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- Herausgeber: Efalon Acies
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
The following wars will be discussed in this great combo of titles:
American Indian Wars: History of the American Frontier Wars in Canada and the United States
Boer War: The South African War and the Horrors of the Concentration Camps
Cold War: History of the Ideological and Geopolitical Tension between the United States and the Soviet Union
English Civil War: History of Its Causes and Consequences
Korean War: The War between North Korea and South Korean in the 1950s
Opium Wars: The Wars Waged between the Qing dynasty and Western Powers in the Mid-19th Century
Spanish Civil War: History of the War in Spain between 1936-1939 Explained
The Gallic Wars: History of the Battles against the Romans
The War of 1812: History of the Clash between the United States and United Kingdom
Vietnam War: History of the Causes, Deaths, Timeline, and Consequences
Wars of the Roses: The 15th-Century Series of Wars over the Throne of England
World War 1: The History of Causes, Deaths, Propaganda, and Consequences of WW1
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Kelly Mass
War bundle
Table of contents
Table of Contents
Chapter 2: The Conflicts West of the Mississippi
Chapter 3: The Wars on the Mississippi River’s East Side
Chapter 4: The Native American Population Decimated
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Lied Central to the Boer War Conflict?
Chapter 2: The Background of the War
Chapter 3: Escalation and Raids
Chapter 4: The First Phase of the War
Chapter 5: The Second Stage of the War
Chapter 6: The Third Stage of the War
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Was the Essence of the Cold War?
Chapter 3: The Iron Curtain
Chapter 4: Spies
Chapter 5: Hungary and Berlin
Chapter 6: The Vietnam War
Chapter 7: The New Cold War Period
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Is the English Civil War Known for?
Chapter 2: What Led to the Wars?
Chapter 3: The First English Civil War
Chapter 4: The Second English Civil War
Chapter 5: The Third English Civil War
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Was the Korean War about?
Chapter 2: What Led to the Korean War?
Chapter 3: The War Begins
Chapter 4: China's Intervention
Chapter 5: War Crimes and Number of Deaths
Chapter 6: The Aftermath of the Korean War
Table of Contents:
Chapter 2: The Background of the Opium Trade
Chapter 4: The Wars Begin
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Was the Spanish Civil War about?
Chapter 2: The Prelude
Chapter 3: The Parties Involved
Chapter 4: Historical Overview and Time Lapse
Chapter 5: The Death Toll and Violent War Crimes
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Were the Gallic Wars about?
Chapter 2: The Prelude
Chapter 3: The Helvetii
Chapter 4: The East Attacks and Veneti
Chapter 5: Great Britain Is Involved
Chapter 6: Vercingetorix and the Last Gauls
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Was the War of 1812 about?
Chapter 2: Rising Tensions
Chapter 3: Declaring War
Chapter 4: The Peace Agreement
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: The Vietnam War Summarized
Chapter 2: What Led to the War?
Chapter 3: Kennedy's Involvement
Chapter 4: Johnson's Participation
Chapter 5: The Downfall of Saigon
Chapter 6: War Crimes
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Where Did the Name "War of the Roses" Come from?
Chapter 2: Causes of the Wars
Chapter 3: Henry VI's Reign
Chapter 4: The Uprising of York
Chapter 5: Edward IV and His Reign
Chapter 6: Richard III and Tudor Conquest
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: The Essence of the First World War
Chapter 2: What Led to the War?
Chapter 3: How the War Progressed
Chapter 4: Trench Wars in the West
Chapter 5: Naval Warfare
Chapter 6: Eastern Europe
Chapter 7: Allied Victory
War
History and Causes of 11 Different Wars
By Kelly Mass
Summaries from History
American Indian Wars
History of the American Frontier Wars in Canada and the United States
By Kelly Mass
Summaries from History
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Did the American Indian Wars Consist of?
During the course of history, conflicts known as the American Indian Wars, Frontier Wars, First Nations Wars, or the Indian Wars took place when European governments, colonies, American and Canadian settlers engaged in warfare with various American Indian and First Nation tribes. These battles occurred across North America, spanning from the 17th century to the early 20th century, with diverse causes ranging from land usage disputes to retaliatory cycles of violence. This was not uncommon.
After 1780, armed confrontations between settlers and different Indian or First Nation tribes intensified in extent, duration, and intensity. A significant turning point came during the War of 1812, where large Indian alliances from the Midwest and South fought against the United States and suffered defeats. Over time, treaties between the federal government and certain tribes helped reduce hostilities between settlers and the native population.
The passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830 authorized the expulsion of Indians living east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory in the western United States, particularly in what would become Oklahoma. This removal policy continued as American settlers expanded their territory, relocating Indian tribes to designated Indian reserves in the West.
Various Indian tribes either resisted or supported the colonization efforts by English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Swedish settlers in North America. Some notable wars and conflicts in the 17th and 18th centuries included the Beaver Wars between the Iroquois and the French, the Anglo-Powhatan Wars in Virginia, the Pequot War involving Native Americans and colonists from Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut Colonies, and Kieft's War in the Dutch New Netherland area.
But that was not all. There were also clashes in the Peach Tree War, between the Lenape Indians and the New Netherland villages along the Hudson River, as well as confrontations in Ulster County, New York. In New England, King Philip's War involved colonial settlers and various native tribes like the Nipmuc, Wampanoag, and Narragansett.
Other notable conflicts include the Tuscarora War, the Yamasee War, Dummer's War, Pontiac's War, and Lord Dunmore's War. These historical events have shaped the complex relationship between different communities on the North American continent.
Chapter 2: The Conflicts West of the Mississippi
The Indian Wars encompassed a series of conflicts that occurred in the western United States, involving clashes between Native American tribes, settlers, and the US Army. These confrontations persisted during and after the Civil War until the end of the frontier around 1890. However, even before the Civil War, significant confrontations occurred in territories like Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, California, and Washington state.
These wars left a trail of devastation, and statistics reveal the significant impact they had. Gregory Michno's research indicates that between 1850 and 1990, there were approximately 21,586 recorded casualties, with around 31 percent being military troops and civilians, and 69 percent being Native American casualties. However, it's worth noting that Michno's study primarily relied on Army figures, potentially introducing bias in the recorded data.
Michno's research also highlighted that states bordering Mexico experienced more Indian-related violence compared to other regions. Arizona witnessed the most deaths from conflicts, with Apaches accounting for a significant portion of these casualties. Between 1850 and 1890, 51 percent of conflicts and 37 percent of deaths occurred in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico.
Historically, certain trails, like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, facilitated peaceful interactions between American settlers, fur trappers, and Native American tribes. Treaties, such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851, contributed to maintaining peace along the Oregon Trail.
The Gold Rush of 1859 attracted a large white population to the Front Range of the Rockies, leading to tensions with Native Americans over resources. The expansion into the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains by miners, ranchers, and settlers further intensified these tensions, leading to conflicts with tribes like the Nez Perce and the Utes.
Notable Native American leaders, such as Red Cloud and Crazy Horse, fiercely resisted the westward expansion. The Sioux, who had previously lived in the Great Lakes region, transformed into feared warriors upon moving west and clashing with other Indian groups.
During the American Civil War, Army units were deployed to the eastern front, eventually replaced by state militias and local authorities in the western territories. After 1865, national policy required Native Americans to either assimilate into American society or peacefully reside on reservations.
Overall, the Indian Wars represented a complex and tumultuous period in American history, marked by conflicts, treaties, and significant changes in the relationship between Native American tribes and the expanding American population.
The Civil War in the Lone Star State and Beyond
Since the 17th century, Spanish colonists in Texas have been engaged in conflicts with Apaches, Comanches, and other native tribes. The 1830s saw a significant influx of around 100,000 American immigrants to Texas, leading to an extended conflict with the Comanche tribes that lasted until the early 1870s. During this time, Comanches and their allies also conducted raids into Mexico (known as the Comanche-Mexico Wars).
In 1836, a large war party comprising Comanches, Wichitas, and Delawares attacked Fort Parker, resulting in the kidnapping and killing of Cynthia Ann Parker and two other children. This tragic event sparked anger among Texas residents.
Amidst the Mexican-American War, the Texas government, led by President Sam Houston, declared independence and gained some control over the Comanches and Kiowas. Although coexistence with the Cherokees was peaceful initially, confrontations later arose. President Mirabeau B. Lamar adopted a different approach, leading to clashes with the Comanches and Kiowas, as well as the forced removal of the Cherokees.
During the Lamar administration, the government spent more on battles with the indigenous tribes than its yearly revenue. The subsequent Houston administration reverted to a diplomatic approach, engaging in agreements with the Comanches and other indigenous peoples. Texas served as a safe haven for the Comanches and their allies during the 1840s and 1850s when they shifted many raiding activities into Mexico.
Upon Texas becoming a state in the Union in 1846, both the federal government and the state intervened in conflicts between the Plains Indians and early settlers. The confrontations on the Texas frontier in 1856 and 1858 were particularly severe as settlers expanded their settlements into the Comancheria. The 1858 Antelope Hills Expedition marked the first Texan invasion into the Comancheria, resulting in the Battle of Little Robe Creek.
In 1860, the Texas militia destroyed an Indian camp in the Battle of Pease River, reigniting the conflict with settlers and Indians. The Texans found a small girl who had been kidnapped by the Comanches in 1836, but despite reuniting her with her family, she could not forget her Comanche son, Quanah. He rose to prominence as one of the tribe's top leaders, notably during the Second Battle of Adobe Walls. In 1875, due to the overwhelming might of the federal government, he was forced to relocate to a reservation in southeastern Oklahoma.
Oregon, Idaho, and Washington
Following the Oregon Treaty of 1846 and the establishing of the states of Washington and also Oregon, a series of wars erupted in the Pacific Northwest due to an influx of immigrants and gold rushes. Bloody clashes occurred from the Cascade Range to the Rocky Mountains in 1847, following the Whitman Massacre. Despite the defeat of the Cayuse in 1855, the Yakima War (1855–1858) continued, leading to territorial disputes. Pressure from Governor Isaac Stevens resulted in First Nations leaders signing treaties that involved ceding land and establishing reservations. The Yakama Indians ratified a treaty in 1855, creating their Indian Reservation during the Walla Walla Council.
In the Puget Sound region, west of the Cascades, conflicts between the Yakama and gold miners crossing Naches Pass escalated into violence, culminating in the Yakima War. This led to the Puget Sound War of 1855–1856, where the Nisqually and Puyallup tribes received an unreasonably small and impoverished allotment in the Treaty of Medicine Creek of 1855. The Battle of Seattle in 1856 and the execution of Nisqually Chief Leschi played significant roles in the Puget Sound Conflict.
The battle extended to the east of the Cascades in 1858, during the Coeur d'Alene War, the second phase of the Yakima War. The Battle of Four Lakes resulted in the defeat of the Yakama, Palouse, Spokane, and Coeur d'Alene Tribes.
The Rogue River Wars of 1855–1856 involved clashes between American settlers and Rogue River Indians in southwest Oregon. The California Gold Rush attracted an increased number of individuals passing through the Rogue River Valley, leading to contentious clashes between prospectors and Indians over gold discoveries.
The Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in British Columbia in 1858 brought miners from Washington, Oregon, and California, leading to American militias' involvement in clashes that occurred in Canada. Similar battles followed gold discoveries in Idaho and Oregon in the 1860s, including the 1863 Bear River Massacre and the 1864-1868 Snake War.
In the late 1870s, another wave of conflict spread from Oregon and Idaho eastward to Wyoming and Montana. The Nez Perce War of 1877 saw Chief Joseph and around 800 Nez Perce, including women and children, forced to flee for four months and cover 1,200 miles due to the influx of new settlers and the expropriation of Indian territories. The Nez Perce engaged in numerous battles during this war.
The Bannock War erupted in the following year for similar reasons. As of 1879, there has been no further fighting in the region.
The Southwest Area
Throughout the 17th to 19th centuries, numerous conflicts arose between Spanish settlers and Native American tribes in the Southwest United States. Some tribes reached peace agreements with Spanish officials during this period. The colonial era witnessed significant events, including New Mexico's colonial governor Tomás Vélez Cachupin successfully establishing peace with the Comanches after confronting them at the Battle of San Diego Pond. Vélez Cachupin learned how to interact with them without causing misunderstandings that could lead to conflict.
The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which divided the Spanish province into two separate territories, was another notable event during this time. However, peace was restored when Diego de Vargas made amends with the Pueblos in 1691, bringing them back under Spanish governance. Various military engagements also occurred throughout this era.
Tensions between Europeans and Native Americans remained high after the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848 and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. From 1846 to at least 1895, conflicts persisted in the Southwest, starting in New Mexico Territory and spreading to California and Utah after the gold rush of 1849 in both states.
The Southwest had a history of trading and battling among Indian tribes and settlers long before the United States took control of the region. Almost every non-pueblo tribe in the area was involved in these conflicts with the United States, often carrying on from previous Mexican–Spanish warfare. The Navajo and Apache Wars were among the most well-known conflicts. In 1886, the last major military battle against Indians in the Southwest involved 5,000 troops when Geronimo and his band of 24 Chiricahua Apaches surrendered.
California
But things got out of hand. The California Gold Rush resulted in a massive population increase, necessitating the establishment of a US Army garrison in the region. Early conflicts with California's indigenous peoples were primarily between miners or settlers from the area and the native tribes. Volunteers from California played a significant role in winning ongoing conflicts, such as the Bald Hills and Owens Valley Indian Wars, replacing Federal forces. They also engaged in a series of small-scale battles in northern California.
Between 1862 and 1866, California and Oregon volunteer garrisons, as well as those from Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona Territories, fought against various indigenous tribes, including Apache, Cheyenne, Goshutes, Navajo, Paiute, Shoshone, Sioux, and Ute tribes.
During the Civil War, federal forces took over from the volunteers and launched a campaign against Indians in distant regions, including the Mojave Desert and the northeast, where they faced the Snakes (1864–1868) and Modocs (1872–1873).
The Western United States
The Great Basin was home to several Shoshone tribes, and their lives were significantly influenced by the Oregon and California Trails and the Mormon pioneers heading to Utah. After encountering Lewis and Clark, the Shoshone tribe developed a close relationship with American fur traders and trappers.
Due to disruptions to the Indians' traditional way of life, they began attacking Mormon settlements and raiding travelers on the trails. In response to complaints during the American Civil War, the California Volunteers stationed in Utah conducted the Bear River Massacre [18]. Following this tragic event, numerous Shoshone tribes signed contracts, exchanging minor annuities and reservations for peace.
The Box Elder Treaty addressed the land claim of the Northwestern Shoshones, but its binding nature was contested in a 1945 Supreme Court ruling [19]. However, the Indian Claims Commission recognized its binding status in 1968. Descendants of the initial group received a lump sum of less than $0.50 per acre, after deducting legal fees [21].
As the population continued to rise, access to hunting and fishing grounds for the indigenous peoples further diminished, leading some to relocate to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation established in 1868. Some Shoshone people in Utah, particularly in Washakie, had assimilated into the Mormon Church. In the Great Basin, the Snake War operations involved the California and Oregon Volunteers as early as 1864. Eventually, General George Crook declared victory in 1868 with the support of the U.S. Army, which had replaced the Volunteers since 1866.
The Plains of the United States of America
During the Pike's Peak gold rush, there were initially positive connections between participants and Native American tribes on both sides of the Platte River and the Front Range of Colorado. However, tensions arose in the early 1860s, leading to conflicts such as the Colorado War and the tragic Sand Creek Massacre, where a peaceful Cheyenne village was attacked, resulting in the death of women and children [26].
Although Indians in the Colorado and Kansas plains maintained cordial relationships with Europeans, there was a growing desire among Colorado settlers to remove them. Shocking attacks on civilians during the Dakota War of 1862 and minor events in the Platte Valley and east of Denver contributed to these feelings. Colorado Volunteers, tough soldiers who often supported the annihilation of the Indians, replaced regular army troops pulled for Civil War service. Under the leadership of John Chivington and George L. Shoup, following the example of Colorado's territorial governor John Evans, they adopted a strategy of shooting all Indians they encountered, leading to the outbreak of the Colorado War on the Colorado and Kansas plains.
Plains Indian raids on isolated homesteads east of Denver, advancing settlements in Kansas, and stage line stations along the South Platte and Smoky Hill Trail intensified settlers' murderous attitude towards Native Americans, with calls for extermination. In response to the Colorado Volunteers' brutality at Sand Creek, Native Americans, including the Dog Soldiers, carried out acts of vengeance.
The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, marked the United States' first significant war with the Sioux people (Dakota). Led largely by Chief Taoyateduta (Little Crow), the six-week struggle in Minnesota resulted in the deaths of more than 500 American soldiers and settlers, with many more perishing in smaller raids or after capture. The exact number of Sioux killed in the revolt remains unknown. After the war, 303 Sioux warriors were found guilty of murder and rape by U.S. military courts, with 38 Dakota Sioux men hanged on December 26, 1862, in the largest prison mass execution in American history.
Some Dakota refugees and warriors sought refuge in Lakota lands in what is now North Dakota after the expulsion of the Dakota. In 1864, Colonel Henry Sibley pursued the Sioux into Dakota Territory, leading to battles between Minnesota regiments and combined Lakota and Dakota forces, with three significant victories for Sibley's army in 1863.
On November 29, 1864, a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment at Sand Creek in southeast Colorado was brutally attacked by the Colorado territory militia, who were ordered to take no prisoners. The militia killed as many as 200 Indians, with a heartbreaking two-thirds of them being women and children. The attackers even took their scalps and other gruesome mementos.
After the tragic massacre, the survivors sought refuge in Cheyenne camps along the Smokey Hill and Republican Rivers. The Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho in the vicinity united and planned an attack on the Julesburg stage stop and fort in January 1865. They carried out a second raid on Julesburg in early February, launching a series of attacks on the South Platte in both directions, east and west of Julesburg. Many of the Indians then crossed into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and Powder River [34][35]. Subsequently, a series of raids on the Oregon Trail in Nebraska continued in the spring of 1865, including an attack on troops stationed at the Casper, Wyoming bridge over the North Platte River in the Battle of Platte Bridge.
Following these events, all Indians were placed on reserves under the jurisdiction of the Interior Department. The Army's Department of the Missouri, responsible for the vast Great Plains stretching between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, faced a challenging situation when Winfield S. Hancock assumed command in 1866. The Sioux and Cheyenne continued to raid, destroying postal stagecoaches, torching stations, and attacking frontier settlers, causing devastation in the region.
Philip Sheridan, while serving as military governor of Louisiana and Texas, was accused by President Johnson of dominating the area with total tyranny and insubordination. In August 1867, Sheridan replaced Hancock as chief of the Missouri Department and promptly reinstated General Custer as commander of the 7th Cavalry, a unit he had previously suspended.
Upon arriving in the Department of Missouri, Sheridan faced a challenging situation. The federal government had negotiated a peace treaty with the Comanche and other Native American tribes in October 1867, but Congress had not approved it. Consequently, the Indians, estimated at 6,000 in number, were facing starvation as the promised supplies had not arrived. Sheridan's troops were also facing shortages, with only 1,200 of them mounted at the time to control and defend against raids and attacks with a total of 2,600 soldiers. The troops were stationed at forts in disrepair, and being replacements for Civil War veterans, they were largely untested units.
In an effort to improve conditions and implement a strategy for peace, Sheridan engaged with Cheyenne and Arapaho tribe members who came to him with their concerns during the early days of his command. He listened to them and acted on their behalf, providing them with a large amount of food. Despite facing challenges in responding forcefully to Indian raids due to the government's peace policy and shortages of well-supplied mounted soldiers, Sheridan worked to address the threats posed by the Indians. A group of 47 frontiersmen and sharpshooters called Solomon's Avengers assisted in responding to incursions near Arickaree Creek on September 17, 1868, where they were ambushed by Indian warriors. The Avengers bravely held their ground for eight days until military units could arrive to support them. Six members of the Avengers were killed, and 15 others were injured during the intense battle. Finally, Sheridan was empowered to respond to these threats with force.
Throughout September and October, Sheridan utilized his soldiers as a defensive force because he feared they would be unable to hunt the Indians' horses during the warmer months. Unlike the Indians, his troops were better nourished and better clad, and they were able to conduct a campaign even in the cold. In 1868, Custer's 7th Cavalry and five battalions under Major John H. Page marched out from Fort Dodge on November 5, 1868, for the winter campaign. After a few days passed, a force of the 5th Cavalry Regiment and two infantry companies marched from Fort Bascom to Fort Cobb, where they linked up with soldiers from the 3rd Cavalry Regiment. Sheridan handled the first month of the campaign from Camp Supply. There was no trace of the 19th Kansas Cavalry when the 5th and 3rd Cavalry gathered at Fort Cobb, but they had a lead on a band of Indians nearby, and Custer led a force after them to catch up.
It is estimated that 100 Indians were killed and 50 captured in the Battle of Washita River by Custer's force in the attack on the Cheyenne Indians. Custer lost 21 men killed and 13 wounded, and a unit under the command of Major Elliott went missing. Six hundred and seventy-five of the Indians' most important horses were killed by Custer. A group of Washington politicians defended Black Kettle as a peace-loving Indian immediately following the war. This sparked a debate among historians about whether the event should be classified as a military success or a massacre.
After Washita, Sheridan supervised the re-equipment of the 19th Kansas and personally led them towards the Wichita Mountains by the Washita River. On the Washita River, he met with Custer, and they went looking for Elliott's missing troops. Missing soldiers and Mrs. Blynn and her kid were found near Fort Lyon by the search party, along with the bodies of Mrs. Blynn's husband and son. Sheridan was able to pick up the majority of the Kiowa and Comanche people at Fort Cobb in December and bring them to reservations. He began discussions with Cheyenne Chief Little Robe and Yellow Bear regarding the possibility of living on reserve land. Following Stone River, Sheridan began the building of Camp Sill, eventually renamed Fort Sill, in honor of General Sill.
Following the election of President Grant, Sheridan was summoned back to Washington. Reassigned from the department after learning of his elevation to lieutenant general in the army. Sheridan was allowed to remain in Missouri as a lieutenant general after he objected. Tall Bull Dog troops and members of the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne tribes were the last of the Indian resistance. Fort McPherson's 5th Cavalry was dispatched to Nebraska's Platte River to deal with the emergency. The Indians were driven out of the area in May after a clash between the two groups at Summit Springs.
The expulsion of the Indians from the Platte and Arkansas Rivers and the creation of reservations for the majority of the Indian population in Kansas marked the end of Sheridan's campaign. Major General Schofield, who had previously been in charge of the Army, succeeded Sheridan as commander in 1869.
The Dakota gold rush led to the initiation of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77 in 1875. Instead of removing trespassers, the government proposed buying the Black Hills from the Sioux. However, when the Lakota refused to give up their land, they were given a deadline of January 31, 1876, to return to reservations. At the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer stumbled upon the main Lakota encampment, where Crazy Horse and the inspired forces of Sitting Bull defeated Custer and his isolated troops. A depiction of "Custer's Last Fight" became a popular advertising tool for the Anheuser-Busch beer business, displayed in many American saloons.
In 1890, at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, the Lakotas performed the Ghost Dance ritual, and the Army sought to suppress them. On December 29, the soldiers opened fire in what became known as the Wounded Knee Massacre, resulting in the death of up to 300 Indians, including many elderly, women, and children. In response to the massacre, author L. Frank Baum wrote:
"The Pioneer has already said that wiping out the Indians is the only way to ensure our safety. In order to safeguard our civilization, we should make up for our decades of wickedness by removing these wild, uncontrollable monsters from the planet.”
Chapter 3: The Wars on the Mississippi River’s East Side
After the Revolutionary War (1783–1812), Indians residing in the United States received guns and ammunition from British merchants and government agents, with the hope that they would support the British in any future conflicts. The British also envisioned creating a new Indian nation in the Ohio-Wisconsin area to impede American expansion. In response, the United States declared war in 1812. General William Henry Harrison achieved victory over many Indian tribes who had sided with the British, especially those allied with Tecumseh. The War of 1812 had far-reaching consequences on Indian conflicts.
Numerous defeated tribes sought refuge in Canada, while those in the South fled to Spanish-controlled Florida for safety. During the early 19th century, settlers in various regions pressured the federal government to remove Indians from their lands. Under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, Native Americans had three options: assimilation, moving to reservations, or relocating to the West in exchange for land. The Seminoles in Florida fiercely resisted and engaged in a series of conflicts. Despite some Seminoles eventually moving to Indian Territory, they were never fully conquered. They retreated into the Everglades and wetlands to safeguard what remained of their homeland. Another group was forcibly relocated to reservations west of the Mississippi River, an infamous journey known as the "Trail of Tears" for the Cherokee.
The War for Independence in the United States of America
During the American Revolutionary period, two separate and distinct conflicts took place: the Patriots' struggle against British control in the east and the "Indian War" in the west. The newly declared United States faced the British Empire for control of the land east of the Mississippi River. Some Indian tribes supported the British to limit American colonization and expansion. This conflict with the Indians during the Revolutionary Struggle became, according to one historian, "the most widespread and destructive" war against the indigenous peoples in the history of the United States. [4]
The Iroquois Confederacy, based in New York and Pennsylvania, experienced division: the Oneida and Tuscarora sided with the American Patriots, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga allied with the British. The Revolution led to intra-Iroquois conflicts, resulting in both sides losing territory. As a gesture to the landless Iroquois, the Crown granted them an Ontario reservation and other properties. In the Southeast, Dragging Canoe commanded a pro-patriotic Cherokee faction against a pro-British group known as the Chickamauga Cherokee by the Americans. Similar divisions were observed in other tribal groups.
After the Treaty of Paris (1783), Britain ceded a significant portion of Indian land to the United States as part of their reconciliation efforts. Native American tribes that had fought for the British against the United States were considered enemy combatants, leading to the loss of their territories.
The conflicts between the Cherokee and the United States
From the American Revolutionary War until the end of 1794, the frontier battles were relentless. The "Chickamauga Cherokee," later known as "Lower Cherokee," originated in the Overhill Towns and gradually expanded their influence to the Valley Towns, Middle Towns, and Lower Towns. Their journey led them to settle near Chickamauga Creek in the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where they were joined by various groups, including Muskogee, white Tories, escaped slaves, and renegade Chickasaw. Their primary targets of attack included the Washington District colonies along the Watauga, Holston, and Nolichucky Rivers, as well as Carter's Valley and the Cumberland River settlements. They expanded their raids into Kentucky, as well as the Franklin settlements, and later targeted states such as Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia in upper eastern Tennessee.
The Chickamauga and their allies were known for conducting raids and campaigns with varying sizes, ranging from a few hundred warriors to over a thousand. Alexander McGillivray, a close ally of Dragging Canoe and the Upper Muskogee, frequently joined their campaigns and also led independent operations. Additionally, the Cumberland River settlements faced attacks from Chickasaw, Shawnee from the north, and Delaware tribes. Dragging Canoe and his successor, John Watts, frequently launched campaigns in the Northwest Territory in coordination with their efforts.
Colonialists raided Cherokee settlements in response, but the number of villages destroyed and the number of casualties on both sides were still relatively low. When the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse was signed in November 1794, both sides agreed to put an end to hostilities and lay down their arms.
Native American conflict in the Northwest
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 officially established the Northwest Territory for settlement, and soon American settlers began arriving in significant numbers. However, this led to uprisings by Indian tribes, prompting President George Washington's administration to dispatch armed expeditions. A pan-tribal confederation led by Blue Jacket (Shawnee), Little Turtle, Buckonghelas, Egushawa, and Little Turtle dealt decisive blows to armies led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair in the Northwest Indian War. General St. Clair's defeat marked the most devastating disaster ever inflicted on an American army. Despite American attempts at negotiation, Blue Jacket and the Shawnee-led confederacy insisted on a boundary line that the Americans found unacceptable. The Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 resulted in Wayne's army defeating the Indian confederacy, and the subsequent Treaty of Greenville in 1795 granted Ohio and part of Indiana to the United States after the Indians' hopes for British assistance were dashed.
In the continental United States, the Indian population was estimated to be around 600,000 by 1800. However, it had dwindled to approximately 250,000 by 1890. Under President Thomas Jefferson's command, William Henry Harrison became governor of the Indiana Territory in 1800 and aggressively pursued the acquisition of Indian land titles. Another pan-tribal resistance to westward settlement was led by Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa.
In 1811, when Harrison marched against the Indian confederacy, Tecumseh was in the South attempting to recruit support among the Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws. Harrison's forces defeated Tenskwatawa and his soldiers at the Battle of Tippecanoe in the same year. Following this victory, Americans believed Tecumseh might align himself publicly with the British, who were soon at war with the United States.
The Creek War, a struggle between the Creek tribe and American colonists, started in 1813 and ended in 1814. Tecumseh was killed by Harrison's warriors at the Battle of the Thames, effectively putting an end to the Northwest resistance. Following the First Seminole War in 1818, Spain gave the United States control of Florida.
The Seminole Wars of the 1950s
Florida, a newly acquired American territory boasting fertile land, became a sought-after destination for settlers. However, their desire to "rid Florida of Indians once and for all," as expressed by Paul Hoffman, was driven by greed, bigotry, and a perceived need for "self-defense" against Indian raids. Tensions escalated due to runaway black slaves seeking refuge in Seminole camps, leading to conflicts between white settlers and the indigenous inhabitants. Andrew Jackson addressed this issue by signing the Indian Removal Act, which mandated the forced removal of Indians from Florida. Seminole leaders like Aripeka (Sam Jones), Micanopy, and Osceola refused to abandon their newly established home, sparking the Second Seminole War—an extended and costly conflict for the US Army, lasting from 1838 to 1842.
In May 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, compelling Indians to relocate to Oklahoma under coercion. Despite Seminole leaders initially signing the Treaty of Paynes Landing in May 1832, they later recanted, claiming deception and coercion. It was evident they would not agree to move to a reservation in the western United States. Florida prepared for a possible conflict, and Brigadier General Richard K. Call requested 500 muskets from the US War Department for the St. Augustine Militia. Indian war groups ravaged crops and communities, leading to a mass exodus of families from their homes. Osceola's war party kidnapped a supply train, killing eight guards and wounding six others. The militia later retrieved some of the stolen supplies, but not all.
With around 550 soldiers in 11 US Army companies in Florida, Fort King (Ocala) was feared to be overrun with only one company. Fort Brooke (Tampa) already had three companies stationed, and two more were expected soon, prompting the transfer of two companies to Fort King. On December 23, 1835, under Major Francis L. Dade's command, the two companies consisting of 110 men departed Fort Brooke. Five days later, they were ambushed by Seminoles, resulting in the total annihilation of the command on December 28th. A few managed to escape, but one was hunted down and shot by a Seminole. Two survivors, Ransome Clarke and Joseph Sprague, made it back to Fort Brooke after the battle. Clarke succumbed to his wounds and was the sole soldier to provide a military account of the combat. In the same day's ambush, seven more, including Agent Wiley Thompson, were killed outside Fort King.
On December 29th, 1835, General Clinch led an evacuation of Fort Drane with 750 soldiers, including 500 volunteers. The Seminole stronghold known as the Cove of the Withlacoochee, located on the southwest side of the Withlacoochee River, became the site of an intense encounter. With no ford available to cross the river, Clinch used a single boat to ferry his regular troops across. The Seminoles quickly took advantage of the situation, launching an attack that resulted in four soldiers killed and 59 others wounded. The militia members protected the army as they withdrew from the area.
Colonel Zachary Taylor's first significant battle of the campaign was the Battle of Lake Okeechobee. With approximately 1,000 troops, Taylor left Fort Gardiner on the upper Kissimmee River on December 19, and after two days, the Seminoles surrendered 90 times. On the third day, Fort Basinger was established, where Taylor rested and left enough troops to safeguard the disarmed Seminoles. As Taylor's column reached the north coast of Lake Okeechobee on December 25, they encountered the main body of the Seminoles.
Commanded by "Alligator" Sam Jones and Coacoochee, the Seminoles were hidden amidst the sawgrass in a hammock in the woods. The deep sludge made it difficult to maneuver through the sawgrass, but Taylor's forces outnumbered the Seminoles, with around 800 men. Taylor opted for a direct assault instead of encircling the Indians. However, the Seminoles opened fire once they were in range, leading the Missouri volunteers to retreat across the marsh. The Sixth Infantry suffered heavy casualties, with most non-commissioned officers and officers, except one, either killed or injured. While the Seminoles didn't suffer any fatalities, Taylor's forces took 100 ponies and 600 livestock.
By 1842, the conflict came to an end, and most of the Seminoles fled to Oklahoma. The Second Seminole War resulted in 1,466 documented deaths mainly due to sickness, and the exact number of casualties in action remains unknown. Mahon reports 328 regular army personnel killed in action, while Missall records 269 officers and soldiers killed by the Seminoles. Various battles such as the Dade Massacre, Battle of Lake Okeechobee, and Harney Massacre accounted for about half of the lives lost. Both Mahon and Missall report 69 deaths for the Navy, but only 41 deaths for the Navy and Marine Corps combined.
According to Mahon and Missall, the Seminoles were to blame for the deaths of 55 volunteer officers and men. A northern publication also noted that around 80 civilians were killed by Indians in Florida in 1839. 3,824 Native Americans were moved from Florida to the Indian Territory in 1843.
Chapter 4: The Native American Population Decimated
In the 2010 census, approximately 0.9 percent of the United States population identified themselves as American Indian or Alaskan Native, while in the 2011 Canadian census, about 4.3 percent of the population classified themselves as First Nations, Inuit, or Métis. Determining the pre-European arrival population in America has been the subject of numerous studies. However, according to a report by the United States Census Bureau in 1894, North America was sparsely populated in 1492, and the Indian population at the time of European colonization likely did not exceed much more than 500,000.
Throughout the nineteenth century, various factors contributed to the decline of the Indian population to less than 500,000. Infectious diseases brought by European traders and explorers had a significant impact. Additionally, confrontations with Europeans, intertribal conflicts, assimilation efforts, migration to Canada and Mexico, and declining birth rates all played a role in the diminishing numbers of Indigenous peoples.
According to the United States Census Bureau report from 1894, approximately 8,500 Indians and 5,000 whites were killed in various "individual matters" between 1789 and 1891.
The United States government engaged in over 40 conflicts with Native Americans, resulting in the deaths of approximately 19,000 white men, women, and children, including those killed in individual combat. Approximately 30,000 Native Americans were also killed in these conflicts, though the actual number of slain and wounded Native Americans is believed to be higher than reported, with some estimates suggesting a 50% increase.
Boer War
The South African War and the Horrors of the Concentration Camps
By Kelly Mass
Summaries from History
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What Did the American Indian Wars Consist of? 6
Chapter 2: The Conflicts West of the Mississippi 7
Chapter 3: The Wars on the Mississippi River’s East Side 16
Chapter 4: The Native American Population Decimated 21
Chapter 1: What Lied Central to the Boer War Conflict? 26
Chapter 2: The Background of the War 28
Chapter 3: Escalation and Raids 33
Chapter 4: The First Phase of the War 37
Chapter 5: The Second Stage of the War 41
Chapter 6: The Third Stage of the War 44
Chapter 1: What Was the Essence of the Cold War? 53
Chapter 3: The Iron Curtain 57
Chapter 4: Spies 60
Chapter 5: Hungary and Berlin 63
Chapter 6: The Vietnam War 67
Chapter 7: The New Cold War Period 70
Chapter 1: What Is the English Civil War Known for? 75
Chapter 2: What Led to the Wars? 76
Chapter 3: The First English Civil War 81
Chapter 4: The Second English Civil War 85
Chapter 5: The Third English Civil War 87
Chapter 1: What Was the Korean War about? 94
Chapter 2: What Led to the Korean War? 96
Chapter 3: The War Begins 98
Chapter 4: China's Intervention 103
Chapter 5: War Crimes and Number of Deaths 104
Chapter 6: The Aftermath of the Korean War 109
Table of Contents: 113
Chapter 1: Events That Led to the Opium Wars Chapter 2: The Background of the Opium Trade Chapter 3: Building Tensions Chapter 4: The Wars Begin 113
Chapter 2: The Background of the Opium Trade 117
Chapter 4: The Wars Begin 125
Chapter 1: What Was the Spanish Civil War about? 131
Chapter 2: The Prelude 133
Chapter 3: The Parties Involved 136
Chapter 4: Historical Overview and Time Lapse 141
Chapter 5: The Death Toll and Violent War Crimes 146
Chapter 1: What Were the Gallic Wars about? 151
Chapter 2: The Prelude 153
Chapter 3: The Helvetii 156
Chapter 4: The East Attacks and Veneti 159
Chapter 5: Great Britain Is Involved 163
Chapter 6: Vercingetorix and the Last Gauls 168
Chapter 1: What Was the War of 1812 about? 175
Chapter 2: Rising Tensions 178
Chapter 3: Declaring War 182
Chapter 4: The Peace Agreement 188
Chapter 1: The Vietnam War Summarized 197
Chapter 2: What Led to the War? 200
Chapter 3: Kennedy's Involvement 203
Chapter 4: Johnson's Participation 206
Chapter 5: The Downfall of Saigon 211
Chapter 6: War Crimes 212
Chapter 1: Where Did the Name "War of the Roses" Come from? 219
Chapter 2: Causes of the Wars 221
Chapter 3: Henry VI's Reign 226
Chapter 4: The Uprising of York 229
Chapter 5: Edward IV and His Reign 232
Chapter 6: Richard III and Tudor Conquest 236
Chapter 1: The Essence of the First World War 244
Chapter 2: What Led to the War? 247
Chapter 3: How the War Progressed 250
Chapter 4: Trench Wars in the West 252
Chapter 5: Naval Warfare 254
Chapter 6: Eastern Europe 256
Chapter 7: Allied Victory 261
Chapter 1: What Lied Central to the Boer War Conflict?
The Boer War was a conflict between the British Empire and the Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) from 1899 to 1902. The discovery of diamond and gold mines in the Boer republics led to initial successful raids by the Boers against British outposts. However, the British responded with reinforcements, and despite the Boers resorting to guerrilla warfare, the conflict ended with the implementation of the British scorched-earth policy, which eventually brought the Boer leaders to the negotiation table.
The war began in 1899 when Boer irregulars and militia attacked British colonial outposts. Battles like Colenso, Magersfontein, and the sieges of Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking occurred in 1900. The British sent a large expeditionary army to South Africa under the leadership of Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener, aiming to rescue the beleaguered cities and subdue the Boer Republics. Facing overwhelming force, the Boers decided to avoid pitched battles and allowed the British to take control.
With the annexation of South Africa and Namibia by the British Empire in 1900, Boer politicians fled or hid, and an early general election was called in Britain to capitalize on military successes. Some Boer fighters, known as the bittereinders, continued their resistance with a two-year campaign of hit-and-run raids and ambushes.
The British struggled to defeat the Boer guerrillas due to their lack of experience with guerrilla tactics and widespread support for the insurgents. They responded with a counterinsurgency effort, including constructing barbed wire fences, strong positions, and blockhouses. Thousands of Boer civilians, mainly women and children, were detained in concentration camps, where many died from disease and famine. Black Africans were also detained in camps to prevent them from aiding the Boers, resulting in thousands of deaths.
The conflict entered a stage of small-scale skirmishes, and British mounted infantry regiments were deployed to engage individual Boer guerrilla units. The British offered generous terms of capitulation to the remaining Boer leaders, leading to the Treaty of Vereeniging in May 1902 and the formal surrender of the Boers.
The war had international implications, as public opinion favored the Boers over the British. Many volunteers from around the world, including parts of the British Empire like Ireland, joined the Boer cause. Historians consider the Boer War a turning point in British imperial history due to its protracted duration and the unexpected losses suffered by the British against the Boers' improvised army. Ultimately, South Africa was established as a self-governing British Empire dominion in 1910, combining the Transvaal and Orange River colonies with Natal and Cape Provinces.
In their efforts to quell the Zulu insurgents in the Cape Colony during the early 1900s, the British received assistance from various armies, including forces from across the British Empire. During World War II's later stages, the British military increasingly relied on Black African troops. The conflict garnered widespread international support for the Boers and strong opposition to the British. Some within the empire were also against the war, leading to thousands of volunteers worldwide, including from places like Ireland within the British Empire, joining the Boer cause. Many historians view the Boer War as a pivotal moment in British imperial history due to its prolonged duration and the unexpected, devastating losses faced by the British against the formidable Boer forces, often described as a "cobbled-together army."
