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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
A new and expanded edition of a highly successful textbook on world religions with a comparative approach which explores how six major religions are lived and expressed through their customs, rituals and everyday practices. * A new edition of this major textbook, exploring the world's great religions through their customs, rituals and everyday practices by focusing on the 'lived experience' * This comparative study is enriched and broadened with the inclusion of a sixth religion, Daoism * Takes a thematic, comparative and practical approach; each chapter explores a series of key themes including birth, death, ethics, and worship across all six religions at each time * Broadens students' understanding by offering an impartial discussion of the similarities and differences between each religion * Includes an increased range of student-friendly features, designed to allow students to engage with each religion and extend their understanding
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Seitenzahl: 844
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
List of Boxes
List of Tables
List of Figures
Preface
Note on Scriptural References
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Part 1 Beyond Time and Space
1 Image
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Second Commandment
1.3 Shirk
1.4 Incarnate Son
1.5 Murti
1.6 Opening the Radiance
1.7 The Three Bodies
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
2 Book
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Shruti and Smriti
2.3 Daozang
2.4 The Three Baskets
2.5 New Testament
2.6 Tanach
2.7 Qur’an
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
Part 2 Within Time and Space
3 Ethics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Dharma
3.3 Pancasila
3.4 Inner Power
3.5 The Ten Words
3.6 A New Commandment
3.7 The Greater Jihad
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
4 Birth
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Baptism
4.3 B’rit Milah
4.4 Aqiqah
4.5 Birth Samskaras
4.6 The Buddhist Exception
4.7 Chinese Customs
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
5 Death
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Wheel of Rebirth
5.3 The Last Sacrifice
5.4 Hun and Po
5.5 Resurrection of the Body
5.6 Salat al‐Janazah
5.7 First Fruits
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
6 Marriage
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nikah
6.3 Under the Huppah
6.4 Householder and Forest‐Dweller
6.5 Bride of Christ
6.6 The Renunciation
6.7 Arts of the Bedchamber
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
7 Food
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Cuisines of Immortality
7.3 Ahimsa and Samadhi
7.4 Blessed Leftovers
7.5 Bread and Wine
7.6 Kosher
7.7 Halal
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
8 Clothing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Veil of Modesty
8.3 Kippah, Tefillin and Tallit
8.4 The Thread and the Mark
8.5 Vestments and Habits
8.6 Garments of the Gods
8.7 The Three Robes
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
Part 3 Time and Space
9 Year
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Four Seasons
9.3 Full Moons and Monsoons
9.4 Day of Brahma
9.5 The 78th Cycle
9.6 Harvests, History and High Holy Days
9.7 Lunar Year
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
10 Building
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mosque
10.3 Synagogue
10.4 Church
10.5 Mandir
10.6 Temple Complex
10.7 Guan
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
11 Journey
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Sacred Ford
11.3 Reverencing the Mountain
11.4 Traces of Tathagata
11.5 The Quest of the Magi
11.6 Aliyah
11.7 Hajj
Summary
Discussion Topics
Further Reading
Conclusion
Glossary
Select Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 The Five Wisdom Buddhas of Tibetan Buddhism.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 The Daoist adaption of the Buddhist Pancasila.
Table 3.2 The Ten Commandments in its different forms.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 The Five Elements of Daoism.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 The Western Christian calendar.
Table 9.2 The Theravada Buddhist calendar.
Table 9.3 The southern Hindu calendar.
Table 9.4 The Chinese calendar.
Table 9.5 The Jewish calendar.
Table 9.6 The Islamic calendar.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 Interior of a Jewish synagogue.
Figure 1.2 Interior of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul.
Figure 1.3 Christian mosaics in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.
Figure 1.4 Sacred image (murti) of the Hindu goddess Durga.
Figure 1.5 Daoist images on an altar.
Figure 1.6 The Taijitu.
Figure 1.7 Buddha statue at Kamakura, Japan.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 The setting of the Bhagavad Gita: Krishna and Arjuna in dialogue.
Figure 2.2 Laozi.
Figure 2.3 Buddha preaching to the first five disciples at Sarnath.
Figure 2.4 A Jewish boy reads from a Torah scroll using a yad.
Figure 2.5 Qur’an with prayer beads.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 A priest pours holy water over a baby’s head during a baptism.
Figure 4.2 A mohel prepares a child for circumcision.
Figure 4.3 The Hindu sacred sound
aum
.
Figure 4.4 A Hindu child receives his first haircut in the cudakarana ceremony.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 Central section of the Buddhist wheel of life.
Figure 5.2 Lighting a Hindu funeral pyre on the banks of a river.
Figure 5.3 Memory stones on a Jewish grave.
Figure 5.4 Muslim women visiting a cemetery.
Figure 5.5 Cross and flowers on a Christian grave.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Traditional breaking of the glass at a Jewish wedding.
Figure 6.2 A Hindu wedding with canopy (mandap) and sacred fire.
Figure 6.3 A Christian bride and groom take their vows before the altar.
Figure 6.4 A new Buddhist novice with shaven head and robes.
Figure 6.5 Tea ceremony at a Chinese wedding.
Figure 6.6 The Bagua (Later Heaven version).
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 Buddhist monks carrying bowls on their daily alms round.
Figure 7.2 Bread and wine used in a Christian Eucharist.
Figure 7.3 Jewish Passover plate with symbolic foods.
Figure 7.4 An Islamic butcher shop in England.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Islamic women in the veil.
Figure 8.2 Jewish boy wearing kippah, tallit and tefillin.
Figure 8.3 A young man receives the sacred thread during an Upanayana ceremony.
Figure 8.4 Image of St Patrick in episcopal dress with miter and crozier.
Figure 8.5 Daoist priests in ritual vestments.
Figure 8.6 Thai Buddhist monks in their traditional robes.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Christmas nativity scene.
Figure 9.2 Young Buddhists often join a monastery during the wet season (Vassa).
Figure 9.3 Hindu girls lighting lamps on the feast of Divali.
Figure 9.4 Chinese Dragon Boat Racing.
Figure 9.5 Eight‐branched menorah (with central lighting candle) used at Hanukkah.
Figure 9.6 Shi’ite Muslims beating their chests during Ashura.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A mosque with two minarets in Azerbaijan.
Figure 10.2 Torah scrolls inside the holy ark in a synagogue.
Figure 10.3 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.
Figure 10.4 The Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Figure 10.5 Hindu mandir (temple) at Khajuraho, India.
Figure 10.6 Kuthodaw Buddhist Temple in Mandalay, Myanmar.
Figure 10.7 Basic geometric patterns of the stupa design.
Figure 10.8 Qingyang Daoist Temple in Sichuan, China.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Major pilgrimage sites in Hinduism.
Figure 11.2 The holy city of Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges.
Figure 11.3 Major pilgrimage sites in Daoism.
Figure 11.4 Stairway to Heaven, Taishan.
Figure 11.5 Major pilgrimage sites in Buddhism.
Figure 11.6 Buddhists meditating at the bodhi tree, Bodhgaya.
Figure 11.7 Major Christian pilgrimage sites in Israel.
Figure 11.8 The old city of Jerusalem.
Figure 11.9 Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem.
Figure 11.10 The Western Wall, Jerusalem.
Figure 11.11 Muslim pilgrims at the Ka’bah, Mecca.
Figure 11.12 Sites of the Hajj.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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World Religions in Practice
The new edition of World Religions in Practice has been expanded to introduce six of the world’s major religions to students. This unparalleled introduction, exploring how religions are lived through their customs, rituals and everyday practices, now includes Daoism in addition to the religions covered in the first edition: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Innovative and accessible, the text goes beyond many traditional textbooks by adopting a directly comparative approach that allows for a greater understanding of the nature of religion.
Each chapter engages with an individual theme, such as birth, death, food, pilgrimage, sacred texts, worship, and ethics, exploring the rituals, customs and beliefs across a range of religions. With great clarity, Gwynne works through these key themes, describing the practices of each religion, at the same time providing a balanced and sympathetic discussion of the similarities and differences between each faith.
The new edition includes an increased range of student‐friendly features. These include short readings from sacred texts and rites across different traditions, which allow students to engage directly with original sources.
Paul Gwynne lectures in comparative religion in the General Education Program of the University of New South Wales. He completed his doctoral studies in Rome and has taught theology and religious studies in Indonesia and at the Melbourne College of Divinity. His previous books include Special Divine Action (1996), the first edition of World Religions in Practice (2008, Wiley Blackwell) and Buddha, Jesus and Muhammad: A Comparative Study (2014, Wiley Blackwell).
World Religions in Practice
A Comparative Introduction
Paul Gwynne
Second Edition
This second edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition History: Blackwell Publishing Ltd (1e, 2009)(Hardback: 978‐1‐4051‐6702‐4 / Paperback: 978‐1‐4051‐6703‐1)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Paul Gwynne to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gwynne, Paul, 1957– author. Title: World religions in practice : a comparative introduction / Paul Gwynne. Description: 2nd edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017006967 (print) | LCCN 2016059938 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118972267 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781118972281 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781118972274 (ePub) Subjects: LCSH: Religions. Classification: LCC BL80.3 .G89 2017 (ebook) | LCC BL80.3 (print) | DDC 200–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017006967
Cover Image: © Bazuki Muhammad / ReutersCover Design: Wiley
List of Boxes
0.1
Some Definitions of Religion
1.1
The 13 Principles of the Jewish Faith (Maimonides)
1.2
The Shema
1.3
The Five Pillars of Sunni Islam
1.4
The Nicene Creed
1.5
The 10 Avatars of Vishnu
2.1
The Principal Upanishads (and Corresponding Vedas)
2.2
The Opening Chapter of the Daode jing
2.3
The Three Baskets of Buddhism (Tipitaka)
2.4
The Books of the New Testament
2.5
The 24 Books of the Jewish Scriptures (Tanach)
2.6
Al‐Fatiha: The Opening Chapter of the Qur'an
3.1
Traditional Hindu Classes (Varna) and Life Stages (Ashrama)
3.2
The Four Noble Truths
3.3
The Buddhist Pancasila
3.4
The Four Main Sunni Schools of Law
3.5
The Golden Rule of Ethics in Each Religion
4.1
Prayer over the Baptismal Font (Catholic Rite)
4.2
The Seven Sacraments
4.3
Prayer from a Jewish Circumcision Rite
4.4
The Adhan (Islamic Call to Prayer)
4.5
The Traditional Hindu Samskaras
4.6
The 12 Stages of Dependent Origination and Their Traditional Symbols (Buddhism)
5.1
Buddhist Bardo Prayer (for the Dead)
5.2
The Six Bardos of Tibetan Buddhism
5.3
Jewish Kaddish Prayer
5.4
A Muslim Funeral Prayer
6.1
The Wives of Muhammad
6.2
The Seven Jewish Wedding Blessings
6.3
Prayer from an Eastern Orthodox Wedding Rite
7.1
The Buddha's Teaching on Eating Meat (Mahayana version)
7.2
Prayer from an Anglican Rite of the Eucharist
8.1
Prayers for Donning the Tefillin
8.2
The Upanayana Ceremony
9.1
The Four Yugas (Ages) of the Hindu Time Scale
9.2
The Five Scrolls and Their Corresponding Holy Days
9.3
The 39 Prohibited Activities on the Jewish Sabbath
9.4
Salat Prayer Times
List of Tables
1.1
The Five Wisdom Buddhas of Tibetan Buddhism
3.1
The Daoist adaption of the Buddhist Pancasila
3.2
The Ten Commandments in its different forms
7.1
The Five Elements of Daoism
9.1
The Western Christian calendar
9.2
The Theravada Buddhist calendar
9.3
The southern Hindu calendar
9.4
The Chinese calendar
9.5
The Jewish calendar
9.6
The Islamic calendar
List of Figures
1.1
Interior of a Jewish synagogue
1.2
Interior of the Blue Mosque, Istanbu
1.3
Christian mosaics in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbu
1.4
Sacred image (murti) of the Hindu goddess Durga
1.5
Daoist images on an altar
1.6
The Taijitu
1.7
Buddha statue at Kamakura, Japan
2.1
The setting of the Bhagavad Gita: Krishna and Arjuna in dialogue
2.2
Laozi
2.3
Buddha preaching to the first five disciples at Sarnath
2.4
A Jewish boy reads from a Torah scroll using a yad
2.5
Qur’an with prayer beads
4.1
A priest pours holy water over a baby’s head during a baptism
4.2
A mohel prepares a child for circumcision
4.3
The Hindu sacred sound
aum
4.4
A Hindu child receives his first haircut in the cudakarana ceremony
5.1
Central section of the Buddhist wheel of life
5.2
Lighting a Hindu funeral pyre on the banks of a river
5.3
Memory stones on a Jewish grave
5.4
Muslim women visiting a cemetery
5.5
Cross and flowers on a Christian grave
6.1
Traditional breaking of the glass at a Jewish wedding
6.2
A Hindu wedding with canopy (mandap) and sacred fire
6.3
A Christian bride and groom take their vows before the altar
6.4
A new Buddhist novice with shaven head and robes
6.5
Tea ceremony at a Chinese wedding
6.6
The Bagua (Later Heaven version)
7.1
Buddhist monks carrying bowls on their daily alms round
7.2
Bread and wine used in a Christian Eucharist
7.3
Jewish Passover plate with symbolic foods
7.4
An Islamic butcher shop in England
8.1
Islamic women in the veil
8.2
Jewish boy wearing kippah, tallit and tefillin
8.3
A young man receives the sacred thread during an Upanayana ceremony
8.4
Image of St Patrick in episcopal dress with miter and crozier
8.5
Daoist priests in ritual vestments
8.6
Thai Buddhist monks in their traditional robes
9.1
Christmas nativity scene
9.2
Young Buddhists often join a monastery during the wet season (Vassa)
9.3
Hindu girls lighting lamps on the feast of Divali
9.4
Chinese Dragon Boat Racing
9.5
Eight‐branched menorah (with central lighting candle) used at Hanukkah
9.6
Shi’ite Muslims beating their chests during Ashura
10.1
A mosque with two minarets in Azerbaijan
10.2
Torah scrolls inside the holy ark in a synagogue
10.3
Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris
10.4
The Vastu Purusha Mandala
10.5
Hindu mandir (temple) at Khajuraho, India
10.6
Kuthodaw Buddhist Temple in Mandalay, Myanmar
10.7
Basic geometric patterns of the stupa design
10.8
Qingyang Daoist Temple in Sichuan, China
11.1
Major pilgrimage sites in Hinduism
11.2
The holy city of Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges
11.3
Major pilgrimage sites in Daoism
11.4
Stairway to Heaven, Taishan
11.5
Major pilgrimage sites in Buddhism
11.6
Buddhists meditating at the bodhi tree, Bodhgaya
11.7
Major Christian pilgrimage sites in Israel
11.8
The old city of Jerusalem
11.9
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem
11.10
The Western Wall, Jerusalem
11.11
Muslim pilgrims at the Ka’bah, Mecca
11.12
Sites of the Hajj
Preface
The second edition of World Religions in Practice retains most of the key features of the original edition. It remains a comparative study of a sample of major religions based on a set of practical themes. What is new in this edition is the inclusion of a sixth religious tradition – Daoism – and, consequently, a slight reduction in the number of themes in order to maintain the length of the book. The addition of Daoism means that the sample now includes one of the principal ingredients of Chinese religious culture, which is an eclectic mix of popular folk traditions and the “Three Teachings”: Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. Whilst Buddhism has an Indian provenance, Daoism and Confucianism originated in China and, in introductory works on world religions, are often dealt with under the umbrella term “Chinese religion”. The decision to focus on Daoism alone, rather than include all elements of Chinese religious practice, is not intended as a value judgment on those other elements but simply to ensure that a manageable, working comparison is achieved.
The addition of this extra material meant that the chapter entitled Day has been omitted, although some of its time‐related contents have been incorporated into the chapter entitled Year, which looks at the annual calendars. It also meant that, in each chapter, the original sections on the five religions have been trimmed to provide a more succinct presentation. Finally, the inclusion of Daoism has also affected the order in which the religions are covered in each chapter. As explained in the first edition, this order is not random. Rather, it has been designed to highlight similarities and connections between religions on the theme in question, thus producing a useful spectrum of comparative analysis each time. In other words, Daoism has now joined the “dance” of the religions across the themes. Hopefully, these changes have resulted in a tighter, more representative comparison of the fascinating interplay between six of the world’s major religious traditions.
Note on Scriptural References
The following versions of scriptural and traditional texts have been used:
Access to Insight: Readings in Theravada Buddhism
, ed. John Bullitt, sutta translations by the Venerables Bhikkhu Bodhi, Acharya Buddharakkhita, Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Nanamoli Thera, Ñanavara Thera, Narada Thera, Nyanaponika Thera, Soma Thera, Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Phra Ajaan Geoff), and Sister Vajira; I. B. Horner, John D. Ireland, K. R. Norman, and F. L. Woodward. At
www.accesstoinsight.org
.
Babylonian Talmud
, ed. Rabbi Dr Isidore Epstein. London: Jews’ College. Also available at
www.come‐and‐hear.com/talmud
.
Bhagavad Gita
, trans. Laurie L. Patton. London: Penguin, 2008.
The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha
. New York: Oxford University Press (1991). Copyright 1989, Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
The Hadith
, USC‐MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, University of Southern California, at
www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah
.
The Holy Koran
, trans. Mohammed H. Shakir. New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur’an Inc., 1983. Also available at
www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah
.
Translations of the Daode jing and other Daoist texts are taken from Louis Komjathy (2013).
The Daoist Tradition
. London: Bloomsbury.
The Pinyin system has been used for transliterations of Chinese words.
Words in bold type are included in the Glossary at the end of the book.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank the following academic colleagues for their invaluable feedback on the draft manuscript:
Professor John D'Arcy May, Irish School of Ecumenics, Trinity College, Dublin
Associate Professor Douglas Pratt, Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, University of Waikato, New Zealand
Dr Heather Foster, School of Education, University of South Australia, Adelaide
Peta Jones Pellach, Director of Adult Education, Shalom Institute, Sydney
Associate Professor Mehmet Olzap, Charles Sturt University
Amna Hansia and the staff of the Australian Islamic College, Perth
Associate Professor Constant Mews, Director of Centre for Studies in Religion and Theology, Monash University, Melbourne
I am also very grateful for the professional advice and support of the Blackwell staff and their associates for this second edition, especially Rebecca Harkin, Ruth Swan, Vimali Joseph and Georgina Colby. I also wish to thank my wife, Kim Host, for her proof‐reading of the manuscript.
Paul GwynneSydney
Introduction
Few would deny that religion constitutes a vital piece of the jigsaw when it comes to fully understanding human societies and their members, both past and present. It is a key influence on a host of cultural activities around the globe, from weddings and funerals to public holidays and festivals. Religious belief is frequently a source of inspiration for works of literature, art and architecture, and can significantly shape everyday life at the level of diet and clothing. Even in highly secularized Western society, the legacy of centuries of religious tradition has left its distinctive and enduring mark on language, symbol and custom. Sadly, religious motives are also an ingredient in many political conflicts and even acts of terrorism that currently dominate the world stage. For better or for worse, religion is still very much a part of the human story and cannot be ignored if we hope to explain fully what makes individuals and communities think and act in the way that they do.
Moreover, the contraction of the world from an array of far‐flung continents to a single global village has brought a wide spectrum of religious beliefs firmly within our horizon, wherever that may be. In Western societies, mass immigration programs have meant a reversal of colonial times and the arrival of large numbers of adherents of “other faiths.” The world has come to us and its religions are no longer exotic phenomena in distant lands, but the defining worldviews of neighbors and work colleagues. Conversely, the relative ease and affordability of travel provides an unprecedented opportunity for today’s tourist to visit cultures where ceremonies, festivals, artworks and buildings express religious ideas in both recognizable and unrecognizable ways.
In such a world, an appreciation of different religious traditions is arguably more pertinent than ever. Without diluting or compromising one’s own fundamental philosophical, spiritual or religious persuasions, an interested and respectful study of different religious systems affords an opportunity to complete the picture. The comparative study of religion provides the broader context into which more familiar faith systems can be situated and, thus, better understood. It can highlight the distinctive features that render each religion truly unique, while at the same time revealing fascinating areas of intersection between faiths.
This book is an attempt to explore those similarities and differences, hopefully contributing something to the quest for a deeper understanding and a more profound appreciation of the common ground between all religions. To this end, a phenomenological approach has been adopted. In other words, it is not primarily concerned with the veracity or credibility of the religious claims involved. Nor is it about demonstrating that one religion is more advanced or complete than another. Although absolute objectivity is an impossible ideal in any discipline, apologetic issues are deliberately set aside in an attempt to present each religion in a respectful and accurate manner.
The major religions dealt with in this book are Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The decision to restrict the study to these six in no way implies that the list is exhaustive. There are other religious and quasi‐religious systems that could be considered global such as Confucianism, Sikhism, Jainism, Baha’ism and Zoroastrianism but the scope and approach of the book meant that a limit had to be imposed at some point. The six that have been chosen are frequently the subject of textbooks and courses on “world religions” and for good reason. Four of them represent the largest religious denominations according to approximate current statistics: Christianity (2.2 billion), Islam (1.5 billion), Hinduism (1 billion), and Buddhism (380 million). With about 14 million adherents, Judaism admittedly involves much smaller numbers, but it is included in the main six due to its significant age, widespread influence and fundamental links to the other two Abrahamic faiths, Christianity and Islam. Providing a meaningful figure for Daoism is more complex and messy. Although there is Daoist philosophy, Daoist rituals and Daoist priests and monks, it is unclear whether there are actually any “Daoists” in the sense of a community of believers who identify themselves as such in distinction from Confucians or Buddhists. On the contrary, it is more accurate to speak of drawing on Daoist, Confucian, Buddhist and popular folk traditions to various degrees as simply part of being Chinese.
The approach taken in this book is somewhat different from that of standard works in two ways. First, most introductory works on the world’s major religions adopt a serial approach whereby the author outlines the key features of each religion in turn. Thus, chapters tend to be organized according to the religions themselves and the reader is escorted on a journey of discovery through various aspects of the faith system in question. The bibliography at the end of this book contains many such examples. The advantage is that a reasonably coherent overview of each religion is provided in discrete units. However, an alternative method has been used for this work. Rather than organizing religions in linear fashion and treating each one as a separate whole, a more lateral approach has been adopted whereby a range of general themes is explored across the religions. The result is a series of cross‐sections that reveal how a particular theme, such as sacred writing or holy days, is expressed in each religion. Such an approach is able to generate greater levels of explicit comparison between the religions, uncovering not only the unique qualities that differentiate them, but also an assortment of interesting overlaps and connections.
Second, most books on the world’s major religions tend to focus on either their historical development or their theological beliefs while (with a few exceptions) paying little or no attention to the actual living out of the faith. Several decades ago, Ninian Smart proposed that all religions contain, to a greater or lesser extent, seven fundamental dimensions: doctrinal–philosophical; experiential–emotional; mythical–narrative; ethical–legal; social–institutional; practical–ritual; and material. The themes chosen for this book belong primarily to Smart’s last two categories (with one chapter devoted to the ethical dimension). Thus, we will be looking mainly at how the six religions are expressed in practice. Our principal interest lies more in customs than in creeds, in external actions than in inner attitudes. Nevertheless, an examination of the ritual and material dimension of these six religions inevitably touches on Smart’s other dimensions, including the doctrinal–philosophical. A study of religious practices cannot avoid consideration of the theological foundations that underpin them. The practical features of religions, such as the use of images and texts in worship, the donning of special clothing, or the design of sacred buildings, reflect deeper doctrinal positions regarding the world and our place in it. In this respect, the old Latin adage rings true: lex orandi lex credendi (“the law of praying is the law of believing”). In other words, the practical is a mirror to the theoretical. Religious custom is a reflection of religious belief and vice versa.
The 11 practical themes are themselves arranged and linked under an overarching motif: the sanctification of the ordinary. As Smart rightly pointed out, religion is a complex, multi‐dimensional phenomenon that has proved to be notoriously difficult to pin down. This is clear from the myriad of definitions available (for a sample see Box 0.1). Some definitions stress the individual while others stress the social; some the psychological, others the cultural; some the moral, others the political. However, most definitions of religion contain the reference to a reality beyond time and space, which can be denoted in many ways: “the divine”; “the sacred”; “the supernatural”; “the spiritual”; “Ultimate Being”; “God”; “Allah”; “Brahman”; “the Dao”; “eternal dharma”; and so forth. Whether this reality actually exists or is merely the product of the human imagination is one of the most burning of all philosophical issues. But apart from the question of its factual or fictional status, faith in transcendent reality clearly has a profound impact on the way in which believers interpret and live out human existence. Whatever the designation, Hindus, Buddhists, Daoists, Jews, Christians and Muslims all see it as the answer to the most important questions of all: Where did we come from? Why are we here? And where are we going? Consequently, belief in transcendent reality casts a new light on all aspects of life, even the most mundane. Ordinary realities such as food and clothing, birth, marriage and death, even time and space itself, are given a more profound, extraordinary meaning through the eyes of religious faith. Familiar objects, activities, moments and places become part of the provision of ultimate meaning and, thus, take on a sacred, transcendent quality.
Box 0.1 Some Definitions of Religion
The belief in a superhuman controlling power, especially in a personal God or gods entitled to obedience and worship. (Concise Oxford Dictionary)
A belief system that includes the idea of the existence of an eternal principle that has created the world that governs it, that controls its destinies or that intervenes in the natural course of its history. (Random House Dictionary)
Homo religiosus always believes that there is an absolute reality, the sacred, which transcends this world but manifests itself in this world, thereby sanctifying it and making it real. (Mircea Eliade)
Religion, in the largest and most basic sense of the word, is ultimate concern. It gives us the experience of the Holy, of something which is untouchable, awe‐inspiring, an ultimate meaning, the source of ultimate courage. (Paul Tillich)
A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long‐lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. (Clifford Geertz)
Religion implies that human order is projected into the totality of being. Put differently, religion is the audacious attempt to conceive of the entire universe as being humanly significant. (Peter Berger)
Religious ideas are illusions, fulfillments of the oldest, strongest and most urgent wishes of mankind. Thus, the benevolent rule of a divine Providence allays our fear of the dangers of life; the establishment of a moral world‐order insures the fulfillment of the demands of justice, which have so often remained unfulfilled in human civilization; and the prolongation of earthly existence in a future life provides the local and temporal framework in which these wish‐fulfillments shall take place. (Sigmund Freud)
Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of a spiritless situation. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is required for their real happiness. (Karl Marx)
The 11 themes are organized into three clusters which constitute the three sections of the book. Part 1 looks at two principal religious ways in which the reality that lies “beyond time and space” can be accessed: the visual image and the written or spoken word. The use (or non‐use) of these two bridges to transcendent reality not only constitutes an important starting point for our comparison of practice but also reveals something about how each religion understands transcendent reality itself. Part 2 focuses on human existence “within time and space.” It opens with a brief survey of moral duty in each religion and then proceeds to examine three main rites of passage (birth, death and marriage) that are frequently marked by religious ritual. This section also takes the two most basic necessities of life (food and clothing) and examines how they are also given sacred meaning by religious faith. Part 3 looks at the very fabric of spatial–temporal existence, and explores how each of the six religions sanctifies time and space itself. Themes of the annual calendar, the sacred building and spiritual pilgrimage are examined in each religion. Of course, the choice of these 11 themes does not imply that the list is complete. There are other practical themes that could be added such as healing, initiation and prayer. However, these 11 themes resonate effectively across the six religions, thus representing a useful sample that serves well the comparative and practical purpose of the book.
Given the limited size of such a book, there is simply not enough space to delve into the intricate details of the chosen themes. The beliefs and practices discussed here are merely the tips of many icebergs that can be adequately fathomed only in more specialized works. Moreover, the six religions themselves are far from monochrome, consisting of a spectrum of subdivisions, sects and traditions whose beliefs and practices can vary significantly at times, especially in the case of Hinduism. Moreover, as we noted above, Chinese religious practice is an eclectic mix of Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism and folk religion. Thus, the danger of generalization hovers constantly over such a project, including the inherent limitations of the term “world religion” itself. Consequently, the author has endeavored to focus on broadly typical characteristics of each major religion, accompanied by the acknowledgment of variations and exceptions where relevant. Admittedly a picture painted with broad brush strokes must ignore small things, but there is some value in stepping back at times and taking a more panoramic view. In short, this book is more concerned with forests than trees, especially what the forests look like from above and where their boundaries touch.
The primary audience of the book is the tertiary or senior secondary student in religious studies courses as well as the layperson who has an interest in major religions and their interrelationship. Although the book is introductory in nature, a basic familiarity with the six religions will be advantageous since each religion is encountered thematically along with others. Accordingly, a brief vignette for each religion has been provided at the end of this Introduction. The effect of the comparative approach is akin to a thematic tour, but the road is more reminiscent of a meandering track than a straight highway. The order in which we travel through the six religions will vary from chapter to chapter, depending on where the bridges seem to occur naturally. It should be noted that the particular order in which the religions are dealt with in each chapter is not intended to imply any kind of priority or superiority, nor is it the only possible one. The tour itinerary is not binding, but hopefully it is one that will provide fresh views and interesting landscapes.
HINDUISM
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
1 billion
Origins
Hinduism has no historical founder but its origins are usually linked to the Aryan invasion of the Indus Valley civilization around 1500 BCE, which resulted in a socio‐religious
caste
system and the emergence of the
Vedas
as primary sacred texts.
Subdivisions
Hinduism is a general term embracing a complex spectrum of religious sects. It can be subdivided according to the principal form of
Brahman
which is worshiped:
Vaishnavism (650 million): worship of
Vishnu
and his incarnations such as
Krishna
and
Rama
;
Shaivism (250 million): worship of
Shiva
;
Shaktism: worship of
Shakti
(
Mother Goddess
) and her manifestations such as
Parvati, Durga
and Kali.
There are also many recent movements such as the
Arya Samaj
, which was founded by Dayananda Saraswati in the late nineteenth century.
Transcendent reality
The term Brahman refers to the one absolute reality that embraces the entire cosmos. Brahman is beyond all finite categories but is manifest and worshiped in the form of different gods and goddesses such as Vishnu, Shiva, or the Mother Goddess. Thus, Hinduism is difficult to classify and is described variously as
polytheistic, henotheistic
or
monistic
.
Human existence
Hindus believe in
samsara
(reincarnation) whereby the
atman
(soul) of the deceased is reborn into the world according to the law of
karma
. The cycle can last hundreds or thousands of lifetimes but it is hoped that all individuals will eventually be released from the cycle of rebirth and attain
moksha
(final liberation). For some Hindu philosophers, such as
Shankara
, moksha involves the dissolution of the atman back into Brahman. For others, such as Ramanuja, the liberated atman retains some degree of individual existence in perfect communion with Brahman and other beings. There are three main paths to moksha:
jnana‐marga: the path of knowledge and meditation;
karma‐marga: the path of moral action;
bhakti
‐marga: the path of devotion and worship of a particular deity.
Sacred texts
There are two main categories of Hindu sacred writings:
shruti
(primary revelation): the Vedas and the Upanishads;
smriti
(secondary revelation): there are many works in this category of which the most prominent are the two great epics (the
Mahabharata
and the
Ramayana
), the poetic
Puranas
, and legal codes such as the
Laws of Manu
.
Key rituals
The 16 traditional life‐cycle rituals (
samskaras
) include many prenatal and childhood ceremonies, as well as initiation into adulthood (sacred thread), marriage and funeral rites.
BUDDHISM
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
380 million
Origins
Siddhartha Gautama
(c.560–480 BCE) was born into the royal family of the Sakya kingdom (near the current Indian/Nepal border). He married and had a son, but upon experiencing the Four Sights (old age, sickness, death and a holy man) left his family and spent seven years as a wandering ascetic. Meditating under a tree at Bodhgaya, he grasped the
Four Noble Truths
and became
Buddha
(Enlightened One). He delivered the First Sermon to his five companions at Sarnath and thereafter traveled around northern India, teaching and attracting followers until his death at Kusinagara.
Subdivisions
Theravada
(Way of the Elders) has about 150 million followers located mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. It is sometimes called Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) by the Mahayana tradition. Theravada Buddhism stresses the importance of the monastic community and the need for self‐discipline in order to attain
nirvana
.
Mahayana
(Greater Vehicle) has approximately 200 million followers located mainly in China, Mongolia, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. It has more readily incorporated elements from local cultures and stresses compassion, especially in the form of the
bodhisattva
, a holy person who postpones nirvana to assist others.
Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle) has about 20 million adherents and is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet. It is characterized by mystical rituals and elements including
tantras
,
mantras
and
mandalas
.
Transcendent reality
Buddha rejected the Hindu concepts of Brahman (transcendent being) and atman (soul). The main focus of his teaching is on personal liberation from craving (greed, hatred and ignorance) which binds us to the wheel of reincarnation. Thus, many argue that Buddhism should not be classified as a religion, although it has many features that are similar to other religions.
Human existence
Buddhists believe in reincarnation according to the law of karma. However, the self is illusory and what is reborn each time is a reconfiguration of basic energies. Liberation from the wheel of samsara is attained by embracing the Four Noble Truths:
suffering is universal;
the root of suffering is craving for transient things;
nirvana is the end of suffering and reincarnation;
the way to nirvana is the Noble Eightfold Path: right knowledge, right attitude, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation.
The
Pancasila
(Five Precepts) is the Buddhist list of fundamental ethical principles that should be followed.
Sacred texts
The
Tipitaka
(
Three Baskets
) is a threefold collection of the Buddha’s sayings, the monastic rule, and a philosophical system. It is the most important text in Theravada Buddhism. Other texts are given equal or greater status in Mahayana and Vajrayana schools, such as Lotus Sutra and the Tibetan Book of the Dead.
Key rituals
Buddhism has no universal ceremonial system. Its rites of passage are profoundly influenced by local culture and custom. Monastic life involves ordination ceremonies, alms rounds and a range of meditation practices.
DAOISM
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
It is difficult to provide a meaningful number because Daoists do not self‐identify as in other religions. Rather, Daoism, along with Confucianism, Buddhism and folk religion, is part of being Chinese.
Origins
The origins of Daoism are usually linked to the legendary figure of
Laozi
(“Old Master”) who was a contemporary of Confucius (sixth century BCE). It is said that he was a court official who wrote a short treatise called the
Daode jing
, which he gave to the Guardian of the Pass, before disappearing from society. However, the first organized forms of Daoism only emerged in the first century CE (late Han Dynasty) with the deification of Laozi as Lord Lao, ritual practice and new movements such as the Tianshi (
Celestial Masters
) and the Yellow Turbans.
Subdivisions
Today, the two main forms of Daoism in mainland China and among Chinese communities elsewhere are the Zhengyi and Quanzhen movements.
The
Zhengyi
(Orthodox Unity) movement dates to the eleventh century CE and was prominent in southern China. It is characterized by a married priesthood and community rituals such as exorcisms and healings. It is also called the
Tianshi
(Celestial Masters) movement since its highest authority is the Celestial Master who traditionally resided at Dragon Tiger Mountain until the 63rd Master fled to Taiwan in 1949.
The
Quanzhen
(Complete Perfection) movement was founded in the twelfth century CE. Historically dominant in northern China, it emphasizes asceticism, mystical experience and self‐preservation practices. It has been heavily influenced by Buddhism and has celibate, vegetarian monk‐priests. Its headquarters is the
White Cloud Monastery
in Beijing but the Quanzhen branch also has official jurisdiction over most Daoist pilgrimage sites in mainland China.
Transcendent reality
The Daoist pantheon consists of a multitude of gods who form a heavenly, bureaucratic hierarchy. At the highest level are the
Three Pure Ones
(
Sanqing
) who presided over the formation of the cosmos, the appearance of
yin and yang
and the emergence of human civilization. Above and beyond the Three Pure Ones lies the elusive
Dao
(“Way”) – a term that signifies several ideas: unfathomable mystery; all‐pervading divine presence; the absolute origin and destiny of all beings. A principal Daoist aim is to harmonize one’s thoughts and actions effortlessly with the Dao.
Human existence
In contrast to the reincarnational models of Hinduism and Buddhism, Daoism teaches that humans live only once. At physical death, the body decays but the person lives on as an ancestral spirit for a number of generations before being reabsorbed back into the cosmos. Many Daoist practices are aimed at enhancing one’s physical and spiritual health, as well as extending one’s lifespan in this life and the next.
Sacred texts
The
Daozang
(Treasury of the Dao) is a medieval collection of over 1400 sacred scrolls, organized into three sections (called “caverns”). Different Daoist schools prioritize different writings within this collection, but most schools acknowledge the importance of two of the earliest texts: the Daode jing (by Master Laozi) and the
Zhuangzi
(by
Master Zhuang
).
Key rituals
Daoism has many forms of official ritual including offering, petition, purification, initiation, consecration and ordination ceremonies.
JUDAISM
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
14 million
Origins
Judaism traces its origins to the covenant between God and
Abraham
(c.1800 BCE) who left his homeland in Mesopotamia and settled in the land of Canaan (Israel). The covenant was passed on to his son (
Isaac
) and his grandson (
Jacob
). The most important event in Jewish history is the miraculous escape (the Exodus) of the Israelites from Egypt (c.1250 BCE) under the leadership of
Moses
. The
Torah
(Law) was subsequently revealed to Moses on
Mount Sinai
. After 40 years in the wilderness, the people entered the land of Canaan and established an independent kingdom with priesthood and temple.
Subdivisions
Orthodox Judaism
upholds the value of tradition, stressing the ongoing importance of biblical
commandments
such as those pertaining to diet and the
Sabbath
. It is the official form of Judaism in Israel.
Reform Judaism
is more liberal toward contemporary culture and, thus, more willing to adapt traditional teaching to new situations. For example, it allows vernacular language in worship and women’s ordination.
Conservative Judaism
takes a middle position between the Reform and Orthodox movements.
There are also Jewish cultural streams such as
Ashkenazi
(from central and eastern Europe) and
Sephardic
(from the Iberian peninsula, northern Africa and the Middle East).
Transcendent reality
Judaism professes faith in one, supreme, personal God who created the universe. God has revealed his will via Moses and the
prophets
, and has intervened at key moments in history to save his chosen people. God is infinite and utterly beyond human imagination; thus idolatry is a grave sin and a constant danger.
Human existence
Humans are created in the image of God, and their destiny is to share eternal happiness with their creator in heaven. Most Jews believe that human persons are born and die just once, after which everyone faces divine judgment although some accept a limited form of reincarnation (gilgul). Jews are required to keep the divinely revealed Law, especially the 613 explicit commandments found in the Torah.
Sacred texts
The Jewish Bible, or
Tanach
, consists of the 5 books of the Law (Torah), the 8 books of the Prophets (Neviyim), and the 11 books of the Writings (Ketuvim). The
Talmud
is a detailed commentary on Tanach composed in two main forms around 500 CE.
Key rituals
The main rites of passage are circumcision,
bar mitzvah
, marriage and the funeral service. The sabbath (Saturday) is set aside as a day of strict rest.
CHRISTIANITY
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
2.2 billion
Origins
Jesus of Nazareth
(c.6 BCE–30 CE) is considered by Christians to be the long‐awaited Jewish
Messiah
and also the incarnate Son of God. In a short public life that began with his baptism in the Jordan, Jesus preached the imminent coming of the kingdom of God in which sinners would find divine mercy and forgiveness. He is said to have worked many miracles in the tradition of
Moses
and
Elijah
, especially healing the sick. His message and person aroused serious opposition from the religious and political leadership and he was condemned to death by crucifixion. Christians believe that he was raised from the dead and appeared to his followers, commissioning them to continue his message and work.
Subdivisions
The main subdivisions of Christianity are a result of two historical moments:
Eastern Christianity (centered on Constantinople) and
Western Christianity
(centered on Rome) formally separated in the Great Schism of 1054. The Eastern churches are now known collectively as
Orthodox Christianity
(300 million).
The sixteenth‐century Reformation led to a further division of Western Christianity into the (Roman)
Catholic Church
(1.1 billion) and many Protestant churches (850 million) such as the
Lutheran
,
Anglican
,
Calvinist
and
Baptist
traditions.
Transcendent reality
Christianity is essentially
monotheistic
in that it professes faith in one, supreme, personal God. However, the belief that Jesus is the human incarnation of God led to the concept of the
Trinity
: three divine persons, or modes of existence (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) in the one divine essence (God).
Human existence
Human persons are born and die once, after which they face divine judgment. The virtuous enjoy heaven, which is a state of perfect, eternal bliss in communion with God and other beings. The wicked are condemned to hell, which is a state of eternal alienation from the creator. Christianity accepts the ongoing validity of the
Ten Commandments
as a fundamental moral guide but interprets them as imitation of Jesus who is the supreme model for human life.
Sacred texts
The Christian Bible consists of the Jewish Tanach (renamed as the
Old Testament
) and the 27 Christian books of the
New Testament
. Catholic and Orthodox Bibles also include some books found in the ancient Greek version of the Jewish Bible (the Septuagint) but not in Tanach.
Key rituals
Catholic and Orthodox churches recognize seven
sacraments
that are considered to have been established by
Christ
:
baptism
, confirmation, the
Eucharist
, holy orders, marriage, reconciliation and anointing of the sick. Protestant churches tend to recognize only two such rituals as having an explicit basis in the New Testament: baptism and the Eucharist.
ISLAM
Key facts
No. of adherents (approx.)
1.5 billion
Origins
Muhammad
(c.570–632 CE) was a successful merchant based in
Mecca
. When he was about 40 years old, he received the first of a series of divine revelations, which continued until his death. Muhammad’s monotheistic message met with opposition in Mecca, and eventually his small community was forced to migrate to
Medina
in 622 CE (the
Hijra
). Muhammad proved to be a successful leader in Medina where Islam consolidated and grew. After a series of battles, Mecca surrendered in 630 CE and Muhammad transformed its central shrine, the
Ka’bah
, into a symbol of the new faith. He died in 632 and is buried in Medina. His companion
Abu Bakr
was elected as the first
caliph
.
Subdivisions
The main subdivision in Islam is between the
Sunni
majority (1.3 billion) and the
Shi’ite
minority (250 million). Sunnis accept the election of Abu Bakr and his three successors (
Umar
,
Uthman
and
Ali
) as legitimate leaders (caliphs) of the early community. Shi’ites claim that the leadership should have passed immediately to Ali, who was Muhammad’s son‐in‐law and cousin. Thus Ali, his wife (
Fatima
), his sons (
Hasan
and
Hussain
), and the line of true leaders (
imams
) have an important status in Shi’ite Islam.
Transcendent reality
Islam stresses the absolute oneness and transcendence of God (
Allah
). Thus, idolatry (
shirk
) is one of the gravest sins for a Muslim. God reveals his will through the prophets, of whom Muhammad is the last and greatest. God’s will is encapsulated in the Qur’an.
Human existence
Islam believes that humans are born and die once. On the day of judgment at the end of the world, all will be held accountable: the just will be rewarded with the joys of Jannah (Paradise) while the wicked will be punished in Jahannam (hell).
Sacred texts
The holiest text in Islam is the
Qur’an
, which is a collection of the revelations received by Muhammad during his lifetime. The Qur’an is considered to be the literal word of God. Its authority is complemented, but not rivaled, by official collections of the sayings and example of the Prophet, which are known as
hadith
.
Key rituals
Islam ritually marks key moments in life such as birth, marriage and death. The Five Pillars of Sunni Islam are also an important aspect of practice:
shahadah
: declaration of faith in God and his Prophet;
salat
: formal prayers five times per day;
zakat
: a percentage of income given to the poor;
sawm
: daylight fasting during the month of
Ramadan
;
hajj
: pilgrimage to Mecca.
Part 1Beyond Time and Space
1Image
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Second Commandment
1.3 Shirk
1.4 Incarnate Son
1.5 Murti
1.6 Opening the Radiance
1.7 The Three Bodies
1.1 Introduction
At the heart of religion lies the belief in a transcendent reality that provides an overarching context for human life and all that it contains. Seen through religious eyes, this visible world is not the full story. There is a dimension beyond the visible that holds the key to the origin, the purpose and the ultimate destiny of the cosmos and its inhabitants. Where religions tend to diverge is on the specific nature of this dimension. Is it personal or impersonal? Is it one or many? Is it masculine or feminine? Is it fundamentally similar to or different from us? The answers to such questions can be found by investigating one of the principal practical ways in which Hindus, Buddhists, Daoists, Jews, Christians and Muslims access the transcendent – their use or non‐use of the sacred image.
1.2 The Second Commandment
One of the most fundamental guides for religious and ethical life in Judaism is a list of ten commandments that Jews believe were revealed by God in ancient times.1 The first commandment on the list consists of the simple statement “I am the Lord your God,” which Jews interpret to mean that one must have religious faith. Belief in God is the first and foremost step. But it is the second commandment that holds the key to the Jewish understanding of the nature of divine reality. It begins with the phrase: “You shall have no other gods before me.” This statement could be interpreted to mean that there are many gods but that the Jews should ensure that their god has priority: a position known as henotheism. However, the traditional Jewish interpretation has been that only one, true God exists. In other words, this is a monotheistic religion and one of the most serious sins is the interposing of “other (false) gods” before the One – idolatry.
The monotheistic bedrock of Judaism is manifest in a host of religious writings and practices, a classical example of which is the 13 Principles of the Jewish Faith (Box 1.1) enumerated by the outstanding twelfth‐century philosopher Maimonides. His summary of the key elements of Jewish faith was converted into a poetic version known as the Yigdal hymn, which has been included in the daily worship service. Each morning in synagogues across the world, Jews chant:
Exalted be the Living God and praised.
He exists – unbounded by time in His existence.
