Elements in MAX phase materials and corresponding MXenes....
Figure 5.2 SEM images of (a) exfoliated MXene flakes and cross‐sectional vie...
Figure 5.3 (a) Schematic of the fabrication process of interfacial self‐asse...
Figure 5.4 (a) Electrical conductivities of vacuum‐filtered MXene films. (b)...
Figure 5.5 (a) Synthesis process of large Ti
3
C
2
T
x
MXene flakes from large Ti
Figure 5.6 (a) Cross‐sectional TEM images of Ti
3
CNT
x
films at different anne...
Figure 5.7 (a) SEM image of the fractured surface of
d
‐Ti
3
C
2
T
x
/CNF composite...
Figure 5.8 (a) LbL assembly of a Ti
3
C
2
T
x
–CNT composite film. (b) Comparison ...
Figure 5.9 (a) Illustration of the fabrication of the hydrophobic and flexib...
Figure 5.10 (a) Illustration of the fabrication of the Ti
3
C
2
T
x
MXene aerogel...
Figure 5.11 (a) Schematic of the fabrication of Ti
3
C
2
T
x
@PS nanocomposites. (...
Figure 5.12 (a) Schematic of the structural evolution from Ti
3
C
2
T
x
to C/TiO
2
Figure 5.13 (a) Dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability. (b) RL va...
Figure 5.14
Field emission scanning electron microscopy
(
FESEM
) images of Ti
Figure 5.15 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of Ti
3
C
2
T
x
/CNT hybrids by CVD. (b...
Figure 5.16 (a) Schematic of the synthesis and MWA mechanisms of Fe
3
O
4
@Ti
3
C
2
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 MoS
2
structure: (a) 3D illustration, (b) atomic positions in the ...
Figure 6.2 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of MoS
2
–rGO and the MoS
2
–rGO/CoFe
2
Figure 6.3 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of Fe
3
O
4
@MoS
2
. (b)
Scanning electr
...
Figure 6.4 SEM images of MoS
2
nanosheets prepared at different hydrothermal ...
Figure 6.5 (a) Schematic of the exfoliation method for producing MoS
2
‐NS.
ɛ
...
Figure 6.6 (a) Schematic of the growth process of WS
2
–rGO, in which the gues...
Figure 6.7 Real and imaginary permittivity of (a) S3 (GO/WS
2
mass ratio of 3...
Figure 6.8 Schematics of different TaS
2
phases (top view): (a) 1T phase, (b)...
Figure 6.9 Schematic of the fabrication of the ordered multilayer film: (a) ...
Figure 6.10 (a) Lattice structure of few‐layer BP showing the puckered hexag...
Figure 6.11 (a) Crystal structure of CuS. Gold and orange balls represent Cu...
Figure 6.12 SEM images of (a) T‐Co/C‐500, (b) T‐Co/C‐700, and (c) T‐Co/C‐900...
Guide
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Two‐Dimensional Materials for Electromagnetic Shielding
Chong Min Koo, Pradeep Sambyal, Aamir Iqbal, Faisal Shahzad, and Junpyo Hong
Authors
Prof. Chong Min Koo
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Materials Architecturing Research Center
Hwarangro 14‐gil 5
Seongbuk‐gu
02792 Seoul
South Korea
Division of Nano & Information Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology
02792 Seoul
South Korea
KU‐KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology
Korea University
02841 Seoul
South Korea
Dr. Pradeep Sambyal
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Materials Architecturing Research Center
Hwarangro 14‐gil 5
Seongbuk‐gu
02792 Seoul
South Korea
Dr. Aamir Iqbal
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Materials Architecturing Research Center
Hwarangro 14‐gil 5
Seongbuk‐gu
02792 Seoul
South Korea
Division of Nano & Information Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology
02792 Seoul
South Korea
Prof. Faisal Shahzad
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS)
National Center for Nanotechnology
Lehtrar Road, Nilore
45650 Islamabad
Pakistan
Dr. Junpyo Hong
Korea Institute of Science and Technology
Hwarangro 14‐gil 5
Seongbuk‐gu
02792 Seoul
South Korea
Cover Image: Courtesy of the authors
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Print ISBN: 978-3-527-34842-8
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ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-82981-1
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Preface
The advancement of electronic technology is inevitably associated with the spread of electromagnetic terrorism, as all electrical and electronic devices, including personal, public, and military equipment, operate by either transmitting or receiving electromagnetic waves (EMWs). These EMWs can interfere with each other through electromagnetic induction in close proximity and in integrated circuits, which is called electromagnetic interference (EMI). This phenomenon affects the performance of electronic circuits and shortens their lifespan; it can be used to hijack a country's defense system (thus risking security and sovereignty), and it is injurious to human health. Owing to these hazards, the undesirable EMWs require appropriate shielding in electrical and electronic appliances.
The principles and methods of electromagnetic shielding have been investigated for over 70 years. For shielding purposes, highly conductive metals that strongly reflect incident EMWs have been used for decades. However, as these reflected EMWs can be a source of secondary pollution, proper shielding may not be fully achieved. In the era of emerging fifth‐generation (5G) technology, electrical and electronic circuits are being made smaller and smarter with compact infrastructure. These advanced portable electronics require novel shielding materials that are ultralight with a minimal thickness, low cost, and, most importantly, easy to process. Despite their high electrical conductivities, metals suffer from high densities and poor corrosion resistance and also require complex processing techniques. These challenges necessitate the development of new EMI shielding materials that minimize the drawbacks of highly conductive metals. Interestingly, two‐dimensional (2D) materials, as exemplified by graphene, have emerged as promising alternatives with outstanding EMI shielding properties.
Since the discovery of graphene in 2004, 2D materials have attracted significant research attention owing to their unique chemical, mechanical, electrical, and optoelectronic properties. In addition to graphene, transition metal carbides/nitrides/carbonitrides (MXenes), transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), black phosphorus (BP), hexagonal boron nitride (h‐BN), and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) possess varying electrical conductivities, dielectric permittivities, and magnetic permeabilities, coupled with other attractive physiochemical properties. Owing to their excellent electrical conductivity, processability, corrosion resistance, and low density, 2D materials are believed to be an alternative to highly conductive metals for EMI shielding. In particular, monolayer graphene and Ti3C2Tx MXene show outstanding EMI shielding potential because of their very high electrical conductivities in nanometer‐thick films. Additionally, as 2D materials can be used to make highly processable liquid dispersions, inks, low‐percolation polymer composites with mechanical flexibility and light weight, these materials can satisfy both on‐ground and space application requirements.
This handbook covers all fundamental aspects of EMI shielding. Chapter 1 provides a basic introduction and describes EMW sources, the potential hazards of EMWs, EMI shielding standards for ensuring electromagnetic compatibility, and the advanced 2D materials developed in this field. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamental EMI shielding mechanisms and highlights the properties required to enhance shielding effectiveness (SE). Chapter 3 briefly explains the various measurement and calculation methods used in this field. Highlighting the importance of 2D materials, the EMI shielding properties of graphene, MXenes, and other 2D materials are discussed in detail in Chapters 4–6, respectively. Finally, considering technological advancements, a comprehensive summary is provided in Chapter 7 along with future challenges and suggestions for developing efficient EMI shielding materials. It is intended that this book will assist scientists, researchers, and engineers in designing novel EMI shielding materials with customized structures and properties.
The chief editor and author, Chong Min Koo, would like to thank all the contributors to this handbook. It is worthy to note that this book is a product of long‐standing research findings of the research group, Functional Polymer Hybrid Laboratory (FPHL) at Korea Institute of Science and Technology. FPHL has been working hard to develop the structure‐designed materials for EMI shielding and various electronic applications since 2007. All the group members and alumni, including Dr. Soon Man Hong, Dr. Seung Sang Hwang, Dr. Kyung‐Youl Baek, Hyunchul Park, Dr. Sangho Cho, Dr. Seon Joon Kim, Dr. Albert Lee, Dr. Faisal Shahzad, Dr. Pradeep Sambyal, Aamir Iqbal, Junpyo Hong, Dr. Jang‐Woo Lee, Dr. Jin Hong Lee, Dr. Santosh Yadav, Dr. Richao Zhang, Dr. Hyesung Cho, Dr. Tae Hee Han, Dr. Bum Ki Baek, Dr. Seunggun Yu, Dr. Seung Hwan Lee, Dr. Won Jun Na, Dr. Pradip Kumar, Dr. Tae Yun Ko, Dr. Mirhani Seyyedalireza, Dr. Taegon Oh, Dr. Taehoon Kwon, Dr. Pradip Kumar, Dr. Richao Zhang, Kwang Ho Kim, Hang‐Kyu Cho, Hyeong Tae Kim, Bori Kim, Myeong Hee Kim, Heela Kwak, Yong Jin Kwon, Kyongho Min, Minho Kim, Il Jin Kim, Ji Wook Shin, Yun Ho La, Seok Jin Noh, Byeori Ok, Younduk Park, Ji Young Jung, Hyerim Kim, Daesin Kim, Ki Hwan Koh, Yong Soo Cho, Han‐Na Kim, Ari Chae, Sehyun Doo, Hwan Gyu Lee, Juyun Lee, Seung Jun Lee, Suung Chae, Soobin Kim, directly or indirectly, contributed to this research journey. Chong Min Koo would also like to express great gratitude and love to his wife, Professor Nogin Chung and his beloved son, Hasong Koo, for their great support. Enjoy.
November 2020
Seoul, Korea
Chong Min Koo
Pradeep Sambyal
Aamir Iqbal
Faisal Shahzad
Junpyo Hong
1Electromagnetic Interference and Shielding
1.1 Introduction
Telecommunication devices and microelectronics inadvertently receive, generate, and/or propagate electromagnetic waves (EMWs) in a wide frequency range. Technological advancements toward smaller and smarter electronic devices have inevitably been accompanied by increased electromagnetic interference (EMI). EMI is a type of cross‐talk between different devices and circuits operating in close proximity. This disrupting phenomenon often results in critical component malfunctioning, device underperformance, data loss, and incorrect signal interpretation [1–5]. More broadly, EMI is a serious concern for the aviation industry, including military jets, warships, and other strategic components, and can place a country's security at risk [6, 7]. The smallest error resulting from incorrect signal generation or interpretation could have serious consequences because of the false triggering of ammunition. Additionally, the increasing density of EMWs has a significant impact on human health [8, 9].
In the era of emerging fifth generation (5G) technology, the number of electronic devices and gadgets will increase drastically, resulting in increased exposure to wireless fidelity (Wi‐Fi) and the internet of things (IoTs), as well as spreading electromagnetic terrorism and offensive information warfare [10]. Therefore, it is necessary to protect humans and electronic devices from the detrimental effects of EMI by providing suitable shielding. Thus, advanced EMI shielding materials should be developed to meet the challenges of advanced technologies.
The energy of EMWs can be attenuated by reflection, absorption, and multiple reflection mechanisms [11–13]. The primary mechanism involves the reflection of EMWs that strike the surface of a shielding material [2]. Highly conductive materials with excess mobile charge carriers (holes and/or electrons) show strong reflection upon interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Metals (e.g. Ag, Cu, and Al), which are the most conductive materials, show excellent EMI shielding properties through reflection, and have been used for decades in commercial appliances [14–16].
The second mechanism involves the absorption of EMWs within a shielding material. When EMWs propagate in a shielding material, their intensity is exponentially attenuated with the thickness. For efficient absorption, the electrical conductivity, dielectric permittivity, and magnetic permeability of the shielding material play a vital role in attenuating the energy of EMWs through Ohmic loss, dielectric loss, and magnetic loss, respectively [17–20].
The third mechanism involves multiple reflections that occur because of either thin thickness or the presence of multiple interfaces within the material. These types of multiple reflections are different and hence perform differently. When the thickness of a material is smaller than the skin depth, multiple reflections will decrease the total EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) value [12, 21], whereas this effect is negligible when the thickness of the material is larger than the skin depth. The skin depth is the thickness of the material at which the intensity of the incident EMWs falls by a value of 1/e. In contrast, multiple reflections caused by the presence of multiple internal interfaces have a positive impact on the EMI SE value, as the internal scattering of EMWs from the internal interfaces will increase absorption and hence the EMI shielding ability of the material. A comprehensive description of each mechanism along with the influencing and controlling parameters is provided in Chapter 2.
1.2 Electromagnetic Field Sources and Impact on Human Beings
The innovation race is backed by advances in technology, which are marvelous in facilitating human life. Global technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), automation, and IoT, provide services that affect every aspect of life. However, this emerging technology can also place human life at risk. The operating frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into two categories depending on potential hazards: ionizing and nonionizing (Figure 1.1). As the risks of high‐frequency ionizing electromagnetic (EM) radiation, including X‐rays and gamma cosmic rays, are well known, safety protocols have been developed to avoid any kind of exposure. Unfortunately, nonionizing low‐frequency EMWs are a silent killer for humans and operating systems if left unattended. Currently, the most commonly used electronic device that operates in this frequency range is the cellular phone, the use of which has grown dramatically since the start of commercial services in 1983 [22]. In the first decade, the number of cellular users in the United States only reached ∼2 million. However, there are now nearly 3 billion global users, and this number is expected to hit 6.1 billion in 2020 [22]. Although cellular phones and handheld devices transmit very low powers of 0.6 W while operating at 850 MHz to 3.5 GHz or even higher frequency, their frequent use in close proximity to the body is associated with severe health outcomes. Therefore, proper shielding of the field is required for a healthy work environment.
Figure 1.1 Frequency and wavelength ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum, and devices that emit radiation at certain frequencies.
Source: Chong Min Koo.
We are always surrounded by betraying electromagnetic fields. Generally, an alternating electric field generates a magnetic field around it, and vice versa. To apply appropriate shielding, it is essential to know about the sources that generate electromagnetic fields. These sources can be either natural or artificial (manmade).
1.2.1 Natural Sources
Generally, the Sun is the biggest source of electromagnetic radiation. Solar energy, which is the energy that reaches Earth from the Sun, consists of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. Almost half of the radiation (49%) is in the low‐frequency (longer wavelength) region, 44% in the visible region, which can be seen by the naked eye, and the remaining 7% in the high‐frequency (shorter wavelength) ultraviolet region. This ionizing radiation is harmful to human skin and eyes, as well as the brain and various cells. In addition, the Earth, thunderstorms, and lightning also create strong electromagnetic fields. Earth's own magnetic field is strong enough to rotate a compass needle in the north–south direction. However, the generated geomagnetic field has a low frequency (1–300 Hz) with a power of 60 μT at the North/South poles and 30 μT at the equator [23]. Thunderstorms and lightning also produce electric fields by building up electrically charged particles in the atmosphere.
1.2.2 Artificial (Manmade) Sources
In the era of technology, all electrical or electronic devices used in everyday life (e.g. mini power sockets) generate electromagnetic radiation or require electromagnetic fields to function. Power lines and electronic equipment, including vacuum cleaners and hair dryers, are sources of low‐frequency radiation with a power of approximately 17.44–164.75 μT when measured at a distance of 5 cm [23]. In contrast, radio stations, television antennas, mobile electronic devices, microwave ovens, and most importantly medical equipment generate high‐frequency EMWs (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Typically, the radiation emitted from manmade sources is polarized, as it is produced by electromagnetic oscillation circuits. As polarized electromagnetic radiation can penetrate the human body, it is used in biomedical applications. However, exposure to such radiation above a certain limit is potentially deleterious to cells and tissues [24].
1.2.3 Effects on Human Health
We are surrounded by electromagnetic fields that have inevitably become a formidable part of our life. Initially, these fields were considered too weak to affect the biomolecular systems of humans and not strong enough to influence physiological functions. However, exposure to electromagnetic radiation can have a dreadful impact on human health. Some individuals are very sensitive to electromagnetic fields and show the symptoms of health disorders under mild exposure. This adverse phenomenon, called electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS), affects 1–3% of the global population, as reported by the WHO [25]. The observed symptoms include headaches, sleep disorders, dizziness, depression, palpitations, hot flushes, sweating, tinnitus, fatigue, limb pain, back pain, heart disease, tremors, nervousness, nausea, skin rashes, weakness, loss of appetite, and breathing difficulties [26]. Furthermore, sleep disorders and deficiencies have been observed in inhabitants close to electromagnetic radiation emitters, although several studies have also found otherwise. A case study found psychological symptoms such as depression, unmanageable emotions, and suicide among residents exposed to the 50 Hz chronic frequency of high‐voltage power stations and highlighted an increased suicide (attempt) rate, most likely because of depression [27].
The ear is the first organ to be exposed to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by cellular phones, and a study reported that exposure to electromagnetic radiation of 50 Hz at an intensity of 4.45 pT may cause adverse auditory effects in humans [28]. The cochlear outer hair cells are vulnerable to injuries from exogenous and endogenous agents and electromagnetic radiation. To numerically analyze the specific absorption rate (SAR) along with heat transfer in the human eye, Wessapan and Rattanadecho exposed a human eye model to an electromagnetic field of 900–1800 MHz [29]. This study revealed heat and mass transfer phenomena in the eye under exposure to electromagnetic fields, with the highest SAR observed in the cornea. Lower frequencies affected the anterior chamber, whereas higher frequencies increased the temperature in the vitreous. The exposure time also strongly influenced the temperature increase in the human eye. These results demonstrate the fatal effects of electromagnetic fields on the visual performance of the human eye.
Epidemiological investigations have shown that electromagnetic radiation is carcinogenic to humans, with long exposure causing tumor development. These effects are more apparent in newborns. Studies on the effects of electromagnetic radiation on the nervous tissues have found that high‐intensity radio frequency (RF) exposure affects the central nervous systems, brain chemistry, and blood–brain linkages in animals. Lowered concentrations of dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine in the brain are associated with electromagnetic radiation. Ghione et al. experimentally observed altered nociception and cardiovascular abnormalities in a human head exposed to electromagnetic radiation of 37 Hz with a flux density of 80 μT [30]. When placed close to the location of the heart in the chest, betrayed electromagnetic fields could also interfere with implanted pacemakers by altering heartbeats. Importantly, decreased male fertility is also linked with exposure to electromagnetic fields. Cellular phones have become an integral part of everyday life and are carried in pockets, very close to the reproductive system. Therefore, it is particularly important to investigate the potential effects of operating frequency and power. In a study on rats, various histopathological alterations, such as necrosis, focal tubular atrophy, and seminiferous epithelial erosion, were recorded under low‐frequency exposure at 50 Hz; however, the serum testosterone level was barely affected [31]. Figure 1.2 summarizes various EMW sources along with their potential detrimental effects on human health.
Figure 1.2 EMW sources and their potential harmful effects on humans.
Source: Chong Min Koo.
Therefore, a practical way to safeguard humans is to follow the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle by maintaining a safe distance and minimizing exposure or to take other precautionary steps such as efficient shielding to attenuate the energy of EMWs. As maintaining a safe distance is practically impossible, the shielding strategy has emerged as a potential solution.
1.3 EMI Hazards for Data Security
EMI is a phenomenon in which the electromagnetic radiation from one electronic device disrupts other nearby electronic circuits via conduction or radiation transfer. A severe EMI scenario can adversely affect the entire electronic system, causing device malfunction or system failure. This effect is quite strong in medical equipment, where electromagnetic radiation is used for biomedical applications and imaging. Consequently, the figures and/or results are affected if effective shielding is not provided. Low‐frequency EMI caused by power sources can also have harmful effects on the hardware, resulting in data corruption or complete reformatting of the hard disk in severe cases. As a result, retrieving information from wireless terminals becomes impossible. Although EMI is unintentional most of the time, it can be misused in electronic warfare in the form of data loss, data hacking, radio jamming, security breaches, and other types of disturbances. Therefore, the defense department of a country strictly deals with disastrous EMI by following special shielding protocols.
1.4 Economic Aspects and the Global Market for EMI Shielding
From an application point of view, the market for EMI shielding materials can be categorized into different areas, including electronics, defense, aerospace, automotive, telecommunications, and medical appliances. Electronics hold a substantial market share because advanced compact and fast devices use efficient circuits that operate at higher frequencies. The second highest market share belongs to the defense sector, with applications including sophisticated satellites, radar equipment, and spacecraft. Countries are continuously increasing their defense budgets for the research and development of new arms and weapons, thus increasing global defense expenditures and contributing to a larger electromagnetic absorption and shielding market. In 2015, global military expenditures were approximately US$ 1.5 trillion, led by the United States, China, and Saudi Arabia (see Figure 1.3a for other countries). The aerospace industry is also growing with various ongoing space exploration missions. Furthermore, nearly 30 000 new passenger aircraft will be added to those currently in service over the next 20 years; hence, EMI shielding materials will be in high demand. Similarly, telecommunication devices, AI, IoT, and the automotive industry are expected to thrive in the coming years, leading to an ever‐increasing demand for EMI shielding materials.
The global EMI shielding market has a projected size of US$ 6.8 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach US$ 9.2 billion by 2025, with a compound annual growth rate of 6.3% over the next five years (Figure 1.3b) [32]. Thus, there is a huge demand for the research and development of novel and efficient materials to meet stringent EMI shielding requirements.
1.5 Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations and Standards
Over the past few decades, the increase in electrical and electronic systems with their accompanying electromagnetic pollution has necessitated the creation and implementation of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards around the globe (Figure 1.4). Historically, during World War II, EMC became very important in the defense sector, as mission success was highly reliant on electronic communication systems, which is still the case today. In the civil sector, the extensive use of radio facilities, modern gadgets, telecommunications, and electric systems has spread EMI pollution. Therefore, a set of standards is required so that the products or systems applied in the civil, defense, and industry sectors are immune to external EMI pollution and do not generate high electromagnetic radiation.
Figure 1.3 (a) Global market shares in the field of EMI shielding and (b) global market over the next five years.
Source: https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market‐Reports/emi‐shielding‐market‐105681800.html.
Compiling all existing standards and creating a set of documents as a recommendation for EMC is tedious, as every nation has its own set of standards for instruments, procedures, and limits. The most renowned international organizations are the International Standard Organization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Alongside these two agencies, many other agencies, such as the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) in Europe, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States, and the Korean EMC standards (KSC) in Korea, publish national standards for use in the civilian segment and military or defense standards (MIL‐STD) for use in the military segment [33].
Figure 1.4 Summary of global standards and limitations for the safe use of electrical and electronic equipment.
Source: Chong Min Koo.
1.5.1 International Standards
The IEC, which is the organization that monitors EMC standards and testing procedures, comprises three technical committees on EMC, namely, CISPR (International Special Committee on Radio Interference), TC65 (related to the immunity standards), and TC77 (related to EMC in electrical systems and networks). CISPR compiles their findings related to EMC issues in the form of standards labeled CISPR10–CISPR23. TC65 provides standards related to immunity under designation 801. TC77 provides standards related to low‐frequency phenomena in the power network, such as harmonics and flicker, under designations 555 and 1000, respectively. The CISPR22 standards are the basic foundation of the national standards of several countries for emission from IT or communication systems. Owing to variations in the prerequisites of various countries, the standards suggested by CISPR cannot be implemented as law. However, in accordance with the will of each nation, these standards can be implemented or modified as national standards [34].
1.5.2 FCC Standards (United States)
In the United States, radio and wired communications and interference are regulated by the FCC. Any equipment that is imported to or sold in the United States must fulfill the standards laid out by the FCC. The FCC rules and regulations deal with EMC standards, measurement methods American National Standards Institute (ANSI C63.4), equipment or product approval processes, and marking requirements. Three sections deal with EMC, namely, Part 15 (for radio‐frequency systems), Part 18 (for industrial, scientific, and medical equipment), and Part 68 (for equipment connected to the telephone network). The standard regulations divide devices or equipment into two categories: Class A and Class B. Class A includes systems used in the commercial, industry, and business sectors, whereas Class B includes domestic systems. The regulation limits for Class B (approximately 10 dB) are stricter than those for Class A. All systems with digital circuits and a clock frequency above 10 kHz fall within the FCC regulations. The conducted interference limits are listed in the range of 450 kHz to 30 Hz, and the present limit controls the interference current in power leads. The leading organization for EMC standardization in the United States is the ANSI, to which various other institutions also contribute, such as the IEEE EMC Society [34, 35].
1.5.3 European Standards
The European Standard Committee (ESC) monitors the regulation and implantation of suitable standards using CENELEC. These standards, including basic standards (test methods) and product standards (specific types of equipment), classify systems or equipment into broad classes, namely, class 1 (residential and light industrial) and class 2 (heavy industry). The mandate of 3 May 1989, related to EMC prerequisites, was amended for a transitional period and came into effect on 1 January 1996. All the member nations have to sanction the legislation to implement these orders. The standard orders are widely inclusive, accounting for the emission and susceptibility of various hardware or systems and imposing duties on the manufacturers, irrespective of the existence of suitable guidelines. A trade agreement was signed in 1997 between the FCC and CENELEC, through which any EMC test conducted in either the United States or the EU is acknowledged by both parties. Thus, trade barriers were demolished, and both European and US manufacturing companies and testing laboratories can export and import equipment to each other [34].
1.5.4 Korean Standards
Korean EMC and safety standards are implanted and maintained by the Radio Research Agency (RRA) and the Korean Agency for Technology and Standards (KATS). The standards are classified into two categories: EMC (Radio Wave Law) and safety (Electric Appliances Safety Control Act). The first EMC policy was converted into the Radio Wave Act in 1989, and the electromagnetic susceptibility (immunity) criteria were enforced in 2000. The Korean EMC standards (KS) are identical to the IEC standards. For example, the KN 61000‐6 family of standards is identical to the IEC 61000 standards. The KN 14 standard, which deals with household and electrical systems, is analogous to the CISPR 14‐1 standard. Moreover, all products that meet Korean EMC and electrical safety requirements are engraved with a KC mark before being introduced to the Korean market. In July 2011, the EU and Korea established a system that facilitates the certification processes for electrical and electronic systems, thus increasing market accessibility.
1.5.5 Military or Defense Standards
The most important group of EMC standards is the military standards. In modern warfare, electric and electronic communications are used to set up integrated control commands among all the forces (land, air, and sea). Hostile warfare requires compact and confidential systems. Moreover, the high use of electromagnetic energy for jamming has generated critical EMC systems and EMI complications. Any electrical system designed and developed for defense purposes must fulfill the MIL‐STD‐461 standard, which gives a limit range for the susceptibility of equipment to conduct and radiate EMI. The MIL‐STD‐462 companion standard provides testing procedures. Moreover, the MIL‐STD‐461 standards have been acknowledged and implemented outside the United States by various defense establishments and a few nonmilitary organizations. Military equipment should be able to withstand radiated and conducted RF without malfunctioning. The military standards are stricter than the civilian standards (FCC, ESC, and CISPR22) as they deal with both susceptibility and emission and cover a frequency range of 30–40 GHz. Strict military standards are needed for radiated emission because of the small size of the working space, where electronic systems are kept in close proximity in fighter jets, tanks, naval ships, etc. In contrast, these systems can be more widely distributed in industrial installations [34, 35].
1.6 Materials for EMI Shielding
The rise of electronic and electrical devices started after the development of the electromagnetic theory in the nineteenth century. The understanding of the electromagnetic theory has led to the use of EMWs for wireless communication, information sharing and broadcasting, foreign object detection by security systems, and medical applications and imaging. In general, every device currently working on a power source receives or generates undesirable EMWs. Devices operating in close proximity can interfere with each other, resulting in malfunctioning or failure and can also affect human health. Therefore, in this advanced technology era, as we cannot reduce the use of electronic equipment, huge efforts are being made to develop efficient materials to mitigate or absorb the energy of undesirable EMWs.
As mentioned previously, reflection is the primary mechanism of EMI shielding, as a major portion of the incident EMWs is reflected after striking the surface of a shielding material. In this regard, highly conductive metals (e.g. Ag, Cu, and Al) in the form of foils or shrouds have been commonly used for decades as potential EMI shielding materials [2]. Owing to their high electrical conductivities of 105–106 S cm−1, these metals have abundant free electrons that can interact with the incident EMWs and reflect them back into space. The excellent thermal conductivities of these metals (200–500 W m−1 K−1) also expand their applications. However, the shielding performance of highly conductive metals is outweighed by various drawbacks such as high density, high cost, poor corrosion resistance, and difficulties in processing at smaller thicknesses. These factors limit the applications of metals in the aircraft and aerospace industry, where lightweight materials are a priority. Moreover, the reflection mechanism generates secondary pollution when the reflected EMWs interact with surrounding circuits. Therefore, in advanced portable and smart devices, efficient absorbing materials are being extensively explored.
Although electrical conductivity is a critical parameter for determining the performance of an EMI shielding material, it is not the only factor. Ferromagnetic materials (paramagnetic materials) show strong absorption behavior owing to spontaneous magnetization below the Curie temperature [36]. Under an applied magnetic field, the spin moments in the domains (a microscopically large homogeneous region) are aligned parallel to the magnetic field, resulting in the storage of the energy associated with electromagnetic radiation. Thus, the magnetic permeability of a material is an important criterion for defining the ability of the material to absorb the energy of EMWs. As a result, ferrites have become of significant academic and industrial interest to overcome the disadvantages of highly conductive metals.
Conductive polymer nanocomposites with metal nanoparticles and ferrite inclusions have excellent capabilities for EMI shielding. In particular, cost‐effective and easily processable composites with multiphase heterogeneous structures hosting carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or carbon black (CB) have received considerable attention.
Currently, two‐dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are at the forefront of ongoing research owing to their unique chemical, mechanical, electrical, and optoelectronic properties [37–41]. Since the discovery of graphene in 2004, research on 2D materials has proceeded at a far higher rate than ever before [42]. Nevertheless, this field is still emerging, with new materials being discovered every year and many more anticipated in the future. The range of 2D materials includes graphene [5, 43–45], black phosphorous (BP), [46]hexagonal boron nitride (h‐BN) [47], transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs; e.g. MoS2, WS2, TaS2, MoSe2, and WSe2), [48–50] and the very new yet gigantic family of transition metal carbides/nitrides/carbonitrides (MXenes; e.g. Ti3C2Tx, Ti3CNTx, and Ti2CTx) [51–54]. The development of novel 2D materials beyond graphene has revealed a wide range of electrical conductivities (0.004–15 000 S cm−1, Table 1.1), which imparts extraordinary potential for diverse applications in almost all technological areas. Owing to their excellent electrical conductivity, processability, corrosion resistance, and low density, 2D materials are believed to be an alternative to highly conductive metals for EMI shielding. Monolayer graphene shows outstanding EMI shielding potential because of its very high electrical conductivity (5.25 × 104 S cm−1) in chemical vapor deposition (CVD)‐grown nanometer thin films. At higher thicknesses, the electrical conductivity decreases because the defect concentration increases. Metallic conductivities of more than 15 000 S cm−1 have been achieved for MXenes at thicknesses of nanometers to tens of micrometers, and their polymeric composites show an ultralow percolation threshold with superior electrical conductivity. Owing to their unique advantages for fabricating highly processable liquid dispersions, inks, low‐percolation polymer composites, and flexible and lightweight composites, 2D materials can satisfy the requirements for on‐ground and space applications. TMDCs with 2D morphologies, including WS2, TaS2, and MoS2, show high electrical conductivities of 6.7, 680, and 1000 S cm−1, respectively. CuS, another 2D material, also exhibits a high electrical conductivity of 870 S cm−1. The synergistic effect of efficient electrical conductivity and a multilayered morphology makes these 2D materials effective for practical EMI shielding applications. The fundamental properties of conventional and novel EMI shielding materials are summarized in Table 1.1, and these materials, especially 2D graphene, MXenes, TMDCs, BP, h‐BN, and MOF (Figure 1.5), are discussed in detail in Chapters 4–6.
Table 1.1 Fundamental properties of conventional shielding materials and advanced 2D nanomaterials.
Material
Properties
Conductivity (S cm
−1
)
Permeability (μ'/μ″)
Carrier density (cm
−3
)
Carrier mobility (cm
2
V
−1
s
−1
)
Density (g cm
−3
)
Thermal conductivity (W m
−1
K
−1
)
Electronic bandgap (eV)
References
Metals
Silver
6.305 × 10
5
—
5.86 × 10
22
9490
10.53
417–427
N/A
[
55
,
56
]
Copper
5.977 × 10
5
—
8.47 × 10
22
5770
8.9
386–400
N/A
[
55
,
56
]
Aluminum
3.538 × 10
5
—
18.1 × 10
22
2600
2.7
234
N/A
[
55
,
56
]
Magnetic materials
Fe
2
O
3
3.12 × 10
−7
1.2/0.8(4 GHz, 70 wt%/wax)
1.65 × 10
19
∼10
−2
5.25
—
2.0–2.4
[
57
–
64
]
Fe
3
O
4
∼10
2
–10
3
1.4/0.9 (4 GHz, 70 wt%/wax)
4.04 × 10
22
—
5.17
2.7 (cross) 2.6 (in‐plane)
2.3
[
57
,
58
,
60
,
63
–
70
]
Sendust
1.397
4/1.5 (1 GHz, 40 vol%/acryl)
—
—
2.4–3.5
1.83 (50 vol%/PP)
—
[
71
–
73
]
Permalloy
0.8
9/8 (1 GHz, 70 vol%/PPS)
7.9 × 10
11
cm
−2
0.5 × 10
6
8.7
19
—
[
74
–
76
]
MnZn ferrite
0.008 (71 vol%/PANI)
3/4 (1 GHz, 71 vol%/PANI)
—
—
4.8
4
2.19
[
76
–
78
]
NiZn ferrite
1.35 × 10
−1
(54 wt%/PANI)
1–2/7–8 (1 GHz)
—
—
5.2
7
1.91
[
76
79
–
82
]
2DGraphene materials
CVD graphene
5.25 × 10
4
—
2.8 × 10
13
4.4 × 10
4
—
2500 ± 1000
0.01
[
83
–
89
]
Graphene oxide
(Insulating)
—
—
0.25
2.2
776
1.7
[
90
–
93
]
Reduced graphene oxide
7–205
—
1.3 × 10
11
16–262
2.1
1390
2.2–0.5
[
94
–
101
]
S‐doped graphene
21–311
—
2.3 × 10
18
60–270
2.25
N/A
0.1–0.2
[
99
102
–
104
]
N‐doped graphene
12–316
—
2.5 × 10
15
(N‐doped) 6 × 10
14
(B‐doped)
350–550 (N‐doped) 450–650 (B‐doped)
∼2
4–300 (N‐doped) 190 (B‐doped)
0.2 eV (N‐doped) 0.6 eV (N,B‐codoping)
[
105
–
113
]
MXenes
Ti
3
C
2
T
x
5000–15 000
—
(2.6–3.2) × 10
16
cm
−2
(0.6–1.25)
2.39
2.84
0.5–2
[114]
Ti
3
CNT
x
1125–2712
—
—
—
—
—
—
[
4
,
115
]
Ti
2
CT
x
1600–2000
—
1 × 10
22
33.6 × 10
3
∼2
11.91
0.88–1.15
[
116
–
119
]
V
2
CT
x
998–1560
—
—
—
—
—
—
[115]
Nb
2
CT
x
5
—
—
∼1 × 10
6
—
15
—
[
115
,
120
,
121
]
Mo
2
CT
x
0.017–4.3
—
—
—
—
48.4
—
[122]
Sc
2
CF
2
—
—
—
(1.07–5.03) × 10
3
—
178–472
1.03
[
119
,
123
]
Sc
2
C(OH)
2
—
—
—
(2.06–2.19) × 10
3
—
107–173
0.45
[
119
,
123
]
TMDCs
MoS
2
1000
—
2.6 × 10
12
cm
−2
50–217
5.06
34.5–131
1.3 (indirect)
[
124
–
131
]
WS
2
6.7
—
1.0 × 10
17
cm
−2
(thin film) 3.0 × 10
17
∼ 1.6 × 10
18
cm
−3
(nanotube)
0.2
7.5
32 (monolayer) 53 (bilayer)
1.35 (bulk) 2.05 (monolayer)
[
131
–
137
]
TaS
2
680
—
4.5 × 10
19
cm
−3
20
6.86
11.55–13.36
0.3
[
138
–
141
]
Others
CuS
870
—
2.09 × 10
21
cm
−3
1–6
4.76
1.8
2.0
[
142
–
145
]
h‐BN
(Insulating)
—
—
2300
2.28
280
4.9–6.4
[
146
,
147
]
BP
0.004
—
2.6 × 10
14
cm
−2
1000
2.69
110 (AC) 35 (ZZ)
0.3 (bulk) 2.0 (monolayer)
[
148
–
156
]
Figure 1.5 Atomic structures of 2D materials used for EMI shielding. The development of these novel 2D materials has provided a breakthrough in replacing conventional conductive metals, which suffer from high density and corrosion susceptibility.
Source: Chong Min Koo.
The current rise in 5G technology demands more efficient EMI shielding materials with ultralow densities and thicknesses. The area of EMI shielding materials is emerging parallel to technological advancements, and scientists are using a structural control approach to further enhance and tailor the properties of 2D materials according to the desired area of application. In this way, compact solid films and composites, porous foams and aerogels, and segregated structures have been developed for use as thin, strong, lightweight, and cost‐effective shielding materials [11].
1.7 Summary
The rapid advancement of highly integrated electronic, telecom, defense, and medical devices has resulted in serious EMI, which can detrimentally impact the performance and lifetime of these devices as well as human health. Although metals and magnetic materials have long been used for EMI shielding, they are not a good choice for lightweight and portable technologies. Novel 2D materials, which possess high electrical conductivity, low density, high mechanical strength, and excellent EMI SE at a minimal thickness, can provide the same EMI shielding performance as metals while minimizing the drawbacks. The shielding and absorption of EMWs is pivotal in a wide variety of industries, including satellites, aerospace, and defense, which provide a huge global market for EMI shielding and absorbing materials. Therefore, efficient materials with the required set of fundamental properties are highly needed, and thus continue to be explored. This book provides insights into the potential of 2D materials for lightweight EMI shielding.
References
1
Simon, R.M. (1981). EMI shielding through conductive plastics.
Polymer‐Plastics Technology and Engineering
17 (1): 1–10.
2
Shahzad, F., Alhabeb, M., Hatter, C.B. et al. (2016). Electromagnetic interference shielding with 2D transition metal carbides (MXenes).
Science
353 (6304): 1137–1140.
3
Chen, Z., Xu, C., Ma, C. et al. (2013). Lightweight and flexible graphene foam composites for high‐performance electromagnetic interference shielding.
Advanced Materials
25 (9): 1296–1300.
4
Iqbal, A., Shahzad, F., Hantanasirisakul, K. et al. (2020). Anomalous absorption of electromagnetic waves by 2D transition metal carbonitride Ti
3
CNT
x
(MXene).
Science
369 (6502): 446–450.
5
Hong, S.K., Kim, K.Y., Kim, T.Y. et al. (2012). Electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of monolayer graphene.
Nanotechnology
23 (45): 455704.
6
