Working Memory and Academic Learning E-Book

Milton J. Dehn

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 719

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Equipping school and child psychologists, and neuropsychologists with critical information on the role of working memory in learning and achievement, Working Memory and Academic Learning offers guidance on assessment tools, interventions, and current evidence-based best practices. Its specific, step-by-step guidance and hands-on case studies enables you to identify how working memory relates to academic attainment and how to apply this knowledge in professional practice.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Foreword

PREFACE

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction and Overview

What is Working Memory?

Working Memory versus Short-Term Memory

Controversies Surrounding Working Memory

Working Memory Measurement

Compatibility with Response-to-Intervention

Interventions for Working Memory

Learning Objectives

CHAPTER 2 - Theories and Models of Working Memory

Information Processing Model

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Levels-of-Processing Model

Baddeley’s Model

Contributions from Daneman and Carpenter

Kane and Engle’s Executive Attention Model

Cowan’s Embedded-Process Model

Oberauer’s Facet Theory

Long-Term Working Memory

Neuropsychological Evidence

The Controversy Over Working Memory Capacity

CHAPTER 3 - An Integrated Model of Working Memory

The Structure of the Integrated Model

Definition of Working Memory

Descriptions of Memory Components

Capacity of Working Memory Operations

Caveat

Key Points

CHAPTER 4 - Working Memory Development and Related Cognitive Processes

Development of Working Memory Capacity

Long-Term Memory

Expertise and Automatization

Deficit Models

Relations with Other Cognitive Processes

Disorders and Conditions with Working Memory Deficits

Conclusions and Implications

CHAPTER 5 - Working Memory and Academic Learning

Working Memory and Learning Disabilities

Working Memory and Oral Language

Oral Language Disabilities

Working Memory and Reading

Working Memory and Mathematics

Working Memory and Written Language

Implications for Assessment, Instruction, and Intervention

CHAPTER 6 - Working Memory Assessment Strategies

Working Memory Assessment Challenges

Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Working Memory Measures

Short-Term and Working Memory Testing Paradigms

Hypothesis-Driven Assessment of Working Memory

Multimethod Assessment of Working Memory

Reviewing Records for History

Interviews

Observations

Cross-Battery and Selective Testing

Assessment Recommendations for Specific Disabilities

General Guidelines for Interpreting Test Scores

Analysis of Working Memory Test Scores

Interpretation of Working Memory Assessment Results

The Use of Nonstandardized Working Memory Measures

Key Points

CHAPTER 7 - Using Cognitive Scales to Assess Working Memory

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory and Working Memory

General Guidelines for Selecting Working Memory Subtests

General Guidelines for Administering Working Memory Subtests

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales-Fifth Edition (SB5)

Differential Ability Scales-Second Edition (DAS-II)

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (KABC-II)

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG)

Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT)

The Wechsler Scales

WISC-IV Integrated

The NEPSY II: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment

Key Points

CHAPTER 8 - Assessing Working Memory with Memory Scales

Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition (WMS-III)

Children’s Memory Scale (CMS)

Test of Memory and Learning-Second Edition (TOMAL-2)

Wide Range Assessment of Memory And Learning-Second Edition (WRAML-2)

Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C)

Automated Working Memory Assessment (AWMA)

Swanson Cognitive Processing Test (S-CPT)

Key Points

CHAPTER 9 - Working Memory Interventions

General Approaches to Working Memory Interventions

General Strategy Training Procedures

Metacognitive Training

Metamemory Training

Working Memory Interventions

Mnemonics

Long-Term Memory Interventions

Phonological Processing Interventions

Reading Comprehension Strategies

Academic Skills and Automaticity

Working Memory Training in Children With ADHD

Medication

Computerized Working Memory Training

Classroom Instruction that Supports Working Memory

Key Points

CHAPTER 10 - Case Studies, Reporting Results, and Recommendations

Applied Research Study

Case Studies

Written Interpretation of Working Memory Test Results

Illustrative Report

Oral Interpretation of Working Memory Test Results

Recommendations for Future Working Memory Tests

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX G

REFERENCES

INDEX

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Dehn, Milton J.

Working memory and academic learning : assessment and intervention / by Milton J. Dehn. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-14419-0 (pbk.)

1. Short-term memory. 2. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title.

BF378.S54D.15’22—dc22

2007041569

To my parents, LeRoy Louis Dehn and Norene C. Dehn, who taught me the value of honesty and hard work.

FOREWORD

Working memory (WM) is an important cortical construct that can be described in many ways. It has been identified as the translator between sensory input and long-term memory, the cognitive difference between a baby who is bound by external stimuli and a toddler who becomes dictatorial about his or her likes and dislikes. It is rehearsal, images, inner speech, emotion, attention, and the stuff of how an individual develops preferences.

Deficits in WM produce systemic and lifelong problems. Living a stressful life can diminish WM capacity and depression can radically alter its course, causing significant issues that will affect other aspects of behavior and memory. Deficits in the central executive component of WM create attentional problems that directly affect learning and behavior. Similarly, deficits in the phonological loop and visual sketchpad of WM are involved in most reading disabilities. Therefore, WM interacts with the world and becomes a buffer or conduit depending on the genetic makeup of the individual and his or her experiences in the environment.

The National Institutes of Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have recently placed great emphasis on the translation of research from the “bench to the bedside.” While many of the federally funded translational research grants that have been recently created focus on medical research, the need for brain-behavior research that translates studies of the brain into practical interventions are also coming to fruition. In some respects, the recent call for accountability in clinical practice and school practice has also prompted translational efforts. Many researchers in neuroscience and neuropsychology are now extending their efforts from prior theory-to-analysis to theory-to-analysis-to-treatment efficacy. Interventions must be well grounded in theory and studied with multiple validation methods that do not stop short of or omit ecological validity concerns.

In terms of working memory, there is a great deal of federal interest and international discourse on its definition, localization, and functional reach. Studies have sought to define working memory parameters and constituent parts and, although all do not agree on those issues, there is a consensus that deficits in working memory wreak havoc on higher cortical processes such as reading, mathematics, and the organization of intentional behavior. Neuroimaging has sustained the localization of WM functions as generally outlined in theory by Baddeley and Hitch. Now we have images that, for the first time, validate what was hypothesized all along. The future holds much promise for supporting working memory interventions because recent brain imaging techniques have taken a quantum leap in efficiency, practicality, cost, and availability. Perhaps the future will support assessment and intervention with working memory in ways that we cannot attain or even imagine at the present time. Therefore, it is time to be practical and codify theoretical perspectives on working memory and utilize research studies that shed light on interventions that remediate and compensate for working memory deficits. It is time to translate theory into practice because we now know enough to affect positive changes and we are acutely aware of how important WM is to academic and behavioral success.

This Working Memory volume by Dr. Milton Dehn is going to be a timely and welcome addition to the resources available for psychology professionals assisting children in schools, private practice, and clinics. We have known about the importance of working memory for many years and neuroimaging has confirmed the localization of its main constituent parts, but very little practical information is written about how to identify and enhance working memory in children. In addition, very little is written about the practical aspects of assessing working memory components and relating the information into everyday learning activities in the classroom. There is so much raw information on WM available it is very difficult for the working professional to codify the existing research and theory about WM and then relate it to clinical practice; and here, Dr. Dehn has done the work for us.

In this volume, Dr. Dehn has taken the time to lay out the prodigious history of theory and research on WM. He provides a historical analysis of how working memory came to be defined and also describes the synergy of multiple theorists. The reader is left with an intuitive understanding of how working memory came to be deconstructed in the research literature and a summary of the extensive list of models of WM construction that have come into being. Probably the most important foundational support of this book is Dr. Dehn’s presentation of an integrated model of WM. He presents a parsimonious model that easily translates into clinical practice. The model is a bridge between research and intervention and it accurately translates theory into practice.

Also of basic importance for a work of this type, Dr. Dehn stresses developmental aspects of WM that are integral for understanding WM in children and its relationship to other cognitive processes. How WM deficits play out in different disorders first identified in childhood is another area of focus that is important in this book. Clinicians and teachers are directed to specific information about the most common disorders that have WM deficits as a part of the condition. Knowing how WM affects a learning disability, for example, paves the way to utilizing WM interventions with precision for children with reading disabilities or math disabilities. Dr. Dehn describes various types of cognitive and memory assessment instruments that tap into working memory and describes the contents, strengths, and weaknesses of each instrument. This valuable synopsis allows the clinical reader to easily find and adapt instruments already commonly used in assessment in schools, clinics, and inpatient facilities. Dr. Dehn does not leave it there, however, but he goes on to explain in very explicit terms how WM affects classroom performance and how the clinician or teacher should intervene in everyday learning activities.

It is very rare that an author can demonstrate a thorough understanding of the history and theory of a cognitive construct as complex as WM. It is even more rare to witness an author taking the benefit of history and theory and translating it into assessment, differential diagnosis, and interventions that can be easily administered by educational personnel in the classroom. We live in an age when laboratory research that seeks to infiltrate real life is encouraged and supported by the federal government—when theory and neuroimaging are combined to produce workable models of intervention for those who suffer from disorders that affect thinking and learning. Most of the time, it is up to us clinicians to assemble all of the historical and theoretical studies, digest the information at length, relate the information to fields of study outside of our own, maintain objectivity, build assessment batteries that will address differential diagnosis, develop interventions that directly relate to our efforts, and consult with other professionals who will actually carry out our recommendations. Realistically speaking, this is very difficult and time consuming for the average clinician to do, although we do it. In the case of working memory, however, Dr. Milt Dehn has completed it for us and with rigorous adherence to the scientist-practitioner model of inquiry. This is a book that demonstrates state-of-the-art brain-behavior relationships. This is a book we can rely on. This is a book that will help us help children. Many thanks to Dr. Dehn!

Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Ed.D., NCSP

PREFACE

Working memory is one of the most important concepts to emerge from cognitive psychology in the past 35 years. What is known about working memory has significant implications for cognitive functioning and, in particular, for academic learning. For instance, knowledge of working memory functions can facilitate identification of learning disabilities. Yet many psychologists and educators do not fully appreciate the multidimensional nature of working memory and the critical roles it plays in cognitive functioning and learning. Also, they are not fully aware of the measurement options and evidence-based interventions for working memory deficiencies. Consequently, it is not surprising that psychologists seldom test memory in a direct or comprehensive manner when children and adolescents are referred for learning difficulties, despite the likelihood that a working memory deficit is underlying the child’s learning problems. From my perspective, learners of all ages will benefit if educators, psychologists, and related professionals acquire a better understanding of working memory and its relationship with learning, as well as develop more expertise in working memory assessment and intervention. Thus, the primary purpose of this book is to provide professional development on this extremely important topic. This book is also intended for use as a course textbook and a professional reference book.

We have all experienced the limitations of a normal working memory. How many times have we forgotten a piece of information because the focus of our attention shifted to something else? For example, on countless occasions, we have not been able to remember what we were going to say or what someone else just said. Surely, we have all felt the frustration that occurs when we cannot retrieve information that we were processing just a moment ago. Now try to imagine what it would be like if you were a student with subaverage working memory capacity or a significant intraindividual weakness in working memory. Compound that with not knowing that you have such a deficiency, and for that matter, no one else knowing about it either. Then, imagine having the learning problem resulting from your working memory deficiency attributed to some irrelevant variable, such as motivation. Finally, imagine missing opportunities to learn strategies that could help you compensate for the working memory shortcoming. If you have dedicated your life to helping and teaching children and adolescents, you should now have some compelling reasons for reading this book. What you can learn from this book will increase your ability to help those with working memory problems.

Here’s a preview of the chapters:

1. Introduction and Overview introduces the construct of working memory, along with some of the key topics and major themes. The response-to-intervention model is compared with the approach advocated in this book.

2. Theories and Models of Working Memory traces the history of the working memory construct and reviews several major theories. The preeminent model, Baddeley’s four-part model, is discussed in depth. Neuropsychological evidence for the construct is summarized. The chapter concludes with an examination of the controversy surrounding the distribution of working memory resources.

3. An Integrated Model of Working Memory proposes an integrated model of working memory designed to facilitate working memory assessment. For the remainder of the book, the model is used to classify subtests according to the memory component they are thought to measure. The model’s structure also forms the basis for analyzing working memory test results.

4. Working Memory Development and Related Cognitive Processes begins with an overview of working memory development, including the emersion of strategies and recoding during the early elementary years. The chapter concludes with descriptions of highly related cognitive processes and disorders that frequently include working memory deficits.

5. Working Memory and Academic Learning is a core chapter with an in-depth review of the literature on the relations between specific memory components and the specific academic skills of reading, mathematics, and written language.

6. Working Memory Assessment Strategies provides a structure for working memory assessment. Step-by-step methods that cover initial hypothesis generation to analysis and interpretation are described in detail. The heart of the recommended methodology is a cross-battery, selective testing approach. The informal methods section contains a comprehensive list of classroom behaviors that are indicative of working memory deficits.

7. Using Cognitive Scales to Assess Working Memory includes a table that identifies the short-term memory and working memory components measured by each of several major cognitive scales. For each scale, the memory subtests are described and interpretative suggestions are provided.

8. Assessing Working Memory with Memory Scales has a similar structure to that of Chapter 7, only this time broad memory scales are reviewed, followed by detailed introductions to three scales that are designed specifically for working memory assessment.

9. Working Memory Interventions is a core chapter that begins with general strategy training procedures. The chapter then proceeds to cite the empirical support for several working memory, several long-term memory, and a few related cognitive interventions. For most of the interventions, enough details are provided for basic implementation. Effective teaching practices that address working memory limitations are also included.

10. Case Studies, Reporting Results, and Recommendations discusses some assessment cases that illustrate typical profiles found in children and adolescents with disabilities. The chapter also contains recommendations for the oral explanation of test results, how to interpret cross-battery results in written reports, future research, and future test development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project could not have been completed without the encouragement, support, and hard work of Paula A. Dehn. I also wish to thank Ryan Weigel for gathering the literature and reviewing the manuscript, and I am grateful to Aimee Zabrowski for providing feedback on chapters.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction and Overview

Nearly every aspect of human life depends on memory. Individuals who cannot encode, store, or retrieve information must rely on others for their survival. Even mild memory impairments can make daily activities challenging. Because learning depends on memory, deficiencies in any aspect of memory can prevent children and adolescents from acquiring the skills and knowledge necessary for success in life. As the research accumulates, it is becoming quite evident that memory problems are frequently the cause of learning problems. Even individuals with normal memory capacity must utilize their memory resources efficiently if they are to learn effectively. Successful teachers have recognized the limitations of human memory and have discovered how to facilitate the construction of strong memory representations in their students. Therefore, those engaged in supporting learning can be more effective when they have expertise in memory.

The recognition of memory’s crucial role in life and learning can be traced back to the days of the ancient Greeks. With the advent of public education in the nineteenth century, American educators began to identify different types of memories and instructional methods designed to support memory. The young science of psychology was also quick to focus on memory models and measurement (James, 1890). For example, the classic digit span test goes back to the 1880s. However, it wasn’t until the mid-twentieth century that psychologists were able to identify distinct memory dimensions and functions. More recently, the memory construct known as “working memory” has emerged and refinement of the construct continues to the present day. Currently, research on working memory is at the forefront of neuroscientific investigations. Also, the fields of education and psychology have demonstrated a high interest in learning more about working memory. In the first six months of 2007 alone, more than 150 articles on working memory were published in professional journals. The scientific literature provides an opportunity to learn more about the functioning of memory and how to treat memory deficits. Acquiring more knowledge about working memory can make a significant contribution to our understanding of how students think, learn, and remember. Armed with such knowledge, we can better identify the probable causes of learning difficulties and suggest evidence-based interventions that address memory deficiencies.

What is Working Memory?

In the study of human cognitive functions over the past 35 years, working memory has been one of the most influential constructs. Traditionally, working memory has been conceptualized as an active memory system that is responsible for the temporary maintenance and simultaneous processing of information (Bayliss, Jarrold, Baddeley, Gunn, & Leigh, 2005). Alternatively, working memory has been defined as the use of temporarily stored information in the performance of more complex cognitive tasks (Hulme & Mackenzie, 1992), or as a mental workspace for manipulating activated long-term memory representations (Stoltzfus, Hasher, & Zacks, 1996). Overall, working memory is viewed as a comprehensive system that unites various short- and long-term memory subsystems and functions (Baddeley, 1986). Diverse working memory theories and models (see Chapter 2) have several structures and processes in common: (1) a division into verbal and visuospatial stores; (2) an encoding function; (3) involvement in effortful retrieval from long-term memory; (4) enactment of strategic processes; and (5) executive and attentional processes. In general, the combination of moment-to-moment awareness, efforts to maintain information in short-term memory, and the effortful retrieval of archived information constitutes working memory. Despite definitions limiting working memory to memory-related functions, many researchers and practitioners use the term broadly. From the perspective offered in this text, we must be cautious when considering the construct of working memory, lest everything that goes on in the mind is classified as working memory. If the construct is allowed to become too inclusive, then its usefulness will decline. Consequently, in this text, the definition of working memory is limited to the management, manipulation, and transformation of information drawn from either short-term or long-term memory (see Chapter 3).

However, it is difficult to delimit working memory and disentangle it from related cognitive processes, such as reasoning. From a broad perspective, working memory is a central cognitive process that is responsible for the active processing of information. It appears to be a fundamental capacity that underlies complex as well as elementary cognitive processes (Lepine, Barrouillet, & Camos, 2005). Working memory supports human cognitive processing by providing an interface between perception, short-term memory, long-term memory, and goal-directed actions. Working memory is particularly necessary for conscious cognitive processing because it permits internal representation of information to guide decision making and overt behavior. Fundamentally, working memory is one of the main cognitive processes underlying thinking and learning. By utilizing the contents of various memory-storage systems, working memory enables us to learn and to string together thoughts and ideas.

Working memory’s relations with various aspects of academic learning (see Chapter 5) mainly arise from its limited capacity. Although there are individual differences, the capacity of working memory is quite restricted, even in individuals with normal working memory resources. For example, the typical individual can only manipulate about four pieces of information at a time (Cowan, 2001). And, unless information is being manipulated, it will only remain in working memory for a short interval, perhaps as little as 2 seconds. Thus, there has always been an emphasis on working memory’s limited capacity to retain information while simultaneously processing the same or other information (Swanson, 2000). Because of the central role working memory plays in cognitive functioning and learning, successful learning is largely a function of the individual’s working memory capacity. For instance, a child with a severe deficit in verbal working memory is likely to have a reading disability (see Chapter 5). Moreover, given the inherent limitations of working memory, efficient utilization of its resources is important for all individuals, not just those with working memory deficits.

In our daily activities, we are constantly dealing with demands and goals that compete for the limited processing capability of working memory. Luckily, the active participation of the working memory system is not needed for all cognitive operations or behavior. Many cognitive functions and behaviors can be carried out in a fairly automatic fashion with little or no reliance on working memory (Unsworth & Engle, 2007). However, working memory is necessary for the acquisition of skill mastery that leads to automatized processing. It is also necessary when dealing with novel information, problems, or situations; trying to inhibit irrelevant information; maintaining new information; and consciously retrieving information from long-term memory.

Working Memory versus Short-Term Memory

Many cognitive psychologists and memory experts view short-term and working memory as interchangeable or consider one to be a subtype of the other. Other theorists and researchers contend that working memory and short-term memory are distinguishable constructs (see Chapter 2)—a perspective promoted in this text (see Chapter 3). Regardless of which view the reader adopts, it is important for assessment and intervention purposes to recognize the contrasts between short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM). The chief differences are:

• STM passively holds information; WM actively processes it.

• STM capacity is domain specific (verbal and visual); WM capacity is less domain specific.

• WM has stronger relationships with academic learning and with higher-level cognitive functions.

• STM automatically activates information stored in long-term memory; WM consciously directs retrieval of desired information from long-term memory.

• STM has no management functions; WM has some executive functions.

• STM can operate independently of long-term memory; WM operations rely heavily on long-term memory structures.

• STM retains information coming from the environment; WM retains products of various cognitive processes.

Short-term memory and working memory are separable, and short-term memory can function without working memory. Nonetheless, short-term memory and its measurement are included in this text, mainly because the predominant theories of working memory incorporate short-term memory as a subsidiary system. Accordingly, the majority of empirical investigations have included short-term memory, with many not discriminating well between short-term and working memory. Likewise, several assessment instruments are structured in ways that confound the measurement of short-term and working memory.

Controversies Surrounding Working Memory

Some psychologists question the working memory construct itself. Unlike short-term memory, it is more difficult to prove that working memory is a unique cognitive entity. For example, working memory has been viewed as essentially the same as focused attention, executive processing, and linguistic processing. Moreover, we have much to learn about some of the subprocesses that comprise the working memory system. For instance, the functioning of phonological short-term memory and verbal working memory is well documented but there remains considerable cloudiness regarding the executive functions of working memory. In addition to these uncertainties, there has been an ongoing dispute over the distribution of working memory resources. Some researchers argue that there is a single pool of resources shared by all short-term and working memory components, whereas others advocate for separate capacities for each component. Furthermore, the debate over the immutability of working memory capacity is far from settled. Some recent research (see Chapter 9) has indicated that capacity can be increased; however, most evidence-based interventions for working memory focus on increasing its efficiency. Regarding the relations between working memory and academic learning, overwhelming evidence has unequivocally established learning’s dependence on working memory (see Chapter 5). With learning, about the only dispute that remains is whether students with learning disabilities have diminished working memory capacity or are simply not using their working memory resources efficiently (see Chapter 5).

Working Memory Measurement

Since the early days of psychology, when more children began attending school for longer periods of time, the existence of individual differences in mental capabilities, including memory, has been apparent. In 1905, Binet and Simon included short-term memory subtests in their seminal intelligence scale. Wechsler did the same with the introduction of his first scale in 1939. Despite the early start, the development of broad-based memory scales did not occur until nearly the end of the Twentieth Century. Within the past 15 years, interest in the measurement of working memory has corresponded with several new options. For example, the most recent revisions of intellectual scales have incorporated “working memory” measures for the first time. Also, batteries designed for the comprehensive assessment of working memory have been introduced. Unfortunately, now that we have the measurement technology for working memory assessment, the usefulness of school-based cognitive testing is being challenged, especially in regards to assessment for learning disabilities.

The apparent decline in school-based cognitive testing is primarily the result of dissatisfaction with the ability-achievement discrepancy approach to identifying learning disabilities. However, some of the “blame” for the impending decline in cognitive testing can be placed on the structure of intellectual scales and an overemphasis on IQ scores. Although measures of general intelligence are strong predictors of academic learning and success in life, an IQ score leaves many questions unanswered. In particular, an IQ score fails to explain why some students with normal intelligence have extreme difficulties learning. Furthermore, IQ scores provide little direction regarding the selection of interventions that might benefit individual students.

At the forefront of working memory assessment are multiple-factor instruments that allow investigation of the subprocesses involved in short-term and working memory (see Chapter 8). If we could only obtain estimates of overall working memory functioning or only one component of short-term and working memory, there would be little need for this text. Although knowing that a working memory impairment exists is important information, it is even more helpful to know the underlying processing problem that accounts for the deficit. For example, a working memory deficit might be due to a phonological/verbal memory deficit, a visuospatial memory deficit, or an executive memory deficit. Depending on which memory processes or components are deficient, the learning implications and the best interventions differ dramatically. The application of the assessment methods recommended in this text, in conjunction with the use of existing test batteries (including intellectual and cognitive scales), will allow psychologists to parse and distinguish the various short-term memory and working memory components that are so indispensable for academic learning.

Despite the recent advances, assessment of working memory presents some challenges (see Chapter 6). The main obstacle is the paucity of test batteries designed for the comprehensive assessment of working memory and related memory functions. Moreover, there is inconsistent measurement across tests (partly because some of the batteries are atheoretical). Given the exact same task, different test authors will claim that it is measuring different constructs. For example, some authors claim that forward digit span is measuring attention, others say it is measuring short-term memory, and still others classify it as a working memory measure. Consequently, it is usually unclear as to which memory components the scales actually measure and how short-term and working memory are differentiated (see Chapter 6). Of the various working memory stores and processes, phonological short-term memory is the only one for which there are relatively pure measures. Even with adequate measurement tools, working memory performance is highly influenced by several factors, including attention, executive processes, processing speed, long-term memory, and the individual’s level of expertise in particular domains, such as mathematics skills. Finally, the assessment of working memory is challenging because it is difficult to measure directly. Because working memory subtests typically measure short-term memory span, examiners can only draw inferences about working memory capacity and processes.

Compatibility with Response-to-Intervention

The Response-to-Intervention (RTI) movement now being adopted by many states and school districts emphasizes early, evidence-based interventions for all children who fail to meet grade-level benchmarks in academics. Proponents of RTI believe that a child’s failure to respond to an evidence-based intervention is a strong indication of a learning disability. According to RTI advocates, the identification of a “processing deficit” (working memory is a type of processing) is an ineffective method of determining the existence of a learning disability. RTI proponents also consider processing and memory assessment irrelevant because they do not believe there are any effective interventions for processing and memory problems. Both of these claims are disputed in this text and an abundance of evidence is provided that will allow the reader to make an informed decision regarding this debate. First, there is overwhelming evidence that working memory and all types of academic achievement are highly related (see Chapter 5). Furthermore, a high percentage of children with learning disabilities are found to have working memory weaknesses and deficits. There should be little doubt that working memory difficulties are highly predictive of early school failure. Not only can working memory assessment inform the diagnosis of learning disabilities, but the early screening of working memory could identify children at risk for learning problems. Second, there are evidence-based interventions for memory impairments, and these interventions can produce more effective learning (see Chapter 9).

Assessment and intervention for working-memory problems are compatible with RTI. Even with an extremely effective RTI program, some students with learning challenges will continue to struggle academically. Following the RTI approach, these students will then receive more intense interventions and be considered for special education placement. An assessment, including cognitive testing, may be conducted when a child has failed to respond to regular education interventions. Inclusion of working memory testing can be justified because: (a) it might identify why the student is not responding to intervention (many students with disabilities are “resistant” to routine interventions because of a memory or processing impairment); and (b) identification of a working memory weakness or deficit is important information to consider when designing or selecting more intense interventions. (Not all academic interventions include practices that address working memory deficiencies.) To ignore the information a working memory assessment can provide is to make intervention selections with limited knowledge of the child’s learning processes. Both RTI and the practices advocated in this text have the best interests of learners in mind. Current psychological measurement tools can provide invaluable information about the working memory strengths and weaknesses of students in need of academic assistance. Learners with working memory deficits might benefit from evidence-based interventions specifically designed to ameliorate memory weaknesses. It is also important that teachers recognize the student’s working memory problems and provide appropriate accommodations. In addition, it is essential that the selected academic interventions incorporate methods that allow a student with working memory deficiencies to learn effectively.

Interventions for Working Memory

Most of the working memory interventions reviewed in this text are intended for school settings and can be performed by teachers and related professionals. Consistent with other types of educational interventions, these interventions are often compensatory in nature. The interventions are not intended to increase working memory capacity any more than interventions for students with mental retardation claim to increase intelligence. Rather, the bulk of the interventions are designed to improve performance. Most often, performance can be improved by increasing the efficiency of working memory processing. Increased efficiency allows for more effective utilization of working memory resources. Thus, many of the recommended interventions consist of strategies that enhance working memory processes.

It may surprise some readers to learn that some of the recommended interventions (see Chapter 9) are not specifically designed for working memory impairments. Because of the highly interactive nature of working memory, strengthening peripheral systems can improve working memory performance. For example, interventions that improve phonological processing may produce collateral improvement in phonological short-term memory. This principle also applies to mnemonics and other long-term memory interventions. That is, stronger long-term memory structures or representations reduce the load on working memory, thereby improving working memory performance. In addition, the interventions approach in this text adheres to a top-down model. The top-down philosophy is that improvements in higher-level functions will produce improvements in subsidiary systems. For example, when most of the working memory components are weak, the initial intervention should focus on executive working memory. Finally, this text will review effective teaching practices and instructional models that support the working memory deficiencies of challenged learners.

Learning Objectives

After reading, reviewing, and applying the information and practices discussed in this text, the reader will be able to:

1. Trace the history of the working memory construct, from its origins in the 1950s to contemporary factor structures.

2. Identify the four components of Baddeley’s preeminent working memory model, as well as some of the supportive research.

3. Explain the interdependency between working memory and long-term memory, and state why the connection between the two is as important as the short-term memory and working memory relationship.

4. Recognize the limitations of working memory and short-term resources, and how these resources are distributed during different processing activities.

5. State some of the key differences between short-term memory and working memory.

6. Recognize the effects of expertise and automatization on working memory.

7. Differentiate between cognitive weaknesses and cognitive deficits.

8. Identify several cognitive processes that are closely related with working memory.

9. Identify some of the relationships that short-term memory and working memory components have with specific academic skills.

10. Differentiate between subtests that measure short-term memory and those that measure working memory.

11. Recognize several classroom behaviors that are indicative of working memory deficiencies.

12. Apply selective testing and cross-battery procedures to a comprehensive assessment of working memory.

13. Correctly complete the Working Memory Analysis Worksheet.

14. In regards to working memory assessment, state the relative advantages and disadvantages of several cognitive ability scales.

15. In regards to working memory assessment, state the relative advantages and disadvantages of several broad memory batteries.

16. Recognize the unique contributions of recently published tests that are designed for the comprehensive assessment of working memory.

17. Describe several strategy-training procedures that should be used when implementing working memory interventions.

18. Identify several evidence-based working memory interventions.

19. Identify several effective teaching practices that address working memory limitations.

20. Describe the unique aspects of interpreting working memory assessment results.

CHAPTER 2

Theories and Models of Working Memory

The origins of the working memory construct can be traced to the early days of modern psychology. In fact, the concept of working memory, in one form or another, predates the advent of psychology. In 1690, the philosopher John Locke differentiated between contemplation—bringing an idea to mind—and memory. Later, William James (1890) would be the first American psychologist to propose two types of memory, which he labeled as primary and secondary. James defined primary memory as the trailing edge of the conscious present and secondary memory as the vast amount of information stored for a lifetime. Some contemporary psychologists still refer to working memory as primary memory and long-term memory as secondary memory. The terms short- and long-term memory were probably coined by Thorndike as early as 1910. However, during the first half of the Twentieth Century memory was generally viewed as a unified construct, with short-term memory subsumed by what we now consider long-term memory. By 1950 most psychologists recognized the need for some sort of special memory process that could account for recall of information in the short term. In 1949, Hebb proposed that the brain is divided into separate storage systems, one temporary and the other permanent. Hebb’s division of memory was supported by case studies of acquired brain injury in which some subjects had quite normal short-term recall, coupled with very deficient long-term storage, whereas other subjects demonstrated the reverse profile. The introduction of information processing theory at midcentury sparked numerous investigations into working memory itself and several models of working memory soon emerged. Advances in technology, along with a growing interest in neuropsychology and neuroscience, have spurred on brain-based working memory research over the past 15 years. An indication of the widespread appeal of working memory is the fact that more than 200 research articles on working memory were published in 2006 and 2007 alone.