Advanced Electrical and Electronics Materials E-Book

K. M. Gupta

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Advance Materials Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 903

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

This comprehensive and unique book is intended to cover the vast and fast-growing field of electrical and electronic materials and their engineering in accordance with modern developments. Basic and pre-requisite information has been included for easy transition to more complex topics. Latest developments in various fields of materials and their sciences/engineering, processing and applications have been included. Latest topics like PLZT, vacuum as insulator, fiber-optics, high temperature superconductors, smart materials, ferromagnetic semiconductors etc. are covered. Illustrations and examples encompass different engineering disciplines such as robotics, electrical, mechanical, electronics, instrumentation and control, computer, and their inter-disciplinary branches. A variety of materials ranging from iridium to garnets, microelectronics, micro alloys to memory devices, left-handed materials, advanced and futuristic materials are described in detail.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgement

About the Authors

Abbreviations

Chapter 1: General Introduction to Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.1 Importance of Materials

1.2 Importance of Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.3 Classification of Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.4 Scope of Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.5 Requirements of Engineering Materials

1.6 Operational Requirements of Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.7 Classification of Solids on the Basis of Energy Gap

1.8 Glimpse of Some Electronic Products, Their Working Principles and Choicest Materials

1.9 Different Types of Engineering Materials

1.10 Different Levels of Materials Structure

1.11 Spintronics (The Electronics of Tomorrow) and Spintronic Materials

1.12 Ferromagnetic Semiconductor

1.13 Left-Handed (LH) Materials

1.14 Solved Examples

Chapter 2: Atomic Models, Bonding in Solids, Crystal Geometry, and Miller Indices

2.1 Atomic Models

2.2 Bohr’s Quantum Atomic Model

2.3 Modern Concept of Atomic Model

2.4 Electron Configuration

2.5 Meaning of Chemical (or Atomic) Bonding

2.6 Classification of Chemical Bonds

2.7 Ionic Bond

2.8 Covalent Bonds

2.9 Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline Crystal Structures

2.10 Space Lattice

2.11 Basis

2.12 Unit Cell and Crystal

2.13 Bravais Crystal System

2.14 Primitive and Non-Primitive Unit Cells

2.15 Coordination Number

2.16 Atomic Packing Fraction

2.17 Calculation of Density (or Bulk Density)

2.18 Miller Indices

2.19 Interplaner Spacing

2.20 Linear Density

2.21 Planer Density

Chapter 3: Solid Structures, Characterization of Materials, Crystal Imperfections, and Mechanical Properties of Materials

3.1 Crystallography

3.2 Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Structures

3.3 Hexagonally Closed Packed Structure (HCP)

3.4 VOIDS

3.5 Covalent Solids

3.6 Bragg’s Law of X-Rays Diffraction

3.7 Structure Determination

3.8 Microscopy

3.9 Different Types of Metallurgical Microscopes and Their Features

3.10 Working Principle of Electron Microscope

3.11 Ideal and Real Crystals, and Imperfections

3.12 Classification of Imperfections

3.13 Point Imperfections

3.14 Effects of Point Imperfections

3.15 Line Imperfections

3.16 Features of Edge Dislocation

3.17 Screw Dislocation

3.18 Characteristics of Dislocations

3.19 Sources of Dislocations, Their Effects and Remedies

3.20 Grain Boundary

3.21 Twin or Twinning

3.22 Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter 4: Conductive Materials: Electron Theories, Properties and Behaviour

4.1 Electrons and Their Role in Conductivity

4.2 Electron Theories of Solids

4.3 Free Electron Theory

4.4 Energy Band Theory

4.5 Brillouin Zone Theory

4.6 Conductors

4.7 Factors Affecting Conductivity (and Resistivity) of Metals

4.8 Thermal Conductivity

4.9 Heating Effect of Current

4.10 Thermoelectric Effect (or Thermoelectricity)

4.11 Seebeck Effect

4.12 Peltier Effect

4.13 Thomson Effect

4.14 Wiedemann-Franz Law and Lorentz Relation

4.15 Solved Examples

Chapter 5: Conductive Materials: Types and Applications

5.1 Mechanically Processed Forms of Electrical Materials

5.2 Types of Conducting Materials

5.3 Low Resistivity Materials

5.4 High Resistivity Materials

5.5 Contact Materials

5.6 Fusible (or Fuse) Materials

5.7 Filament Materials

5.8 Carbon As Filamentary and Brush Material

5.9 Conductors, Cables, and Wires: Types and Materials

5.10 Solder Materials for Joining Wires and Joints in Power Apparatuses

5.11 Sheathing Materials

5.12 Sealing Materials

5.13 Solved Examples

Chapter 6: Semiconducting Materials: Properties and Behaviour

6.1 Introduction to Semiconductors

6.2 Different Types of Semiconducting Materials

6.3 Determining the Percentage Ionic Character of Compound Semiconductor

6.4 Fermi Energy Level

6.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors

6.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors

6.7 Effective Mass

6.8 Density of State

6.9 Temperature Dependency of Carrier Concentrations

6.10 Effects of Temperature on Mobility of Carriers

6.11 Direct and Indirect Energy Band Semiconductors

6.12 Variation of Eg with Alloy Composition

6.13 Degenerate Semiconductors

6.14 Hall Effect

6.15 Analysis of Drift and Diffusion Currents

6.16 Continuity Equation

6.17 Solved Examples

Chapter 7: Semiconducting Materials: Types and Applications

7.1 Element Form Semiconducting Materials

7.2 Formulated (Compound and Alloyed) Semiconducting Materials

7.3 Lattice Structures of Some Compound Semiconductors

7.4 Solar Cells

7.5 Semiconductor Lasers

7.6 Optical Materials in Light Emitting Diodes

7.7 Materials for Optical Fibres

7.8 Choicest Materials for Different Semiconductor Devices

7.9 Solved Examples

Chapter 8: Semiconducting Materials: Processing and Devices

8.1 Production of Element Form Of Silicon (Si)

8.2 Semiconductor Crystal Growth

8.3 Processing of Semiconducting Materials

8.4 Zone Refining

8.5 Manufacturing of Wafers

8.6 Semiconductors Fabrication Technology

8.7 Fabrication of a Semiconductor P-N Junction

8.8 Transistor Manufacturing Processes

8.9 Semiconducting Devices and Their Operating Principle

8.10 Important Applications of Semiconductor Devices

8.11 Brief Description of Some Semiconductor Devices

8.12 P-N Junction Diode

8.13 Working of P-N Diode When not Connected to a Battery

8.14 Different Types of P-N Junction Diodes

8.15 Junction Transistors

8.16 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

8.17 Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

8.18 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MESFET)

8.19 Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET) or Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MISFET)

8.20 Charge Coupled Devices

8.21 Solved Examples

Chapter 9: Dielectric Materials: Properties and Behaviour

9.1 Introduction to Dielectric Materials

9.2 Classification of Dielectric (or Insulating) Materials

9.3 Main Properties

9.4 Dielectric Constant

9.5 Dielectric Strength

9.6 Dielectric Loss

9.7 Polarization

9.8 Mechanism of Polarization

9.9 Comparison of Different Polarization Processes

9.10 Factors Affecting Polarization

9.11 Spontaneous Polarization

9.12 Behaviour of Polarization Under Impulse and Frequency Switching

9.13 Decay and Build-Up of Polarization Under Alternating Current (A.C.) Field

9.14 Complex Dielectric Constant

9.15 Determining the Internal Field Due to Polarization Inside the Dielectric

9.16 Clausius-Mossotti Relation

9.17 Solved Examples

Chapter 10: Dielectric Materials: Types and Applications

10.1 Solid Insulating Materials and their Applications

10.2 Polymeric Insulating Materials

10.3 Natural and Synthetic Rubber as Insulating Material

10.4 Paper as a Fibrous Insulating Material

10.5 Choices of Solid Insulating Materials for Different Applications

10.6 Liquid Insulating Materials

10.7 Gaseous Insulating Materials

10.8 Ferroelectric Materials

10.9 Barium Titanate: A Ferroelectric Ceramic

10.10 Modified Barium Titanate

10.11 PLZT as an Electro-Optic Material

10.12 Piezoelectricity

10.13 Piezoelectrics in Transducer Uses

10.14 Relation Between Young’s Modulus and Electric Field in Piezoelectric Material

10.15 Electrostriction

10.16 Pyroelectricity

10.17 Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT): A Piezoelectric Ceramic

10.18 Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate (PLZT)

10.19 Solved Examples

Chapter 11: Magnetic Materials: Properties and Behaviour

11.1 Origin of Permanent Magnetic Dipole

11.2 Terminologies Defined

11.3 Classification of Magnetic Materials

11.4 Diamagnetism and Diamagnetic Materials

11.5 Paramagnetism and Paramagnetic Materials

11.6 Ferromagnetism and Ferromagnetic Materials

11.7 Antiferromagnetism and Antiferromagnetic Materials

11.8 Ferrimagnetism and Ferrites

11.9 Curie Temperature

11.10 Laws of Magnetic Materials

11.11 Magnetization Curve, and Initial and Maximum Permeability

11.12 Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses

11.13 Domain Theory

11.14 Magnetostriction

11.15 Ferromagnetic Anisotropy

11.16 Domain Growth and Domain Wall Rotation

11.17 Derivation of Langevin’s Theory of Diamagnetism and Expression For Diamagnetic Susceptibility

11.18 Derivation of Langevin’s Theory of Paramagnetism and Expression for Paramagnetic Susceptibility

11.19 Solved Examples

Chapter 12: Magnetic Materials: Types and Applications

12.1 Types of Magnetic Materials

12.2 Magnetic Materials

12.3 Soft Magnetic Materials

12.4 Hard Magnetic Materials

12.5 High Energy (Product) Hard Magnetic Materials (HEHMMs)

12.6 Commercial Grade Soft Magnetic Materials

12.7 Commercial Grade Hard Magnetic Materials

12.8 Ferrites in Memory Devices

12.9 Magnetic Storage

12.10 Metallic Glasses

12.11 Magnetic Bubbles

12.12 Effects of Alloying Elements on Magnetic Properties

12.13 Textured Magnetic Materials

12.14 Amorphous (or Oxide) Magnetic Materials

12.15 Powder Magnetic Materials

12.16 Solved Examples

Chapter 13: Superconductive Materials

13.1 Concept of Superconductors

13.2 Properties of Superconductors

13.3 Types of Superconductors

13.4 Critical Magnetic Field and Critical Temperature

13.5 Ideal and Hard Superconductors

13.6 Mechanism of Superconduction

13.7 London’s Theory For Type I Superconductors

13.8 GLAG Theory For Type II Superconductors

13.9 BCS Theory

13.10 Current Applications and Limitations

13.11 Milestones in Research and Development of Superconductors

13.12 Present Scenario of the Main Applications of High Temperature Superconductors

13.13 Producing the Superconducting Solenoids and Magnets

13.14 MRI for Medical Diagnostics

13.15 Solved Examples

Chapter 14: Passive Components (Resistors)

14.1 Passive and Active Components

14.2 Introduction to Resistors

14.3 Manufacturing Method of a Resistor

14.4 Basic Classification of Resistors

14.5 Constructional Details of Different Kinds of Fixed Resistors

14.6 Comparison Among Different Types of Fixed Resistors

14.7 Specifications of Resistors

14.8 Variable Resistors (i.e. Varistors)

14.9 Non-Linear Resistors

14.10 Thermistors

14.11 Solved Examples

Chapter 15: Passive Components (Capacitors)

15.1 Capacitor: an Introduction

15.2 Characteristics of Capacitors

15.3 Classification of Capacitors

15.4 Forms and Materials of Common Types of Capacitors

15.5 Constructional Details of Fixed Value Capacitors

15.6 Plastic Film Capacitors

15.7 Ceramic Dielectric Capacitors

15.8 Electrolytic Capacitors

15.9 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor

15.10 Air Capacitor

15.11 Polarized and Non-Polarized Capacitors

15.12 Variable Capacitors

15.13 Specifications of Capacitors

15.14 Identification of Capacitors

15.15 Solved Examples

Chapter 16: Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Fabrication

16.1 Printed Circuit Board

16.2 Types of PCBs

16.3 Types of PCB Substrates (or Laminates)

16.4 Manufacturing Process of Copper Cladded Laminate

16.5 Layout and Design of a Printed Circuit Board

16.6 Manufacturing Processes For PCB

16.7 Manufacturing of Single Sided PCBs

16.8 Manufacturing of Double-Sided PCBs

16.9 Solved Examples

Chapter 17: Optical Properties of Materials, and Materials for Opto-Electronic Devices

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Optical Phenomena

17.3 Reflection

17.4 Refraction

17.5 Transmittivity

17.6 Scattering

17.7 Optical Absorption

17.8 Optical Properties of Non-Metals

17.9 Optical Properties of Metals

17.10 Optical Properties of Semiconductors

17.11 Optical Properties of Insulators

17.12 Luminescence

17.13 Opto-Electronic Devices

17.14 Photoconductivity

17.15 Photoconductive Cell

17.16 Solved Examples

Chapter 18: Specific Materials for Electrical, Electronics, Computers, Instruments, Robotics, and Other Applications

18.1 Recent Developments

18.2 Specific Materials for Electrical Applications

18.3 Specific Materials For A Typical Battery

18.4 Specific Materials for Electronics Applications

18.5 Specific Materials for Computer Applications

18.6 Specific Materials for Instruments and Control Applications

18.7 Materials Used in Robots Construction

18.8 Information Transmission from Cricket Field to Worldwide Televisions

18.9 Specific Materials for Networking Applications

18.10 Specific Electronic, Computer, and Robotic Components; and Their Materials in Automobile Applications

18.11 Pen Drives (or Flash Memory) and Its Materials [1]

18.12 Remote Control Devices and Materials Used in Them

18.13 Hand Held Devices and Materials Used in Them

References

Chapter 19: Recent Advances and Emerging Trends in Electrical and Electronic Materials

19.1 Novel Applications of Functionally Graded Nano, Optoelectronic and Thermoelectric Materials

19.2 CNT Reinforced FGM Composites [1]

19.3 FGM in Optoelectronic Devices [2]

19.4 Advanced Thermoelectric Materials in Electrical and Electronic Applications

19.5 Frontiers in Electronic Materials Research

19.6 New Pyroelectric Thin Composite Films [7]

19.7 Composite and Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochemical Energy Sources [8]

19.8 Novel Nanostructured Materials for A Variety of Renewable Energy Applications [9]

19.9 Critical Fields in Lithium Niobate Nano Ferroelectrics [10]

19.10 Nanoengineering of Wood Fibres for Conducting Paper [11]

19.11 Effects of E - Waste on Environment and Their Solution by Reclamation of Green Materials From the Waste [12]

19.12 Plastics in Electrical and Electronics Applications

19.13 Composite Materials for Electronics Applications

19.14 Electrical Behaviour of Ceramics

19.15 Giant Magneto-Resistance (GMR) [18]

19.16 Ferrorfluids (or Magnetic Fluids) [19]

19.17 Information Storage Density

19.18 Magnetocaloric Materials [21]

19.19 Magneto-Dielectric Materials [23]

19.20 Biomimetics and Biomimetic Materials in Electrical and Electronics Applications

References

Appendix I: SI Prefixes of Multiples and Submultiples

Appendix II: Greek Alphabet

Appendix III: Conventions to be Followed While Using SI UNIT

Appendix IV: Physical Constants

Appendix V: Conversion Factors

Glossary of Terminologies

References

Answers to Numerical Questions

Answers to Objective Questions

Index

Advanced Electrical and Electronics Materials

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Advanced Materials SeriesThe Advanced Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of structure, synthesis and processing, characterization, advanced-state properties, and applications. The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches of molecular device materials, biomimetic materials, hybrid-type composite materials, functionalized polymers, supramolecular systems, information- and energy-transfer materials, biobased and biodegradable or environmental friendly materials. Each volume will be devoted to one broad subject and the multi-disciplinary aspects will be drawn out in full.

Series Editor: Dr. Ashutosh TiwariBiosensors and Bioelectronics CentreLinköping UniversitySE-581 83 LinköpingSwedenE-mail: [email protected]

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

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Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-99835-9

Dedicated tomy respected mother BELA,father (Late) Ram Nath,Godfather (Late) Lakhan Lal,father-in-law (Late) Kishori Lal,brother-in-law and sister: Jawahar and Savitri,nephew (Late) Jayant (Babul)andall forefathers and foremotherswhoseblessings have always been a boon in my life

Preface

This book is intended to cover the vast and fast growing field of electrical and electronic materials and their science in accordance with the modern trends. The level of the book covers the syllabi being taught at graduate and undergraduate standard of Engineering Colleges in many countries around the world including the United States and India. It also covers the syllabi of various Indian national level examinations. The contents of the book will also be very helpful to the students of postgraduate studies.

Basic and pre-requisite information has been included for easy transition to newer topics. Latest developments in various fields of materials; their sciences, processes and applications have been accommodated. Latest topics like spintronics, high energy hard magnetic materials, ferrites, plzt, vacuum as insulator, fibre-optics, high temperature superconductors, ferroelectrics, smart materials, ferromagnetic semiconductors etc. have been included.

Illustrations, examples, and details of sciences are such that they include different disciplines of engineering e.g. robotics, electrical, mechanical, electronics, instrumentation and control, computer, and inter-disciplinary branches. Topics like electron theories, magnetostriction, high voltage engineering, brillouin zone theory, gas-filled conductors etc. have been explained. A variety of materials ranging from iridium to garnets, resistors, capacitors, printed circuit boards to microelectronics, micro alloys to memory devices, left-handed materials, advance and futuristic materials are described.

Review and Objective Type Questions are based on concepts, design, construction, applications and practical orientations. Objective questions of all kinds viz.; ‘Multiple Choice’ type, ‘Assertion and Reasoning’ type, ‘Matching’ type, ‘Fill in the Blanks’ type, ‘Pick up the Correct Choice’, ‘True-False’ type are included. A large number of numerical examples have been worked out. Numerical exercises for practice and self evaluation are also given with their answers. SI units, in general, have been incorporated throughout the text but for familiarity the MKS units have also been used.

The book is substantiated by a large number of diagrams, tables, equations, review questions, objective questions, solved numericals, unsolved numerical exercises, question-answers, and terms in quick revision summary. I gratefully acknowledge the authors and publishers of the books and other literature quoted in references which have have been consulted in preparing this book.

I acknowledge the inspiration and blessings of my respected mother Smt. BELA DEVI, brother-in-law Sri JAWAHAR LAL, sister Smt. SAVITRI LAL, elder brother Sri GOPAL DAS GUPTA and other family members. I am full of gratitude to my daughter NIDHI, son NISHU, wife RITA, son-in-law RITESH, grandson AKARSH (RAM) and granddaughter GAURI for the patience shown and encouragement given to complete this venture.

I am highly obliged to my postgraduate student Mr. Kishor Kalauni, M.Tech. (Materials Science) without whose help and support it was not possible to publish this book. He took great pains in formatting and typing of a large number of pages, typesetting, making figures etc. I also acknowledge my student Mr. Saurabh Kumar Singh, M.Tech. (Materials Science) for some typing work. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my friends Er. Ranjeet Singh Virmani, Er. K.R.D. Tewari, and Er. Satish Chandra Srivastava for their technical support in several ways. Last but not the least, I owe a lot to Sri S.C. Sant, Mr. Anurag Sant and Mrs. Shilpa Sant for their continued support, guidance and cooperation in preparing this book.

Enormous effort has been made to avoid errors and mistakes; however, their presence cannot be ruled out. Any suggestion to improve the standard of this book, indication towards errors, omissions and mistakes will be highly appreciated.

January 2015Allahabad, India

Dr. K.M. [email protected] [email protected]

Acknowledgement

The Author of this book acknowledges with heartfelt gratitude to Mr. S.C.Sant and Mr. Anurag Sant, the publishers of the Umesh Publications (4230/1 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi-110002) India, for being kind enough to provide some literature support and valuable information that proved very useful in preparing this book. Author (Dr. K. M. Gupta) thanks especially Mr. Anurag Sant for his courteous gesture.

Dr. K.M. Gupta

About the Authors

Dr. K.M. Gupta is a Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad. He has over 38 years of teaching, research and consultancy experience. He obtained Diploma (with Honours) in Mechanical Engineering, Bachelor of Engineering (Gr. I.E., AMIE) in Mechanical Engineering, Postgraduation (M.E. with Honours) in 1977, and completed his Doctorate (Ph.D.) degree from University of Allahabad. Although a Mechanical Engineer but he has also specialised in Automobile Engineering discipline. He has authored 29 books and edited 2 books on Engineering subjects, and a chapter in Scrivener Wiley published ‘Handbook of Bioplastics and Biocomposites Engineering Applications’. He has also authored 120 research papers in reputed International and National Journals and Conferences to his credit. Professor K.M. Gupta has presented his research papers in 16 International conferences abroad at USA, UK, Japan, China, France, Muscat, Bangkok, South Africa, Hongkong etc. He has also chaired 8 International Conferences in China, Singapore, Dubai, Bangkok etc. He has acted as Editor-in-Chief of The International Journal of Materials, Mechanics and Manufacturing (IJMMM) Singapore.

Recipient of many Gold Medals and Prizes for his outstanding career from Diploma to Doctorate (a rare achievement in this India); he has served as Head of Automobile Engineering Department at the Institute of Engineering and Rural Technology, Allahabad. He developed several laboratories viz. Automobile related Labs, Materials Science Lab., Strength of Materials Lab., Hydraulics Lab. etc. at different Institutes/colleges.

Currently, Dr. Gupta is teaching materials science, engineering mechanics, thermodynamics of materials, electrical and electronic materials etc. his research interests are in the fields of materials science, composite materials, stress analysis, solid mechanics etc.

Nishu Gupta is a Research Scholar in the department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India. He received his B.Tech. Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from U.P. Technical University, M.Tech. Degree in Nanoscience and Technology from Delhi Technological University (formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi. He served as Visiting Faculty in the department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad; as Adhoc Faculty in the department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at National Institute of Technology, Sikkim. He also served as Deputed Faculty at NIT Calicut.

Prior to coming to academic profession, he has served as Software Engineer at Infosys Technologies Limited, and as Senior Software Engineer at Tech Mahindra Limited. He has 18 Research papers to his credit which were published in various International and National Conferences in India and abroad, and out of these has published 5 papers in International Journals. He has attended 5 International conferences abroad out of which he delivered presentations in 3 conferences, all as a student, which is an incredible accomplishment. His honours and awards include the recommendations for “Top 2000 Intellectuals of the 21st century by International Biographical Centre, Cambridge, England”, and for inclusion in the list of “2009 edition of Marquis Who’s Who in the World”. He has been shortlisted by the Ministry of HRD, Government of India for the Commonwealth Scholarship/Fellowship Plan, 2012 offered by the Government of United Kingdom.

His research interests are in the field of Semiconductor Devices, Hybrid Solar Cells, Photonics, Nano-optics and related fields.

Abbreviations

ACSR

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

AR

Anti Reflective

BCT

Body Centred Tetragonal

BJT

Bipolar Junction Transistor

BMG

Bulk Metallic Glass

CCD

Charge Coupled Device

CIC

Cable- In- Conduit

CNC

Computerized Numerically Controlled

DC

Diamond Cubic

EGS

Electronic Grade Silicon

EHP

Electron–Hole Pair

FCC

Face Centred Cube

FFC

Flexible–Film–Circuit

FPC

Flexible Printed Circuit

GGG

Gadolium Gallium Garnet

GMR

Giant Magneto–Resistance

HCP

Hexagonally Closed Packed

HMM

Hard Magnetic Materials

HTS

High Temperature Superconductor

IGFET

Insulated Gate Field–Effect Transistor

IFF

Ionic Ferrofluid

KDP

Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (a piezoelectric material)

LBL

Layer–By–Layer

LDR

Light Dependent Resistor

LED

Light Emitting Diode

LHM

Left–Handed Material

LTS

Low Temperature Superconductor

MBD

Magnetic Bipolar Diode

MBT

Magnetic Bipolar Transistor

MCE

Magneto–Caloric Effect

MEE

Magneto–Electro–Elastic

MGS

Metallurgical Grade Silicon

MHD

Magneto–Hydro–Dynamic

MOSFET

Metallic Oxide Semiconductor Field- effect Transistor

MRAM

Magnetic Random Access Memory

NLO

Non–Linearly Optical

NTC

Negative Temperature Coefficient (Thermistor)

OFHC

Oxygen Free High Conductivity

OMR

Optical Magnetic Reader

PCB

Printed Circuit Board

PLZT

Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate

PTC

Positive Temperature Coefficient (Thermistor)

PZT

Lead Zirconate Titanate

RHM

Right Handed Material

SET

Single Electron Transistor

SFF

Surfated Ferrofluid

SMC

Surface Mounted Device

SOI

Silicon-On-Insulator

SQUID

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

TEC

Thermo–Electric Cooler

TEE

Thermo–Electric Effect

UPT

Unipolar Transistor

USB

Universal Serial Bus (interface)

VDR

Voltage- Dependent Resistor

VLSI

Very Large Scale Integration

VVR

Voltage–Variable Resistor

WAN

Wide Area Network

WC

Tungsten Carbide

XRD

X-ray Diffraction

Chapter 1

General Introduction to Electrical and Electronic Materials

1.1 Importance of Materials

Use of materials is an indispensible requirement for the development of engineering and technology. They provide the basis for manufacturing, fabrication, operations, and constructions etc. It may be the construction of a building, manufacturing of a machine, generation of electricity, transmission of message from one place to another, or control instruments; they all make use of some materials. These materials are of different natures viz., R.C.C. (reinforced cement concrete), steel and iron, copper and aluminium, mica and rubber, alloy and glass etc.

Depending upon the areas in which they are used, the materials may be known as

1. Civil engineering materials,

2. Electrical engineering materials,

3. Mechanical engineering materials,

4. Electronics engineering materials,

5. Nuclear engineering materials, and

6. Computer engineering materials etc.

These days, most materials find inter-disciplinary uses. It, therefore, becomes difficult to conceive as to which material belongs to which category. As an illustration, we take the example of aluminium. It is generally known as a mechanical engineering material but it finds use in electrical engineering also as a conductor; is used in electronics engineering for doping of intrinsic semiconductors; is used in metallurgical engineering as an alloying element; is used in civil engineering for decorative items. These are inter-disciplinary uses. However, conventionally we call RCC as civil engineering material, insulator (e.g. mica) as electrical engineering material, metals as mechanical engineering materials, semiconductors as electronics engineering materials, uranium as nuclear engineering materials etc,

1.2 Importance of Electrical and Electronic Materials

Advancement of any engineering discipline is not possible without the development of materials suitable for appropriate uses. The development necessitates progress in the science: physics and chemistry, engineering and technology of the materials. Rapid advancement in electron-based computers, revolutionary changes in electronics engineering from vacuum valves to very large scale Integration (VLSI); developments of conducting polymers, ferroelectrics as a modern breed of dielectrics, and ferrites as a superb magnetic material (in addition to several other versatilities) are some illustrations which are the outcome of developments in electrical materials technology.

Further advancement in electrical, electronics, computers, and instrumentation fields are likely to be in the form of whisker-based fibre optics, light-based computers, high temperature superconductors etc. But dreams of these futuristic advances will become a reality only after achieving a breakthrough in certain materials properties. Most likely the 21st century will see the high voltage transmission through hair- sized conducting wires, the hybrid magnets of more than 100 T (tesla) capacities, the magnetic refrigerators operating well above 100 K (kelvin), and hybrid crystals (e.g. Hg-Cd-Te) serving as sensor elements.