Woodcraft E-Book

John Rhyder

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 370

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

'A few tools and a wide range of skills can achieve many things …' If you've ever wanted to make your own bow and arrows, learn to create fire using friction, or mix up glue and dyes from the natural resources that surround us, then this is the book for you. John Rhyder has taught traditional woodcraft skills for several decades and can now teach you in this no-nonsense, amusing and easy-to-follow guide. Woodcraft will take you on a practical learning journey – from the safe use of tools and sustainable harvesting of wood to the subsequent uses for roots, bark and timber. This step-by-step account is suitable for the student of woodcraft, the naturalist and the practitioner of bushcraft skills.

Leseprobe

To my wife Caron, who is a constant help, support and inspiration in all I do, and my son Finn, who inspires me with his own determination, morality and unique view of the world.

First published in Great Britain by Practical Nature, 2018

© text and images John Rhyder, 2018

All photographs by John Rhyder and Caron Buckingham-Rhyder

The History Press

97 St George’s Place, Cheltenham,

Gloucestershire, GL50 3QB

www.thehistorypress.co.uk

© John Rhyder, 2021

The right of John Rhyder to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7509 9904 5

Typesetting and origination by The History Press

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ Books Limited, Padstow, Cornwall.

eBook converted by Geethik Technologies

Contents

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Introduction

1 Felling and Harvesting

2 Choosing and Maintaining Tools

3 Using Tools and Carving

4 Bow-Making

5 Bark, Roots and Withies

6 Fire

7 Glue, Dye, Ink and Charcoal

8 Foliage, Features and Fungi

9 Ropes and Knots

Further Reading

Acknowledgements

I THANK ALL THOSE countrymen, naturalists and woodsmen who taught me so much that I needed to learn. First, for my earliest lessons, my father, followed by a succession of those I call ‘the old boys’. In truth, when we met, they were not much older than I am now, and sadly most have now gone. So, to Harold, Fred, Ron, Ginge and Andy: thanks for everything.

A big thanks to Phil Brooke for supporting Woodcraft School over the last several years, and for starring in many of the images in this book. Also, thanks to Warren Frost for colour balancing and general help with the photography, and for the plan drawings of the bow designs.

Foreword

AS A WOODSMAN, I have to admit to being tempted by the ever-increasing variety of tools and equipment that is available for working with wood and it is refreshing to be reminded of the simplicity of the proverb ‘a few tools and a wide range of skills can achieve many things’.

In Woodcraft, John Rhyder encourages us to fell, shape and make a variety of craft with a few tools and to learn the core skills of reading a tree, understanding its history and growth and then safely felling it. With the tree felled John guides us through a range of crafts made from the wood, the roots and the bark. Core woodsman skills of identification of fungi and fire-making are all here and blended with stories and observations from John’s many years of wildlife tracking and ethnobotanical research. He starts with simple projects to get you used to your tools like feathering sticks for firelighting, through spoon carving, weaving bark and then onto more challenging projects like making a bow. John’s passion and knowledge of bow-making shines through and the detail in choosing the right piece of wood, the balance of the bow and then making the bowstring, arrows and quiver reconnects us to our ancestral heritage.

So much of this book is about learning traditional skills, making items rather than buying them, and in turn allowing us to reconnect with a way of thinking, being and working that we are sadly losing touch with. In a time where many of us are reassessing our lives, looking for more meaning than staring at a computer screen day after day, taking a journey with John into ‘woodcraft’ could be the start of reconnecting with nature and finding more balance and well-being in our view of the world.

Ben Law

Introduction

I WAS OUT TRAILING a roe deer this morning, trying my best to stay on its track as it meandered under low branches and through thickets. Our route was criss-crossed with the trails of numerous other animals including badgers, other roe deer and, at one point, the unmistakable pattern of a mountain biker’s tyres. It occurred to me that not so long ago, our total dependence on the natural world would have meant that each of us would have had a similar experience to this.

This dependence on the earth’s resources hasn’t changed: we are still able only to utilise the wealth of one planet. Unfortunately, most people’s lives are so far removed from this concept that the word ‘divorced’ doesn’t do them justice – many haven’t even got as far as divorce, they probably missed not only the wedding, but the first date. Awareness of our natural surroundings is lost as an unfortunate side-effect of the modern age. This is not just a shame but, I believe, deeply damaging to the human body and psyche, which evolved in the midst of nature.

I read somewhere a while ago that animals release endorphins when engaged in what we see as instinctual behaviour. This makes evolutionary sense: pleasure is given as a reward for behaviour that leads to success, and successful behaviour becomes pleasurable, and so it continues. To put it another way, badgers love digging: take away the need for a badger to dig by giving it a home and food, and it still digs. The badger gets a kick out of digging, and carries on doing so, even when it is no longer necessary to meet its basic survival needs.

Roe deer.

We are tool-using hominids who evolved outdoors surrounded by nature, so it seems obvious why being outside and making connections with nature would appeal to so many of us. I’m guessing that anyone who has read this far would, like me, not miss a chance to track and watch animals, experiment with wild food, or just marvel at a tree or mountain. Throw in the chance of making something and our ‘badger endorphins’ will be really flowing. Nature rewards this behaviour, which we were once so dependent on, by making it pleasurable. However, the pleasure goes much further than simple survival requires – which is why art and craft have gone far beyond the practical, all the way back into prehistory.

The techniques I describe in this book require only simple tools, so a workshop full of gadgets – in this gadget-dependent world – is unnecessary. Familiarity with a few trusted tools and the skill to use them are the key, despite the generally accepted assumption that buying the latest and most expensive tool will make us magnificent craftsmen. (Please note that, in this book, the traditional terms woodsman and craftsmen apply equally to women as to men.) I also suggest that, since these techniques are dependent on few tools, they can be used even in remote areas.

However, remember those endorphins: you don’t need to be in a survival situation to enjoy woodcraft. Please don’t be concerned that you are living a fantasy or having a Davy Crockett moment. I have been lucky enough to fell trees with axes in the Arctic Circle while balancing on unfamiliar skis. I have carved spoons in a snowstorm and played around with all manner of natural materials in all kinds of unlikely situations. It really doesn’t matter whether or not you’re doing the same. Develop your skills outdoors if you can, but the techniques are every bit as useful in your garden, garage or on the dining room floor. It doesn’t matter, it’s what you were designed to do.

This volume focuses on some bushcraft or woodcraft skills specifically associated with trees and timber. I have picked techniques, materials and projects that I consider to be the most closely linked to those of the woodsman. Please don’t be upset if your craftwork doesn’t immediately hit gallery standards. There will always be those who are so talented that anything they make is of exceptional quality. I certainly don’t put myself in that category: I have always had to work very hard to achieve anything remotely artistic. The more you practise, the easier these things become.

If you are keen on bushcraft, then being good in the woods isn’t just about making things; however, this is no more a bushcraft book than it is a woodworking guide. Instead, I explore the possibilities that trees offer to the woodsman, and the places where knowledge of tools and materials can lead. With that in mind, I have not offered hundreds of craft projects. Rather, those I have described are included to help you develop your knowledge of techniques and materials, leading you on to finer and more complex endeavours.

I believe that some elements of woodcraft are relatively simple to understand, and probably can be mastered with experience acquired through experimentation; these have been given less attention. Other elements, such as bow-making, are explored in greater detail; it is something that links together many skills, with the craftsman required to fell, cleave and shape their material, and to be sufficiently accurate in all this work that the wood can be bent and released many thousands of times without breaking.

In writing this book, I had no desire to recreate the works of other people. My intention was not to wax lyrical about the various methods of making fire, describe hypothermia, explain first aid or help you choose a sleeping bag. Important though these things are to any serious student of bushcraft, they have all been described more than adequately elsewhere. Instead, I have tried to write from my own experience of teaching and practising these skills. I hope, as a result, that you find this book fresh and compelling.

John Rhyder, Sussex, UK

Note on Measurements

Many traditional skills and crafts are expressed in old imperial measurements, especially subjects such as bow-making. Throughout the book I have endeavoured to convert imperial to metric, although oftentimes this is an approximation. A millimetre or two here and there should not really make much difference to the craft process.

1

Felling and Harvesting

I guess the pinnacle of my tree-working career was on what is euphemistically called a ‘crane job’. These involve, due to constraints either of time or access, climbing the tree that is to be felled. Once you’re up the tree, all the branches are severed and lowered by crane, followed by the crown, and finally the trunk, section by section. When all the branches have gone, the climber – in this instance, yours truly – is left standing in climbing spikes, tied around the main trunk and unable to get out of the way. As you may imagine, the climber is then wholly dependent on the crane operator swinging the severed lumps smartly away, to avoid smearing said climber up and down what remains of the trunk.

Unfortunately, in this case, my driver was a complete idiot. He seemed to delight in allowing 3-ton lumps of timber to crash back against the pole I was tied to. This demanded some smart dancing out of the way, followed by frantic hugging of what was left of the tree, as my climbing spikes popped out. I am told I seemed less than impressed – and may even have sworn at the crane driver once or twice!

However, the final straw came later when I was back on the ground. The driver was moving some of the timber around when, with no warning, the strop that, only minutes before, was holding heavy timber inches from my head, suddenly broke.

Think first aid whenever you are out felling.

Felling

Felling trees can be, and often is, difficult and dangerous. Even with a relatively small tree, things can go disastrously wrong. The beauty of cutting trees for bushcraft is that you can choose. You don’t have to fell difficult and dangerous trees – those trees that are liable to split, or get badly stuck, or fall the wrong way and break something you would rather have kept intact. You are unlikely to have to fell a tree of legendary proportions, either.

For bushcraft, we are generally dealing with trees of a slightly more genial disposition than those the average forester or arborist has to work with. Nonetheless, you still need to be mindful and follow a few simple guidelines – even a relatively small and humble-looking tree can bite you on the backside if you get things wrong.

Initial Tasks

Felling trees involves a few initial routine tasks. You must have the landowner’s permission before you start work, and you should get to grips with the following:

• tree preservation orders

• conservation areas

• sites of special scientific interest, and other protected areas

• the effects that your activities might have on watercourses and archaeological sites.

Top-to-Toe Survey

It is critically important to evaluate the condition of any tree that you are about to fell, to ensure it doesn’t surprise you on the way down. Certain structural defects have a habit of making trees do the unexpected, so keep a look out for any major deadwood or hanging branches, and note the presence of fungal bodies, cavities and tight forks. All of these may cause the tree to break out as it moves.

Start at the top of the tree and work your way down to the root area. Take note of any swelling on the butt of the tree, or excessive root buttresses. In conifers, uniform swelling across the butt of the tree can indicate butt rot, which causes the centre of the tree to decay. This swelling – also known as ‘bottle butt’, as it can leave a tree resembling a wine bottle – is a sign that the tree is trying to compensate for its weakness by producing more wood. Excessively large buttress roots also might be a sign of trees that are compensating for decay low down; but be aware that trees will also do this to anchor themselves on exposed sites and against the prevailing wind. (Incidentally, this can make them a useful feature for natural navigation.) Felling is much trickier when a tree is decayed. There are examples of many of these features in Chapter 8.

As woodsmen, we have a duty to the rest of the animal kingdom, some of whom may have set up residence in our chosen tree. Look for signs of birds’ nests, dormice and bats. Any budding lumberjack who disturbs the last two (or any specifically protected species of bird) or wilfully destroys their place of refuge is liable to a heavy fine – and quite right too. Ignorance is no defence in the eyes of the law, so it is up to you to be certain that you can identify the presence of such creatures. Depending on where you live, there may be a multitude of wildlife, some protected and some not, that you need to familiarise yourself with, but what a wonderful opportunity this is to get to grips with a few new species.

It is important to check the neighbouring trees for everything mentioned above, especially if they are likely to be disturbed by your tree as it falls. Moreover, check any obvious hazards, such as power cables, in the vicinity.

Establishing Direction of Fall

Several factors influence where the tree will fall, but essentially you should look carefully at the tree to assess where it would fall if gravity alone took it to ground, then balance this against the spot where you would like it to fall.

Tools of the trade: bow saw, felling lever, homemade wedge, rope and throw line.

‘Sod’s law’ clearly states that these two spots are unlikely to be the same, so a little tree-felling trickery with rope, wedges and other felling aids may be necessary. Where you want the tree to end up is likely to be an open area, for ease of processing and to reduce the chances of the tree getting stuck in another tree, or falling on your car (or worse still, your sandwiches).

Many people focus on the branching habit of the tree as the main criterion when choosing direction of fall. While it is true that a tree is more likely to fall to the side with the most limbs, you also should assess the orientation of the trunk. Bends and kinks in the main trunk can have the effect of pulling the tree against the weight of the branches or making it behave like a completely straight specimen. If the trunk bends in unison with the weight of the branches, the tree may start to fall much sooner than you anticipate, and with greater force and speed.

The final factor when selecting direction of fall is the wind. Wind can seriously undermine your best felling efforts, leading to embarrassing and potentially dangerous results. Even the professionals avoid felling if they cannot guarantee direction due to the wind (or at least, they are supposed to). Those who ignore the wind spend a good deal of their lunch hour wrestling trees to the ground, repairing sheds and fences (and eating very flat sandwiches).

Keeping Safe

Once the direction of fall has been established, the next step is to identify your danger zones, safe working areas and escape routes. The danger areas when felling a tree are directly behind the intended direction of fall, and directly in front. This leaves two escape routes and work areas, approximately 45° from the intended felling direction, at the sides of the tree.

You need to stick to these areas for working and step into them as the tree falls; therefore, they should be clear of any obstructions and trip hazards for at least 6–10ft (2–3m). In addition, you should carefully examine the line of fall and remove any potential future hazards. These generally include small saplings and coppice stools (the stumps from which new growth appears), which may be put under severe tension by the grounded tree, and thus be dangerous when cut.

I once worked with a guy who had to have his nose reconstructed after he cut a hazel wand he hadn’t noticed, which was now trapped under a tree: the wand sprang back and hit him full in the face.

It is important to establish a clear work area – a safe zone – around the tree that is to be felled. The axe indicates the direction of fall.

Felling a tree correctly is all about control. To put it another way, you should know exactly what the tree is likely to do through the whole process, and not be taken by surprise. Assuming that there are no obvious obstructions and without adverse wind conditions, all a tree needs to do is tip past the vertical far enough for gravity to take over.

Ideally, a tree should fall when you decide to tip it past its point of balance using one of the felling aids described later (see p.34). However, a tree that is leaning, a particular orientation of branches and trunk or, indeed, one with some wind behind it, may fall before you have a chance to tip it forwards. This is not a problem, so long as you are aware that it is about to happen.

! Remember: control is about not being taken by surprise and being able to predict what will happen.

We have already mentioned some further exceptions, as well as the risk of a tree falling early, to being in control. It is difficult to deal with wind, for example, or a tree that is heavily weighted towards the direction of fall. The latter is exceptionally problematic if you are using hand tools, and the surest way to cut it with any degree of safety or predictability is by using a chainsaw. Trees heavily weighted in the direction of fall are liable to split alarmingly, causing what is known as a ‘barber chair’.

This tree almost split because it fell early on too wide a hinge. This is close to becoming a ‘barber chair’.

For our bushcraft purposes, I strongly recommend you avoid such trees – with inexperience and hand tools, they are very dangerous. I won’t give you any more detail here, but there are lots of examples of barber chairs on the internet if you do want to find out more.

Think it Through, and Take a Break

There are, no doubt, those among you who would infer from some of my earlier comments an obsessive interest in lunch hours and sandwiches. This isn’t necessarily the case – but I would just say that virtually all the accidents I have experienced or witnessed have occurred when a break was imminent. Thinking about felling just one more tree before lunch often leads to bad decisions or a lapse in concentration.

I advise you to take regular breaks that will give you thinking time and help you to avoid mistakes caused by fatigue. Never go felling on your own; instead, try to develop a buddy system, so that you can watch out for signs of fatigue and frustration in each other.

The Felling Cuts

There are several things we need to be aware of when cutting a tree. Each of them has a huge bearing on how, when and under how much control the tree falls. I will cover these below, but I should also point out that most of the following photographs show trees felled with a chainsaw. This is because the size and precision of the kerf (the slot left by the saw blade) created by a chainsaw shows the process in greater detail than when hand tools are used.

Many readers will be familiar already with the main felling cut. It is variously called a ‘frog cut’, ‘sink cut’, ‘gob cut’ or ‘face cut’, as well as having the more long-winded name, ‘directional felling cut’ (and doubtless several other regional names). As the last name suggests, this cut is responsible for the general direction that the tree falls after taking into account wind and lean. I will describe it as the sink cut from now on.

! Remember: it doesn’t matter how accurate your cutting is if the sink cut is put in an unrealistic position in relation to the weight of the tree. The depth of a sink cut is generally one-fifth to one-quarter of the overall diameter of the tree, and normally the angle is set at 45°.

The second cut you’ll need to make is known as the ‘back cut’. It is placed in line with, or slightly above, the back of the sink, leaving a ‘hinge’ of uncut wood that is about 10 per cent of the diameter of the tree. As the name suggests, this piece of uncut wood allows the tree to fold over in a similar way to a door hinge. It is worth remembering that this hinge provides the only real control you have over the fall of the tree.

Variations are always possible on the position and dimensions of these cuts – with associated consequences. I am going to explore them a little further, as some might be useful, and some might explain why you have just broken a favourite piece of kit that you thought you’d neatly left in a safe place.

While the sink cut is normally set at 45°, there can be considerable variety in the angle to suit different situations. Understanding the function of the sink makes this clearer. Together with giving direction, the sink controls when the hinge breaks and the tree goes into free fall. Essentially, the tree will be separated from its stump when the faces of the sink cut meet.

It is worth noting here that there are always exceptions: some really fibrous species of tree hold to their stump almost regardless of the chosen sink angle. However, in most cases, the more open the sink cut, the closer to the ground the tree will be before it breaks off. This can be very useful for control, especially if there is a slight wind or the tree is likely to hit an obstacle on its way to the ground. Moreover, it can be helpful if there is any chance of the tree rolling once it has hit the ground, as it is quite possible to have the tree down and still attached to the stump, which makes general delimbing much easier. The downside to an open sink is that a good deal more timber is removed, effectively wasting more of the butt end of your tree.

By contrast, if the sink angle is lower than 45°, the tree will break off early. This can be useful when you are felling over immovable obstacles, such as banks or log stacks. In this instance, when the tree begins to freefall it is able to roll over the obstacle, reducing the likelihood of the butt being smashed, which would be both dangerous and wasteful. As a bonus, you will also have removed a smaller piece of the butt, thus being left with more timber.

A normal, well-proportioned sink cut, with a level back cut and perfect hinge.

Sometimes marking where the back cut will go can improve accuracy.

This tree is still attached to the stump as a result of an open sink cut.

! Remember: an intact hinge is really the only control you have over the tree, and once the hinge is severed, the trunk will go where wind and gravity take it.

The two cuts that make up the sink must meet exactly, otherwise you may be undermining the hinge, so consider marking the position of your cuts prior to beginning work.

Although the sink gives the tree’s direction of fall, it is important to understand that this only happens in conjunction with a level and parallel hinge. If the hinge is left thicker on one side than the other, the tree is likely to be pulled to that side. Similarly, if the hinge is uneven in height, because either the back cut or the sink are not perpendicular to the trunk, the tree is likely to pull to the side where there is more wood. With experience, this knowledge can be used to compensate for excessive sideways lean, but this requires a good deal of experience in both felling and how different species behave. Always remember that when searching for craft materials, we don’t have to fell the most difficult trees in the forest.

! Now, I know I am banging on about this, but it is important not to forget – once the hinge has been severed, the tree is at the mercy of wind and gravity.

Of the three main elements, the back cut is one that should never really be varied. It needs to be in line with, or (to allow for mistakes!) preferably slightly above the bottom of the sink cut. The key detail is that when putting in the back cut, sufficient hinge is left. As mentioned above, this is normally 10 per cent of the overall diameter. If the hinge is too thin, control is lost; if it is too thick, the tree may not fall at all. A hinge that is too thick might even cause the tree to split into the stump and it will just rock backwards and forwards in a most embarrassing fashion.

There are other relationships between the various elements that should be considered. The depth of the sink can be vital, especially when using a wedge as a felling aid. Remembering that, all else being equal, a tree has to tip past the vertical to fall, so sometimes driving a wedge into the back cut can help lift the tree. If the sink is too deep, you might find yourself already banging the wedge against the back of the hinge before the tree has tilted far enough to fall.

You can alter the angle of your sink cut to achieve slightly different results.

On a more fundamental level, if a tree is decayed, it is possible for it to fall due to a sink that is too large before the back cut has been made. (I know this because it happened to me while doing professional tree work, there was much hilarity at my expense, as I had to leap smartly out of the way.)

A similar problem can occur when the back cut is made lower than the back of the sink. The tree might then have to be lifted up and over the step that is formed before it can fall, which, again, may lead to the tree splitting into the stump and not falling.

Clockwise from top left: This hinge is much too thin, which may cause the tree to free fall; The hinge here is much too thick, which will cause wood to tear out, split or even form a ‘barber chair’; An error that is very common when using a saw: the hinge is too thick in the middle, which has been caused by rolling the blade. This can make it hard to tip the tree; The hinge is uneven, causing the tree to pull to one side.

Hung-Up Trees

No matter how experienced you may be, and no matter how careful you are when felling, at some time or another you will get a tree stuck in another tree. It is important to have a few techniques up your sleeve for dealing with this eventuality safely, so you can avoid either breaking something or seriously hurting yourself. It is also wise to think about the consequences of various ‘good’ ideas that may occur to you as a way of solving this problem.

I have seen all of the following tried, with different degrees of danger and hilarity. So, listed in order of peril, avoid the following ways to get your hung-up tree down (indeed, if you are at all tempted to try anything listed below, stop, have a cup of tea and a serious chat with yourself):

• climbing up the tree and bouncing around on it or grabbing hold of it to give it a good wobble

• felling the tree in which your tree is hung up

• felling a neighbouring tree on top of your tree, in the vain hope that it will be dislodged

• when the last one doesn’t work, felling a second or even a third tree – I have seen this done, and it became a very dangerous mess to sort out

• start hacking bits out of the bottom of the tree, in the hope that it will fall.

This last one is something that might be made to work, if you understand why it might be dangerous. If the felled tree is sitting at a steep angle, it is possible that chopping a few feet off the bottom end will result in the tree swinging in towards the tree in which it is hung up. It then can work itself free and fall back towards the tree-feller.

The general rule is that if the tree is standing at an angle of 45° or less, chopping a lump off the bottom will result in the tree hitting the ground and not swinging towards the tree-feller. In reality, while 45° is good as a rule of thumb, sometimes it is possible to cut pieces out of a tree at a steeper angle, provided that it can be clearly seen that the tree will hit the ground before it swings back. This sudden movement may be enough to dislodge the tree, but in any case, it will make the tree lighter, should it have to be poled or winched down.

As the hinge is still needed for control when you are taking down a hung-up tree, this is the prescribed method for dealing with the situation:

1. Assess the position and condition of the tree and its neighbours. Indeed, get into the habit of doing this every time a tree moves. Be on the lookout for hanging limbs up above, for small trees under tension, and for any sideways movement of the tree that might indicate the danger zones have changed.

! Remember: the danger zones are always directly behind and in front of the likely tree fall.

2. Survey the tree. If it is to be rolled, which side should it be rolled towards – the right or the left, to make the tree most likely to fall to earth?

3. Prepare a new escape route, bearing in mind both the decision above and whether the tree has moved.

4. Check the condition of the hinge – is it intact and straight across the diameter of the tree in the correct direction?

5. Find or cut a stout pole, around 8ft (2.4m) in length (for reasons I will explain shortly).

6. Assuming the hinge is intact and that, for example, we are rolling the tree out towards the right, you need to cut away most of the hinge on the opposite side to the direction of roll. In this scenario, leave 20 per cent uncut on the right. To put it another way, remove 80 per cent of the hinge, leaving 20 per cent on the side you are rolling towards. Hopefully, the tree will pivot on the uncut portion of the hinge and fall, under control, to the ground.

Clockwise from above: Inspect the hinge. Options are limited if the hinge is not intact: here, I have removed some of the back of the tree to show the hinge better; Remove up to 80 per cent of the hinge; All being well, the tree will now roll out.

If the tree doesn’t fall, then a felling lever – or in an emergency, a rope noose and pole, can be used to push the tree in the desired direction. If this fails too, the tree must be cut completely away from the stump and ‘walked down’ using the pole we cut earlier. (No doubt you were wondering when it would come in useful.)

The pole can be used to push the free tree off the stump if it doesn’t immediately fall. In this instance, you must consider where the tree will land, once it is free of the stump: don’t push off into a position where your tree might be forced into another obstruction. Sometimes a tree has to be walked an awfully long way before it falls, and it is all too easy to run out of room.

Whether you are rolling or walking a tree down, it is important to use the correct method to avoid straining your back or other injuries. Bend your knees, keep your back straight, and be sure to study the position of the pole in the photograph before you begin.

Always push away from you when using a felling lever to roll a tree, to avoid bringing it down on top of you.

Ensure that when a tree is pushed off its stump you are in an area where further takedown is possible. Using the pole like a battering ram helps to keep you safe.

Use the technique illustrated: if the tree falls suddenly and takes the pole down with it, the pole should fall between the legs of the operator. It is also easier to see the top and bottom of the tree and gauge its movement.

If you use the incorrect technique and the tree falls suddenly, the pole may fall across the legs of the operator.

If a tree is still hung up but off its stump, it can be walked down using a pole. The technique involves lifting and pushing away at the same time. You should place the pole as close to its end as you can, for better leverage. Occasionally, despite your best efforts, nothing works, and the tree stubbornly remains standing. In such cases, mechanical methods must be employed, namely, winching.

Ropes can be also used to help bring down a hung-up tree in two ways:

1. If you have already used a rope as a felling aid, you can use the same rope to pull the tree over by partially severing the hinge and pulling at 90° to the direction of fall. In effect, you are using the rope as a felling lever.

2. If you haven’t already used a rope for the felling, you can attach one using a ‘carter’s hitch’ (for ropes and knots see Chapter 9), and use it to pull the tree backwards, once it has been freed from its stump.

! Beware: be extremely careful when attaching a rope to a hung-up tree, as you can easily find yourself not just in front of the tree, but also underneath it.

Of course, you are not obliged to fell every tree you come across. Be sure to avoid the most likely hang-up candidates, along with those trees that stay hanged. People, some of them very experienced, die regularly when working with timber.

Delimbing and Crosscutting

Before rushing in to delimb your felled tree, check the general area and ask yourself the following questions:

1. Is the tree truly on the ground? If not, is it likely to move suddenly?

2. If the tree isn’t on the ground, have your safe areas changed? (The area directly behind your tree is still in the danger zone.)

3. Has the tree dislodged anything in neighbouring trees that is about to come crashing down?

4. Is the tree sitting on anything that may be under dangerous tension?

In fact, you need to ask these questions whenever your tree moves. Once you are satisfied that the area is safe, proceed with delimbing.

Removing the side branches and top of a felled tree, and crosscutting it to required lengths, requires an understanding of tension and compression. This knowledge is important to:

• avoid getting tools stuck

• understand how branches may spring, once severed

• avoid wasting timber by having the wood split as you release the tension.

In essence, tension is found on the outside edge of cut timber; put another way, the part of the wood that will open up if you cut through it with a saw. The compression wood is found on the inside edge of strained timber, and this will close the cut as you saw through, thus trapping the tool.

A useful way of visualising the tension is to imagine putting a huge force at the point where you want to place your cutting tool:

• If the wood is supported at both ends, it is likely that the top side will compress, and the underside stretch.

• If the wood is supported at one end, the opposite is likely to happen. (I use the word ‘likely’, because it is possible to have all sorts of side tension and compression with felled trees, so exact judgement can be tricky.)

I was once part of a three-man team that came to the aid of a colleague who had trapped his chainsaw while delimbing a large oak tree. I went in to free his saw, and promptly got mine trapped. We called for help and, you guessed it, trapped a third saw. It all looked quite attractive in a way, as the chainsaws were all the same model, and all arranged neatly in the wood. We could probably have sold a photo of them to the manufacturer for their catalogue.

In the end, we had to call in one of the old hands to free the saws, which he did with much smirking and many comments along the lines of ‘boys at the game’ and ‘babes in the wood’. This does illustrate how awkward it can be to judge forces correctly.

When delimbing trees with axes, it makes sense to try to put the trunk of the tree between you and the sharp edge of your tool. Always work up the tree, from butt to crown, since this is an easier way to remove branches. Going from crown to butt is harder, because the branch collar is particularly tough in this direction, presumably because it has to deal with gravity weighing down each limb. Therefore, it makes sense to remove limbs from underneath; incidentally, this is also true for dealing with smaller stems with smaller tools, such as knives.

Unfortunately, this would also involve you walking backwards and jumping from one side of the tree to the other, something that is generally and rightly, frowned on by chainsaw users. However, if you are using hand tools, it can be perfectly safe – just so long as you clear as you go, take it steady, and make yourself aware of any possibility of the tree rolling as you flit, sylph-like, about the forest.

Try to remove all the branches flush to the stem, as any tiny twigs that stick out are likely to hinder stacking, rip up your hands and collect tool-blunting mud.

When you are crosscutting, you also will need to pay very close attention to the tension and compression within the tree. Crosscutting can be done fairly easily with an axe but, just as when you are felling, you will waste less wood using a saw. Cleanly sawn ends usually make further processing easier, especially when you have to split long lengths of wood down with wedges or stand short ones on stumps to make firewood. (For more on using tools, see Chapter 3.)

Felling Aids

Felling aids can be classed as anything that helps get a tree past its tipping point and merrily on its way down to earth. Key examples are felling levers, wedges, ropes and even winches.

Felling Levers

Essentially, a felling lever is inserted into the back cut, and the tree lifted from that point. Felling levers have limited use in terms of the size of tree that you can safely lift before running the risk of having your intestines appear on the outside of your body. They are great for smaller trees and are always handy when dealing with hung-up trees, as they normally come with a useful turning hook.

Choosing to use a felling lever is a bit counter-intuitive, as you will have to stand in the danger zone to lift your tree. Only use one to lift a tree when you have a hinge of correct and adequate dimensions (by then you are past the barber chair stage) and step smartly into your escape route as soon as the tree begins to fall.

Clockwise from right: Ensure the limb to be cut is behind your body; Swap sides as needed, to keep the tree between you and the axe; When in doubt, step further out to make sure your body is clear of the follow through.

Felling with an axe creates two sink cuts. If you don’t use a rope, your tree may fall backwards.

Wedges

Wedges, whether bought or homemade, are used in a similar way. They are driven into the back cut to provide a good deal of lift. If you are making your own wedges, be sure to carve a long and even taper. Wedges with an obtuse angle are likely to bounce out of the cut.

Ropes

Felling levers and wedges are fine when a saw has been used to create the back cut. However, if you are felling with an axe, in effect two sink cuts are created. Unless there is an obvious lean to the tree, always use a rope instead.

In any case, I would suggest that occasional tree-fellers use ropes as a matter of course. They give both options and control, allowing the tree to be pulled without having to have anyone near the dangerous bit. In addition, they can be used to help down a hung-up tree by pulling in the direction of the roll-out.

Often, getting the rope high enough up the tree to make a difference can cause a few moments of head-scratching. Your first instinct may well be to tie something heavy (a shackle bolt is a favourite) to a light line and hurl it as hard and fast as possible into the canopy (no doubt accompanied by grunts and squeals to rival Wimbledon finalists). The shackle bolt invariably gets caught on something, either stuck or having to be pulled out so hard that it flies back at you at a speed that makes it impossible to avoid.

It’s worth noting that shackle bolt meeting skull at a range of 30ft (10m) tends to hurt quite a bit. It is much easier to get the rope into your tree using a method from my tree surgery days. I believe it originated at my old college, Merrist Wood in Surrey, and I have always heard it referred to as the ‘Merrist Wood missile’. It is still used by tree surgeons to access the canopy of trees and, coupled with a carter’s hitch, gives great control over the fall (see ropes and knots in Chapter 9).

Harvesting

Harvesting Smaller Trees

Taking down smaller trees, by which I mean trees 4–6in (10–15cm) (or even less) in diameter, is a lot less fraught than dealing with the big guys. However, for the larger of the smaller trees, it is still worth making the general safety assessment that we applied before.