Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism E-Book

Brian T. Bennett

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1575

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

A comprehensive guide to understanding, assessing, and responding to terrorism in this modern age This book provides readers with a thorough understanding of the types of attacks that may be perpetrated, and how to identify potential targets, conduct a meaningful vulnerability analysis, and apply protective measures to secure personnel and facilities. The new edition of Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism updates existing material and includes several new topics that have emerged, including information on new international terrorist groups as well as a new chapter on Regulations and Standards. A vulnerability analysis methodology, consisting of several steps--which include the techniques necessary to conduct a vulnerability analysis--is introduced and applied through several sample scenarios. By using easily customized templates for the screening process, valuation of a critical asset as a target, vulnerability analysis, security procedures, emergency response procedures, and training programs, the book offers a practical step-by-step process to help reduce risk. Each different type of terrorism is briefly discussed--however, the book focuses on those potential attacks that may involve weapons of mass destruction. There is a discussion of what physical and administrative enhancements can be implemented to improve a facility's ability to devalue, detect, deter, deny, delay, defend, respond, and recover to a real or threatened terrorist attack--whether it be at a facility, or in the community. Techniques on how personnel safety and security can be improved through the implementation of counter-terrorism programs are also outlined. An overview of the major counter-terrorism regulations and standards are presented, along with the significant governmental efforts that have been implemented to help prevent terrorist attacks and foster preparedness at both private and public sector facilities and for personnel. Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism, Second Edition: * Updates existing material, plus includes several new topics that have emerged including information on new international terrorist groups, new terrorist tactics, cyber terrorism, and Regulations and Standards * Outlines techniques for improving facility and personnel safety and security through the implementation of counter-terrorism programs * Unites the emergency response/public sector community with the private sector over infrastructure protection, thus allowing for easier communication between them * Includes questions/exercises at the end of each chapter and a solutions manual to facilitate its use as a textbook Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism, Second Edition is a must-have reference for private and public sector risk managers, safety engineers, security professionals, facility managers, emergency responders, and others charged with protecting facilities and personnel from all types of hazards (accidental, intentional, and natural).

Leseprobe

Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism

Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Personnel

Second Edition

Brian T. Bennett

This edition first published 2018

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

First Edition Published: 2007

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bennett, Brian T., author.

Title: Understanding, assessing, and responding to terrorism protecting critical infrastructure and personnel / by Brian T. Bennett.

Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2017037746 (print) | LCCN 2017045214 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119237808 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119237815 (epub) | ISBN 9781119237785 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Civil defense–United States. | Terrorism–United States–Prevention.

Classification: LCC UA927 (ebook) | LCC UA927 .U48 2018 (print) | DDC 363.325/170973–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017037746

Cover image: © jaminwell/Getty Images

Cover design by Wiley

Dedication

To my little brother Chris, a ray of sunshine that came and went.

Contents

Preface

1 The Terrorist Threat

1.1 What Is Terrorism?

1.2 The History of Terrorism

1.3 The Motivation for Terrorism

1.4 Can the Use of Terrorism be Justified?

1.5 The Role of Media in Terrorism

1.6 The Role of Social Media in Terrorism

1.7 Encryption

1.8 Civil Liberty and Terrorism

1.9 Terrorism Statistics

1.10 Purpose of Terrorism

1.11 Goals of Terrorism

1.12 Case Study: Economic Effects of a Terrorist Attack

1.13 Objectives of Terrorism

1.14 The Terrorism Challenge

1.15 The Evolution of Terrorism

1.16 Terrorist Tactics

1.17 Difference between Terrorism and Insurgency

1.18 The Difference between a Terrorist Attack, a Criminal Event, and Suspicious Activity

1.19 Case Study: Crime versus Terrorism

1.20 Common Terms in Terrorism

1.21 Types of Terrorist Organizations

1.22 International Terrorism

1.23 Examples of International Terrorist Groups

1.24 Recent International Terrorist Attacks

1.25 Domestic Terrorism

1.26 Examples of Domestic Terrorist Groups

1.27 Recent Domestic Terrorist Attacks

References

Questions

Project

2 Critical Infrastructure

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Evolution of the Definition of Critical Infrastructure

2.3 Current Definition of Critical Infrastructure

2.4 Definition of Key Resources

2.5 Definition of Key Assets

2.6 Discussion of Critical Infrastructure

2.7 Soft Targets

2.8 Hard Targets

2.9 Cascading Effects from Interdependencies of Critical Infrastructures

2.10 Coordination of Critical Infrastructure Protection

2.11 Selection of Critical Infrastructure, Key Resources, and Key Assets

2.12 Identification and Selection of Soft Targets by a Jurisdiction

2.13 Target Attractiveness

2.14 Inventorying and Prioritizing Critical Infrastructure/Key Resources/Key Assets/ Soft Targets

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 2.1 Executive Order 13010 by President William J. Clinton

Executive Order 13010 of July 15, 1996

Appendix 2.2 Presidential Decision Directive 63 by President William J. Clinton

Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-63

Annex A: Structure and Organization

Lead Agencies

Annex B: Additional Taskings

Studies

Appendix 2.3 Executive Order 13228 by President George W. Bush

Executive Order 13228 of October 8, 2001

Appendix 2.4 Executive Order 13231 by President George W. Bush

Executive Order 13231 of October 16, 2001

Appendix 2.5 Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7 by President George W. Bush

Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection Purpose

Appendix 2.6 Presidential Policy Directive 21 by President Barack Obama

Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience

3 Types of Terrorist Attacks

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Types of Destructive Events

3.3 Who Can Execute an Attack?

3.4 Ways in Which a Critical Asset May Be Attacked

3.5 Target Selection

3.6 Identifying Lucrative Targets

3.7 Characteristics of a Terrorist Attack

3.8 Results of a Successful Terrorist Attack

3.9 Terrorist Tactics

3.10 Case Study of a Terrorist Attack

3.11 The Interrupted Terrorist Plots

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 3.1 Executive Order 13636 by President Barack Obama Executive Order 13636 of February 12, 2013

Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity

Appendix 3.2 Presidential Policy Directive 21 by President Barack Obama

Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience

Appendix 3.3 Presidential Policy Directive 41 by Barack Obama

United States Cyber Incident Coordination

4 Weapons of Mass Destruction

4.1 Introduction

4.2 History of Weapons of Mass Destruction

4.3 Why Use a Weapon of Mass Destruction?

4.4 Limitations of the Use of Weapon of Mass Destruction Materials

4.5 Indicators of a Possible Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack

4.6 Results of a Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack

4.7 How a Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Agent Can Enter the Body

4.8 Effectiveness of a Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attack

4.9 Obtaining a Weapon of Mass Destruction

4.10 Questions about Weapons of Mass Destruction

4.11 Types of Weapons of Mass Destruction

4.12 Other Weapons Used by Terrorists

4.13 Weaponization of Chemical and Biological Agents

References

Questions

Project

5 The Terrorist's Preparation for an Attack

5.1 General

5.2 Target Considerations

5.3 The Terrorist's Investment

5.4 Example of Terrorist Financing

5.5 Eight Indicators of Terrorism

5.6 Raising Suspicion

5.7 Summary of Attack Process

References

Questions

Project

6 Risk and Threat Assessment

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Definitions

6.3 The Risk of Attack

6.4 Risk

6.5 Risk Management

6.6 Risk Assessment and Management Approach

6.7 Probability of Attack Occurrence

6.8 Consequences of a Successful Attack

6.9 The CARVER Assessment Tool

6.10 Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Guide (THIRA)

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 6.1 Presidential Policy Directive 8 by President Barack Obama

7 The Security Vulnerability Analysis

7.1 Introduction

7.2 What is a Security Vulnerability Analysis?

7.3 The Purpose of a Security Vulnerability Analysis

7.4 Preparing to Conduct a Security Vulnerability Analysis

7.5 The Security Vulnerability Analysis Process

7.6 Administrative Functions in the Security Vulnerability Analysis Process

7.7 Risk Assessment

7.8 Preparing to Conduct a Threat and Risk Analysis

7.9 The Buffer Zone Protection Plan

7.10 The CARVER Target Analysis Tool

Reference

Questions

Project

8 Principles of Protective Security

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Prevention

8.3 Information Collection

8.4 Information Sharing

8.5 Risk Mitigation

8.6 Cost–Benefit Analysis

8.7 Situational Awareness

8.8 Security

8.9 Suspicious Activity

8.10 What Can Be Done to Protect People and Facilities

8.11 Conclusion

References

Questions

Project

9 Effective Security Countermeasures

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Counterterrorism Policy: National Security Strategy

9.3 Hardening and Strengthening

9.4 What Are Security Countermeasures?

9.5 Management of Change

9.6 Risk Management

9.7 Critical Asset Resiliency

9.8 Critical Infrastructure Protection

9.9 Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks

9.10 All Hazards Protection

9.11 Cost–Benefit Analysis

9.12 Information Sharing and Analysis Centers

9.13 Private Sector's Responsibility

9.14 Protecting Critical Infrastructure, Key Resources, and Key Assets

9.15 Standoff Distance

9.16 Response to an Active Shooter

9.17 Preparing for Attacks on Transportation

9.18 Administrative Security Enhancements

9.19 Recommendations for Enhanced Security Through Various ISACs

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 9.1 Directive on National Continuity Policy, NSPD 51/HSPD 20, by President George W. Bush

National Continuity Policy

Appendix 9.2 Homeland Security Presidential Directive 8 by President George W. Bush

National Preparedness

10 General Emergency Response Considerations

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Definition of First Responder

10.3 Emergency Response Plans

10.4 Pre-incident Planning

10.5 Drills and Exercises

10.6 Emergency Response Priorities

10.7 Operational Risk Management

10.8 Situational Awareness

10.9 Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5

10.10 The Incident Command System

10.11 Determining Potential Outcomes

10.12 Approving the Level of Personal Protective Equipment

10.13 Developing a Plan of Action

10.14 Components of the Incident Command System

10.15 Media Relations

10.16 Evaluating Progress of the Plan of Action

10.17 Terminating the Incident

10.18 Critical Incident Stress

10.19 Family Preparedness

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 10.1 Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5 by President George W. Bush

Management of Domestic Incidents

Appendix 10.2 Incident Command System Form 208

11 Emergency Response to a Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Use of a Weapon of Mass Destruction

11.3 The Emergency Scene as a Crime Scene

11.4 Size Up

11.5 The Secondary Device

11.6 Evacuation of Personnel in a Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack

11.7 Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Agents

11.8 Emergency Response Actions at the Scene of a Weapon of Mass Destruction Incident

References

Questions

Project

12 Homeland Security Laws, Regulations, and Standards

12.1 What Is Homeland Security?

12.2 2002 National Strategy for Homeland Security

12.3 The 2007 National Strategy for Homeland Security

12.4 Office of Homeland Security

12.5 The Department of Homeland Security

12.6 The Transportation Security Administration

12.7 The Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards

12.8 The Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards of 2014

12.9 Chemical Terrorism Vulnerability Information

12.10 CVI Authorized User Training

12.11 Protected Critical Infrastructure Information Program

12.12 Chemical Security Assessment Tool

12.13 CFATS Top Screen

12.14 Enhanced CFATS Tiering Methodology

12.15 Security Vulnerability Assessment

12.16 Site Security Plan/Alternative Security Plan

12.17 CFATS Facility Inspections

12.18 CFATS Ongoing Compliance

12.19 Regional Resiliency Assessment Program

12.20 Maritime Transportation Security Act

12.21 US Coast Guard Maritime Security Levels

12.22 Transportation Worker Identification Credential

References

Questions

Project

Appendix 12.1 Authorizing Statute for the Chemical Facility Anti-terrorism Standards Regulations (6 CFR Part 27)

Appendix 12.2 CFATS Appendix A, List of COI, and STQ

Appendix 12.3 CFATS Act of 2014

Appendix 12.4 US Coast Guard Facility Vulnerability and Security Measures Summary

Index

EULA

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4

Table 1.5

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Form 2.1

Table 2.2

Form 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

Table 4.13

Table 4.14

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 6.5

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Chapter 12

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

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Preface

This book could serve as an introductory text for the student new to homeland security, as well as a valuable reference for the experienced security professional.

September 11, 2001 was a watershed moment in our nation's history. The attacks that occurred that day were our first taste of a significant international terrorist attack occurring in our homeland. Much like previous generations that can instantly recall where they were and what they were doing when Pearl Harbor was attacked or President John F. Kennedy was assassinated, many Americans have the same vivid recollections with regard to the September 11 attacks. The images of the World Trade Center Towers first being struck and then collapsing, the Pentagon in flames, and the crater in the Pennsylvania countryside resulting from the crash of United Flight 93 were forever seared in our memories thanks to real-time media reporting. Our way of life was forever changed on that fall morning. From that day forward, security issues now reign paramount in our daily activities. As an example, the most involved reorganization of our government, which led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, was a direct result of the September 11 attacks and an indication of the newfound importance of homeland security. Although international terrorism may be a new concept to some in America, terrorism has existed for thousands of years as illustrated in the many examples through this book. As our techniques for protecting the homeland evolve, so do the terrorists. As protective measures are developed and implemented, adversaries continue to come up with new ways to cause harm. For this reason, the field of homeland security will continue to be an important part of the activities the government, private sector, and individual citizens perform every day.

This book was written to assist organizations, both private and public, in identifying what is critical to them and worth protecting from hazards. All organizations must take appropriate actions to reduce risk and protect their critical assets. Although each organization will deem what is important to them, it should be remembered that when they are grouped together with other critical assets in an organization, a municipality, a region, or the nation, they may not maintain that same level of criticality or importance that warrants an expenditure of time, effort, and money to protect.

As this book may be used as a text for academic study, the end of each chapter contains questions and a project. The questions are designed to provoke thought about a particular topic, and can be used as the basis for discussion in a group setting. The project is designed to build on each previous chapter, culminating in a package of customized material that can be used as the basis of a protective program for specific critical assets.

Chapter 1, The Terrorist Threat, reviews the history of terrorism including international and domestic terrorist organizations, along with a selection of attacks that have been perpetrated over the past 50 years. By studying what has happened in the past, we can develop preventative measures against future attacks. Chapter 1 also includes some issues at the forefront today, such as the role of media in terrorism and the protection of citizen's civil liberties in the fight against terror.

Chapter 2, Critical Infrastructure, provides suggestions on how to identify critical infrastructure, key resources, and key assets. The principles and examples in this book apply equally regardless of organization or jurisdiction. Each organization or jurisdiction has a responsibility to identify their critical assets, assess the threat posed against them, and evaluate the risk that those critical assets may be degraded or destroyed. A new section in the second edition discusses how to ascertain how attractive a critical asset may be to a terrorist planning an attack.

In keeping with the all hazards theme of this book, Chapter 3, Types of Terrorist Attacks, introduces the reader to the three types of destruction events and how a critical asset may be adversely affected. However, emphasis is placed on the intentional destructive event that could be perpetrated by an adversary, including their tactics, whether they are an insider, outsider, or one working in collusion with an insider. The target selection processes, including basic screening methodologies that can be used to determine a critical asset's attractiveness as a target, are also provided. The second edition includes an expanded section on cyber terrorism, and the weaponization of the internet, which is rapidly becoming a significant issue that must be addressed.

The premise of this book is that critical assets should be protected from all hazards and all risks, not just terrorism. The principles covered are designed for all threats from minor criminal activity through the use of a weapon of mass destruction by a terrorist. Many of the basic principles that are applied to assessing and protecting a critical asset from being bombed by a terrorist can also be applied to reduce the likelihood of theft. The principles covered in a comprehensive emergency preparedness and response plan that address how to mitigate and recover from a terrorist attack can likewise be used to recover from the damage caused by a hurricane. There are various scenarios and case studies presented to assist in the implementation of an assessment and countermeasure process.

The most horrific attack a terrorist could initiate would involve a weapon of mass destruction, which is covered in Chapter 4, Weapons of Mass Destruction. These weapons, which would involve the use of a biological, chemical, or nuclear/radiological agent, or an incendiary or explosive device, would be truly devastating if executed properly. Therefore, an entire chapter is devoted to describing these weapons, and how a terrorist may go about turning an apparently innocuous or commonly available material into a weapon. Having this understanding will greatly assist in performing the vulnerability and risk assessment processes as well as developing appropriate security countermeasures. Weapons used by terrorists are limited only by the imagination. Commercial products used in our everyday lives can be used as unconventional weapons. The second edition includes a new section on some of these potential weapons.

Chapter 5, The Terrorists Preparation for an Attack, addresses the various pre-attack preparations an adversary may undertake before executing an attack. Included are eight potential indicators of terrorism; these indicators are the core of a training program for personnel to help them recognize that a plot may be afoot. The next logical step after conducting a vulnerability analysis will be to evaluate the risk of adverse consequences, and implement the appropriate level of security countermeasures.

Chapter 6, Risk and Threat Assessment, presents several examples of worksheets that can be used to assess asset criticality, asset value, threat analysis, and consequences of a successful attack. Risk and threat assessment and analysis techniques are also discussed, including examples of both qualitative and quantitative risk analysis.

Chapter 7, The Security Vulnerability Analysis, has been reformatted and expanded in the second edition to present a critical asset screening methodology and the process of conducting a security vulnerability assessment for all types of potential loss. Several examples and sample worksheets are provided.

Just as all organizations and jurisdictions have an obligation to assess their vulnerabilities and risks, they have an obligation to implement effective security countermeasures. These countermeasures can take many forms, and will certainly vary from organization to organization and jurisdiction to jurisdiction based on the threat and risk assessment.

Chapter 8, Principles of Protective Security, details the principles of protective security and introduces the concept of rings of protection. Rings of protection involve the use of several overlapping and complementary security measures that can be implemented to reduce vulnerabilities and hence risk.

Chapter 9, Effective Security Countermeasures, provides some basic guidance, examples, and templates for various security countermeasures that can be customized to fit specific applications. New sections in the second edition have been added to cover active shooter incidents and attacks on transportation systems.

Chapter 10, General Emergency Response Considerations, provides some basic principles of emergency response, including an introduction to the Incident Command System (ICS) and the National Incident Management System (NIMS). These basic principles are valid for any type of emergency situation.

Chapter 11, Emergency Response to a Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack, provides some basic guidance on how to respond to an incident involving the use of a weapon of mass destruction.

A new Chapter 12 has been added to the second edition, Homeland Security Laws, Regulations, and Standards. Information includes an overview of the Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards and the Maritime Transportation Security Act.

This second edition is prepared with the latest information concerning the threat and security countermeasures. Homeland security is a very dynamic field, with changes occurring on almost a daily basis. As such, we must never let our guard down, and must constantly maintain situational awareness of the world around us. It is only through the steadfast dedication and commitment of homeland security professionals that major attacks by international terrorist organizations have been thwarted.

There were many who have supported and encouraged me in this endeavor. To these behind-the-scene family and friends whose names do not appear in print, I extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude for their support.

To the practitioners in the field of homeland security, this work is submitted in the hope it will be a useful tool in strengthening our critical infrastructure and in helping to prevent casualties and loss in the future.

Woodbridge, NJ         Brian T. Bennett

1The Terrorist Threat

1.1 What Is Terrorism?

For many Americans, September 11, 2001 represented our first exposure to the devastating effects of international terrorism, and the day the war on terrorism began. Others believe America's first exposure to terrorism began with the seizing of the US embassy in Tehran, Iran on November 4, 1979. In reality, although not widely associated with the United States, terrorism has existed for centuries. Terrorism is not something new.

Terrorism is understood as a type of violence, with fear the goal of that violence. The word terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Jacobin's Reign of Terror.

The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin terrere meaning to frighten, scare, startle, or terrify [1]. The modern definition of terrorism has proven elusive. Various regulatory agencies and governments use different definitions, primarily because of the legal, emotional, and political influences. The current meaning of terrorism as defined by the US Department of State in the United States Code, Title 22, Section 2656f (d), is “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.” Terrorism is often random by design: the attacks intentionally and indiscriminately impact non-combatants. Terrorism is premeditated, criminal in nature, politically motivated, potentially includes religious, philosophical, ideological, or culturally symbolic motivations, violent, and perpetrated against a non-combatant target.

1.2 The History of Terrorism

Depending on how broadly the term is defined, the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the first century A.D. Sicarii Zealots, a radical offshoot of the Zealots. The Sicarii were a Jewish group who murdered enemies and collaborators, including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elite in their campaign to eliminate Roman rule in Judea.

The Hashshashin, whose name gave us the English word “assassins,” were a secretive Islamic sect active in Iran and Syria from the eleventh to the thirteenth century. Hashshashin forces were too small to challenge enemies militarily, so they assassinated city governors and military commanders in order to create alliances. Their dramatically executed assassinations of political figures terrorized their contemporaries.

The term “terrorism” itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the “Reign of Terror” during the French Revolution in 1793. The Jacobin's employed violence, including mass executions by guillotine, to compel obedience to the state. Maximilien Robespierre, one of the 12 heads of the new state, had enemies of the revolution killed, and installed a dictatorship to stabilize the country. Approximately 40,000 were killed, including Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Robespierre's sentiment laid the foundations for modern terrorists, who believe violence will usher in a better system.

In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III. Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured. The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups.

Arguably, the first organization to utilize modern terrorist techniques was the Fenian Brotherhood and its offshoot the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group that carried out attacks in England. The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns.Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.

Another early terrorist group was Norodnaya Volya, founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergey Nechayev and “propaganda by the deed” theorist Pisacane. The group developed ideas, such as targeted killing of the “leaders of oppression,” that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age, such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of, enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination.

In the United States, prior to the Civil War, abolitionist John Brown advocated and practiced armed opposition to slavery, leading several attacks between 1856 and 1859, the most famous in 1859 against the armory at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.

After the Civil War, on December 24, 1865, six Confederate Army veterans created the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) as a fraternal social club. Beginning in April 1867, there was a gradual transformation to an insurgent movement to restore white supremacy. The KKK used violence, lynching, murder, and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress, in particular, African Americans.

The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 as a nationalist social welfare and political movement in Egypt, which at the time was controlled by Great Britain. During the 1940s, the Muslim Brotherhood attacked British soldiers and police stations and assassinated politicians that collaborated with Britain. The group continues to exist in Egypt today.

Fatah was organized as a Palestinian nationalist group in 1954. In 1967, it joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The PLO is made up of many organizations, the largest of which are Fatah, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). Factions of the PLO have advocated and carried out acts of terrorism. Fatah leader and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat publically renounced terrorism in December 1988 on behalf of the PLO, but Israel has stated it has proof that Arafat continued to sponsor terrorism until his death in November 2004.

The Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers Party or PKK) was established in Turkey in 1978 as a Kurdish nationalist party. The group seeks to create an independent Kurdish state consisting of Southeastern Turkey, Northeastern Iraq, Northeastern Syria, and Northwestern Iran. The PKK has launched bombings against Turkish government facilities.

The Japanese Red Army was founded in Japan in 1971, and attempted to overthrow the Japanese government and start a world revolution. Allied with the PFLP, the group committed assassinations, hijacked a commercial Japanese airliner, and sabotaged a Shell Oil refinery in Singapore. The group also launched a machine gun and grenade attack against Israel's Lod Airport in Tel Aviv, killing 26 people and injuring 80 others.

Founded in 1976, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or the Tamil Tigers) was a militant Tamil nationalist political and paramilitary organization based in Sri Lanka. LTTE waged a secessionist resistance campaign that sought to create an independent Tamil state in the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka. The group carried out many bombings, including an April 21, 1987 car bomb attack at a Colombo bus terminal that killed 110 people. In 2009, the Sri Lankan military launched a major offensive and claimed that it had effectively destroyed the LTTE [2].

1.3 The Motivation for Terrorism

What would give a person or group the motivation to resort to a terrorist act? Why would someone perpetrate terrorism to achieve their goals? How can injuring or murdering innocent people be justified?

There are many motivations for terrorism, including:

Perceived Injustice.

A person may feel they have not been treated properly, and that gives rise to anger. They may want to align with an organization that will help correct that wrong.

Religion.

Religion is an external influence that may affect the actions of a terrorist if they believe there is no other recourse. Religion often generates very strong feelings on many sensitive issues.

Identity.

For those who feel disenfranchised or marginalized, a terrorist group may provide an opportunity for a person to fit in to a group with similar beliefs.

Accomplish a Goal.

The primary reason a person or group would perpetrate an act of terrorism would be to accomplish a goal, which, in the case of terrorism, is to achieve social, religious, or political change.

Instill Fear.

In order to facilitate their desire to foster change, terrorists attempt to instill fear in a population.

Revenge.

A terrorist may desire to avenge a previous perceived wrong or injustice.

Publicity

. Terrorists may perpetrate an attack to draw attention to their cause and influence people to provide support for their efforts.

Terrorism primarily seeks to assist an organization or individual to further their ideological ideals. Thus, there are five key distinguishing elements of terrorism:

It is premeditated—planned in advanced and not conducted as an impulsive act of rage.

It is political—designed to change the existing political order.

It is aimed at civilians—not military personnel or facilities.

It is carried out by subnational groups or individuals—not a country's army.

It involves organizations and is not just the actions of isolated individuals.

In the world of terrorism, physical assets including people, products, services, information, money, and property are all viewed as targets. What sets terrorism apart from mass murder is not only that it is an attack carried out against civilians (non-combatants), but it also has psychological affects that must be dealt with across the general population. From the terrorists’ point of view, they need to conduct just one significant attack every year or two to maintain the public's or a government's fear and anxiety. Terrorist attacks are often spectacular, designed to disturb and influence a wide audience beyond the victims of the attack itself.

There are both direct and indirect victims of terrorism. The direct victims include those who were the target of an attack and were adversely affected. Indirect victims of a terrorist attack are those who were remote from the attack, yet suffered some type of harm anyway. An example of a direct victim of terrorism would be a person who was killed in a suicide bomb attack at a hotel. An indirect victim from this attack would be the hotel itself, which lost business and prestige because of the psychological affect the attack had on potential patrons who are scared about another attack being perpetrated on its property.

Terrorism is more than just brutal violence; there is a strategy behind all terrorist actions. That strategy is the deliberate use of violence against civilians to achieve political, philosophical, social, ideological, or religious goals. Terrorism will disrupt foreign policy, disrupt peace initiatives, and sow discomfort and domestic unrest in a geopolitical region. The true target of the terrorist is society as a whole.

1.4 Can the Use of Terrorism be Justified?

Terrorism is abhorred by society because of its random violence perpetrated against a non-combatant (civilian) population. However, with that being said, can the use of terrorist tactics ever be justified? Is there a situation in which terrorism can be tolerated?

Although terrorism is directed at non-combatants, the victims may not necessarily be innocent of the wrongs the terrorists are fighting against. For example, if a civilian population supports and works with a government or organization to support their agenda could they not be considered fair targets in a terrorists attack? Can the targeting of non-combatants (civilians) by terrorists be tolerated or even perhaps justified? Consider what Osama Bin Laden said in a 2005 interview in which he was asked if killing innocent people in the September 11, 2001 attacks is consistent with Islamic principles. He said, “The American people should remember that they pay taxes to their government and that they voted for their president. Their government makes weapons and provides them to Israel, which they use to kill Palestinian Muslims. Given that the American Congress is a committee that represents the people, the fact that it agrees with the actions of the American government proves that America in its entirety is responsible for the atrocities that it is committing against Muslims” [3]. Is this a sufficient argument that all Americans hold some culpability and liability? Is it correct to say that because civilians vote in elections and pay taxes they can now be considered legitimate targets for terrorists?

Terrorism is often judged solely in light of its results and consequences. Terrorism may not be considered wrong by some unless the results and consequences are perceived as “bad.” What happens if terrorism is used and the results and consequences are perceived by some as “good”? Can the use of terrorism be justified if the end result is sufficient to justify the means? What if the end will only be reached through the use of terrorism?

Consider an example from the American revolution. In 1773, the Sons of Liberty executed an attack that became known as the Boston Tea Party. The group was known to use violence as a means to promote their cause, which was the freedom of the American colonies. Could this attack be considered an act of terrorism considering the economic damage and violence perpetrated against a non-combatant entity to promote their political agenda, or was it simply a crime committed by a group of angry protesters? Another example involves the US military in World War 2, and the firebombing of Japanese cities in an attempt to expedite an end to the war. Could these attacks on non-combatants be considered an act of terrorism, or were the civilian deaths an unfortunate consequence of war?

Terrorism might be justified based on one's viewpoint. Terrorism is certainly considered justified by those who perpetrate it and endorse its use. Terrorism is not justified by those who fight it and see it as a violation of basic human rights. “One man's freedom fighter is another man's terrorist” [4].

1.5 The Role of Media in Terrorism

One of the goals of terrorism is media attention. The news media provides free coverage of the terrorist's attack in support of that goal. Would the execution of a terrorist attack be as effective without global, real-time coverage? Is it possible that the news media's coverage may actually encourage additional terrorist attacks? Is it possible that media coverage and commentary makes an attack more successful? The effects of this free advertising should not be underestimated.

Terrorist acts are designed to be impressive in scope and generate attention in order to further the terrorist's mission. There are two audiences a terrorist act is designed to attract: those whom the terrorist is trying to impress, and those whom the terrorist is trying to intimidate.

The news media can be exploited with or without their concurrence to ensure both audiences are reached. The news media can show a terrorist is a credible force that can execute an attack in furtherance of their mission. Terrorists need this exposure to assist them in recruiting additional supporters and to raise money for their efforts. The news media can also be used to communicate the terrorist's mission to people near and far from the attack, helping to spread fear and concern. In their efforts to report and analyze the attack, the media has also publicized the terrorist's agenda, given credibility to the terrorist's capabilities to execute an attack, validated perceived vulnerabilities that exist in critical infrastructure, and forced governments to take action. The news media can also provide useful information to terrorists by providing information about security enhancements and emergency response procedures and capabilities that would otherwise be difficult to obtain.

1.6 The Role of Social Media in Terrorism

The terrorist's exploitation of the media goes beyond that of the traditional print and broadcast media. Today's new media—that is social media—has been a boon to the terrorist. Social media facilitates the planning and operational aspects of terrorist attacks.

Social media was not very popular and ingrained around the time of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. That terrorist plot was developed and planned overseas, and operatives were moved into place in the Unites States to execute the attacks. In today's world, that has changed. Terrorist organizations actively advertise, recruit, and communicate on social media websites such as Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, and Instagram, providing information necessary for radical jihadists to strike around the globe without any direct support from the “corporate” entity.

Social media has also become a powerful recruiting tool. Command of social media allows terrorist organizations to attract and indoctrinate new recruits. Social media is especially appealing to young people, and the terrorists have taken full advantage of technology to advertise themselves in popular online venues such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook. Twitter, for instance, has become a favorite for fighters who live within the Islamic State. They openly share photographs and messages of beheadings, religious hatred, and the ongoing civil war in Syria. They openly try to get online followers to join the cause [5]. Professionally produced and disseminated propaganda videos, often accompanied by stirring music, show torture videos, videos of successful operations, and impassioned speeches urging youth to join the fellowship and cause of the movement.

Social media is particularly effective in targeting disenfranchised youth, providing them with disinformation that can be used to foster a radical jihadist movement and ultimately domestic attacks. For this group, the message may be to “join us and kill your enemies before they kill you.” For the disaffected, joining the terrorist cause brings the promise of fellowship in working on a common cause and the restoration of Islamic greatness. The savvy use of social media, with its message of a God sanctioned apocalyptic confrontation between Islam and the West, has given rise to self-radicalized jihadists around the world.

Immigrants and children of immigrants tend to identify less with their communities and home nations and rely more on their Internet community, which can easily be penetrated by terrorist propaganda. The Internet has allowed terrorists to leverage these popular sites visited by youth all over the world as a legitimate public relations and recruiting tool. The terror group Islamic State (IS) has been especially adept at utilizing social media to recruit members and intimidate its enemies. IS has used social media to secure and expand the Islamic State, in contrast to al-Qaeda who used social media to call for attacks upon the West. For example, the Global Islamic Media Front, al-Qaeda's media front, released a bomb making manual “The Explosives Course” via the Internet in 2010. The manual was posted on jihadi and extremist forums. Sympathizers soon posted links to this manual on their Facebook accounts. This is an excellent example of using the Internet to disseminate information to individuals and cells across the world. The fact the manual was published in English seems to confirm the tactic of trying to encourage homegrown radicalism in the western countries. The use of the Internet to disseminate this information is particularly effective when directed at the lone wolf who is motivated to act but lacks the wherewithal to attend overseas terrorist training camps.

1.7 Encryption

The technological advances involving interconnectivity and wireless communications have not only facilitated international business and communications, but it has also helped terrorists carry out their operations.

The use of powerful encryption technologies embedded in many consumer products allows users to have private conversations that cannot be monitored. End-to-end encryption scrambles the contents of messages as they pass through the Internet from one device to another. These apps allow person-to-person chats with absolute privacy, as the conversation is encrypted and only the users have the keys to unlock them. Without access to the devices sending or receiving the messages, the content cannot be read as it is all scrambled code. Therefore, these encrypted chats are extremely hard for law enforcement to track and monitor. This was made very clear when encrypted apps were found on recovered devices after the Paris attack in 2015 and the San Bernardino, California shootings in 2015.

The US Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, P.L. 103–414), and it was signed into law by President Clinton on October 25, 1994. Among other things, it required telecommunication carriers to assist law enforcement in executing authorized electronic surveillance. However, enhanced encryption measures have been put in place resulting in companies such as Apple and Google being unable to unlock their devices for anyone under any circumstances. There are concerns that enhanced encryption may affect law enforcement actions. For instance, following the December 2, 2015 terrorist attack in San Bernardino, California, law enforcement recovered a cellular phone belonging to one of the suspected shooters. FBI Director Comey testified before Congress 2 months later and indicated the FBI was unable to unlock the phone. On February 16, 2016, the US District Court for the Central District of California ordered Apple to provide “reasonable technical assistance to assist law enforcement agents in obtaining access to the data” on the cell phone. A decade after the passage of CALEA, federal law enforcement officials are again concerned their ability to conduct electronic surveillance was constrained because of constantly emerging technologies. CALEA is not viewed as applying to e-mail or data while stored on smartphones and similar mobile devices.

Social media has and will continue to be used for inspiring new terrorists, raising funds, and to spread radicalization and instructions for conducting attacks. The challenge for homeland security officials is to find the tricky balance between privacy concerns and civil liberties and collecting the information necessary to prevent future attacks.

1.8 Civil Liberty and Terrorism

The balance between intelligence gathering and civil liberty can be difficult because society often does not trust what the government does with information that is collected in the pursuit of counterterrorism.

Today's terrorists may live peacefully in our neighborhoods, enjoying the freedoms guaranteed by our Constitution—freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom to bear arms, and privacy from government snooping. The Constitution not only protects these rights, but also indirectly protects the right to develop terrorist attacks. In the United States, the First Amendment protects the right to privacy, civil rights, and civil liberties of citizens. The conflict arises in that as a whole the country, even though they fear radical jihadists, is not totally convinced that government intrusion into these personal rights are fully justified. Can the government execute unwarranted searches, or is that a violation of the Fourth Amendment? Can the government put tighter restrictions on obtaining weapons, or is that a violation of the Second Amendment?

This is arguably the toughest assignment for homeland security officials—balancing the need for security with the very basics of our freedom. How can these basic rights be respected while still trying to find the jihadists before they turn violent and execute their attack? In 2015, the US Customs and Border Patrol processed more than 382 million travelers at air, land, and sea ports of entry, and approximately 40 million immigrants live in the United States. Harder still is finding terrorists among the country's 330 million citizens and permanent residents. As of August 2016, Federal prosecutors have charged 100 men and women around the country in connection with their activities related to the IS. So far, 43 have been convicted. Men outnumber women in those cases by about 8 to 1. The average age of the individuals is 27 [6]. Approximately 80% are American citizens.

1.9 Terrorism Statistics

Incidents of Terrorism Worldwide

As shown in Table 1.1, in 2014, a total of 13,463 terrorist attacks occurred worldwide, resulting in more than 32,700 deaths and more than 34,700 injuries [7]. In addition, more than 9400 people were kidnapped or taken hostage.

Table 1.1 Terrorist Attacks and Casualties Worldwide by Month, 2014

Total

Total

Total

Total Kidnapped/

Month

Attacks

Fatalities

Injuries

Taken Hostage

January

1150

1805

2932

294

February

1092

1958

2729

449

March

1211

2384

2801

345

April

1223

2659

3476

863

May

1338

3478

3456

801

June

1088

3871

2968

1354

July

1310

3630

2710

370

August

1101

2618

2374

1102

September

1042

2599

3015

852

October

1011

2679

2907

965

November

1001

2341

3136

726

December

896

2705

2287

1307

Total

13,463

32,727

34,791

9428

Source: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism: Annex of Statistical Information, 2015 [7].

On average, there were 1122 terrorist attacks, 2727 deaths, and 2899 injuries per month worldwide in 2014. There were 2.57 fatalities and 2.87 injuries per attack, including perpetrator casualties.

The months with the most terrorist attacks and combined casualties (deaths and injuries) were May, June, and July.

In particular, the high number of attacks in May coincides with the peak of spring “fighting season” in Afghanistan, where attacks increased more than 107% between February and May.

Contributing to the high number of fatalities in June, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) carried out an attack on Badush prison in Mosul, Iraq on June 10, 2014, which resulted in the deaths of 670 Shia prisoners. As of the end of 2014, this was the deadliest terrorist attack worldwide since September 11, 2001.