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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
An advanced, practical approach to the first and second laws of thermodynamics Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics bridges the gap between engineering applications and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Going beyond the basic coverage offered by most textbooks, this authoritative treatment delves into the advanced topics of energy and work as they relate to various engineering fields. This practical approach describes real-world applications of thermodynamics concepts, including solar energy, refrigeration, air conditioning, thermofluid design, chemical design, constructal design, and more. This new fourth edition has been updated and expanded to include current developments in energy storage, distributed energy systems, entropy minimization, and industrial applications, linking new technologies in sustainability to fundamental thermodynamics concepts. Worked problems have been added to help students follow the thought processes behind various applications, and additional homework problems give them the opportunity to gauge their knowledge. The growing demand for sustainability and energy efficiency has shined a spotlight on the real-world applications of thermodynamics. This book helps future engineers make the fundamental connections, and develop a clear understanding of this complex subject. * Delve deeper into the engineering applications of thermodynamics * Work problems directly applicable to engineering fields * Integrate thermodynamics concepts into sustainability design and policy * Understand the thermodynamics of emerging energy technologies Condensed introductory chapters allow students to quickly review the fundamentals before diving right into practical applications. Designed expressly for engineering students, this book offers a clear, targeted treatment of thermodynamics topics with detailed discussion and authoritative guidance toward even the most complex concepts. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics is the definitive modern treatment of energy and work for today's newest engineers.
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Seitenzahl: 1199
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ähnliche
Other books by Adrian Bejan:
The Physics of Life: The Evolution of Everything, St. Martin's Press, 2016.
Design in Nature, with J. P. Zane, Doubleday, 2012.
Design with Constructal Theory, with S. Lorente, Wiley, 2008.
Shape and Structure, from Engineering to Nature, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid Flow, Wiley, 1982.
Entropy Generation Minimization, CRC Press, 1996.
Thermal Design and Optimization, with G. Tsatsaronis and M. Moran, Wiley, 1996.
Convection in Porous Media, with D. A. Nield, Fourth Edition, Springer, 2013.
Convection Heat Transfer, Fourth Edition, Wiley, 2013.
Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1993
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: The First Law
1.1 Terminology
1.2 Closed Systems
1.3 Work Transfer
1.4 Heat Transfer
1.5 Energy Change
1.6 Open Systems
1.7 History
References
Problems
Chapter 2: The Second Law
2.1 Closed Systems
2.2 Open Systems
2.3 Local Equilibrium
2.4 Entropy Maximum and Energy Minimum
2.5 Carathéodory's Two Axioms
2.6 A Heat Transfer Man's Two Axioms
2.7 History
References
Problems
Chapter 3: Entropy Generation, or Exergy Destruction
3.1 Lost Available Work
3.2 Cycles
3.3 Nonflow Processes
3.4 Steady-Flow Processes
3.5 Mechanisms of Entropy Generation
3.6 Entropy Generation Minimization
References
Problems
Chapter 4: Single-Phase Systems
4.1 Simple System
4.2 Equilibrium Conditions
4.3 The Fundamental Relation
4.4 Legendre Transforms
4.5 Relations between Thermodynamic Properties
4.6 Partial Molal Properties
4.7 Ideal Gas Mixtures
4.8 Real Gas Mixtures
References
Problems
Chapter 5: Exergy Analysis
5.1 Nonflow Systems
5.2 Flow Systems
5.3 Generalized Exergy Analysis
5.4 Air Conditioning
References
Problems
Chapter 6: Multiphase Systems
6.1 The Energy Minimum Principle
6.2 The Stability of a Simple System
6.3 The Continuity of the Vapor and Liquid States
6.4 Phase Diagrams
6.5 Corresponding States
References
Problems
Chapter 7: Chemically Reactive Systems
7.1 Equilibrium
7.2 Irreversible Reactions
7.3 Steady-Flow Combustion
7.4 The Chemical Exergy of Fuels
7.5 Combustion at Constant Volume
References
Problems
Chapter 8: Power Generation
8.1 Maximum Power Subject to Size Constraint
8.2 Maximum Power From a Hot Stream
8.3 External Irreversibilities
8.4 Internal Irreversibilities
8.5 Advanced Steam Turbine Power Plants
8.6 Advanced Gas Turbine Power Plants
8.7 Combined Steam Turbine and Gas Turbine Power Plants
References
Problems
Chapter 9: Solar Power
9.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Thermal Radiation
9.2 Reversible Processes
9.3 Irreversible Processes
9.4 The Ideal Conversion of Enclosed Blackbody Radiation
9.5 Maximization of Power Output Per Unit Collector Area
9.6 Convectively Cooled Collectors
9.7 Extraterrestrial Solar Power Plant
9.8 Climate
9.9 Self-Pumping and Atmospheric Circulation
References
Problems
Chapter 10: Refrigeration
10.1 Joule–Thomson Expansion
10.2 Work-Producing Expansion
10.3 Brayton Cycle
10.4 Intermediate Cooling
10.5 Liquefaction
10.6 Refrigerator Models with Internal Heat Leak
10.7 Magnetic Refrigeration
References
Problems
Chapter 11: Entropy Generation Minimization
11.1 Competing Irreversibilities
11.2 Balanced Counterflow Heat Exchangers
11.3 Storage Systems
11.4 Power Maximization or Entropy Generation Minimization
11.5 From Entropy Generation Minimization to Constructal Law
References
Problems
Chapter 12: Irreversible Thermodynamics
12.1 Conjugate Fluxes and Forces
12.2 Linearized Relations
12.3 Reciprocity Relations
12.4 Thermoelectric Phenomena
12.5 Heat Conduction in Anisotropic Media
12.6 Mass Diffusion
References
Problems
Chapter 13: The Constructal Law
13.1 Evolution
13.2 Mathematical Formulation of the Constructal Law
13.3 Inanimate Flow Systems
13.4 Animate Flow Systems
13.5 Size and Efficiency: Economies of Scale
13.6 Growth, Spreading, and Collecting
13.7 Asymmetry and Vascularization
13.8 Human Preferences for Shapes
13.9 The Arrow of Time
References
Problems
Appendix
Constants
Mathematical Formulas
Variational Calculus
Properties of Moderately Compressed Liquid States
Properties of Slightly Superheated Vapor States
Properties of Cold Water Near the Density Maximum
References
Symbols
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: The First Law
Figure 1.1 Discontinuity of entropy transfer through an incorrect boundary.
Figure 1.2 Continuity of entropy transfer, heat transfer, and temperature through correct boundaries.
Figure 1.3 Graphic statements of the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems.
Figure 1.4 Path dependence of the energy interactions and .
Figure 1.5 Examples of
P dV
work transfer and shaft work transfer.
Figure 1.6 The four thermodynamic temperature scales.
Figure 1.7 Flow of a closed system (shaded area) through the space occupied by an open system and the conversion of the first law for closed systems into a statement valid for open systems.
Figure P1.1
Figure P1.3
Figure P1.6
Chapter 2: The Second Law
Figure 2.1 Highlights in the development of steam engines in the period before Sadi Carnot. On the ordinate the modern equivalent, called
heat engine efficiency
, , is estimated, noting that one British imperial bushel equals 2219.36 in
3
, the calorific value of 1 lb of coal is 15,225 Btu/lbm, and the density of anthracite is roughly 1600 kg/m
3
. Note that the relative efficiency of engines—individual versus groups—is not unlike that of people! (The engine performance data are from a compilation by D. S. L. Cardwell,
From Watt to Clausius
, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1971.)
Figure 2.2 Closed system executing a reversible cycle while in communication with two temperature reservoirs and . No assumption is made regarding the relative magnitude of temperatures and and the sense of the cycle on the and planes.
Figure 2.3 Translation of the Kelvin–Planck impossibility statement into the second law for a closed system that executes a cycle while in communication with two temperature reservoirs.
Figure 2.4 Graphic summary of the argument leading to eq. (2.21').
Figure 2.5 Wedge of minimum
-Q
diagram: the measurement of
Q
using a reversible cycle and the construction of the thermodynamic temperature scale
T
(right). This graphic construction appeared in the first edition of this book (1988), as an application of the T-Q graphic method proposed in 1977 [9, 10]. See also Figure 3.6 and 3.8 in this book.
Figure 2.6 Generalization of the second law to cycles executed by a closed system while in communication with any number of temperature reservoirs.
Figure 2.7 Entropy maximum and energy minimum principles for a closed system incapable of work transfer.
Figure 2.8 Example of how the total entropy of an isolated system tends toward a maximum as internal constraints are removed.
Figure 2.9 Relation between axiom II and the Kelvin–Planck statement of the second law.
Figure 2.10 Uniqueness of state , which can be reached adiabatically and reversibly from state 1.
Figure 2.11 Uniqueness of the reversible and adiabatic curve that passes through state 1; two reversible and adiabatic curves cannot intersect.
Figure 2.12 Uniqueness of the reversible and adiabatic surface that passes through a point in the space and the family of nonintersecting = const surfaces.
Figure 2.13 Family of reversible cycles for recovering the concept of thermodynamic temperature from Carathéodory's axioms.
Figure 2.14 Family of reversible and zero-work surfaces in the space.
Figure 2.15 Family of reversible cycles for recovering the concept of thermodynamic pressure from axioms and .
Figure P2.6
Figure P2.7
Figure P2.9
Figure P2.10
Figure P2.11
Figure P2.12
Figure P2.13
Figure P2.14
Figure P2.15
Figure P2.17
Figure P2.21
Chapter 3: Entropy Generation, or Exergy Destruction
Figure 3.1 Open system in communication with the atmosphere and
n
additional temperature reservoirs.
Figure 3.2 and can be either positive or negative, whereas can only be positive.
Figure 3.3 Exergy balance in the open system of Figure 3.1 in the reversible limit.
Figure 3.4 Irreversibility destroys the balance between exergy inflow and exergy outflow.
Figure 3.5 Relation between work transfer , available work or exergy , and lost available work or exergy destruction.
Figure 3.6 Temperature–energy interaction diagram (the T–Q graphic method) for a heat engine cycle.
Figure 3.7 Comparison between the first- and second-law efficiency of a heat engine cycle.
Figure 3.8 Temperature–energy interaction diagram (the T–Q graphic method) for a refrigeration cycle.
Figure 3.9 Energy conservation versus exergy destruction during a refrigeration cycle.
Figure 3.10 Energy conservation versus exergy destruction during a heat pump cycle.
Figure 3.11 Ranges of the first- and second-law efficiencies of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
Figure 3.12 Specific nonflow exergy of an incompressible substance.
Figure 3.13 Lines of constant nonflow exergy for an ideal gas in the limit , where and . All the curves are for .
Figure 3.14
Exergy wheel
diagram for a power plant with a simple Rankine cycle.
Figure 3.15
Exergy wheel
diagram for a vapor compression refrigeration cycle.
Figure 3.16 Destruction of useful work in the “temperature gap system” traversed by a heat current. This Figure first appeared in A. Bejan and H. M. Paynter,
Solved Problems in Thermodynamics
, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1976, Prob. VIIA.
Figure 3.17 Main features of a tree-shaped flow organization.
Figure P3.6
Figure P3.7
Figure P3.10
Figure P3.11
Chapter 4: Single-Phase Systems
Figure 4.1 Open system in communication with
n
mass reservoirs and the atmospheric temperature and pressure reservoirs.
Figure 4.2 Reversible and irreversible paths linking the same initial and final equilibrium states, and .
Figure 4.3 Meaning of the terms on the right side of the fundamental relation (4.10): reversible heat transfer, reversible work transfer, and reversible chemical work transfer.
Figure 4.4 The ratio of ideal gases as a function of temperature.
Figure 4.5 Surface that represents the fundamental relation of a single-component ideal gas.
Figure 4.6 A curve can be represented as a sequence of points () and as the envelope of a family of lines (
b
), which leads to the transformed curve (
c
).
Figure 4.7 Enthalpy fundamental surface for a single-component ideal gas, or the first Legendre transform of the surface shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.8 Five processes for the measurement of relations between properties.
Figure 4.9 Isentropic expansion exponent (
k
) of steam.
Figure 4.10 Effect of temperature on the isentropic expansion exponent of several ideal gases (note that for ideal gases).
Figure 4.11
T
(
P
) inversion curves for nitrogen and helium 4.
Figure 4.12 Relation between a proper molal quantity and the partial molal quantities of a binary mixture.
Figure P4.13
Chapter 5: Exergy Analysis
Figure 5.1 Nonflow system that reaches thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium with the environment.
Figure 5.2 Steady-flow apparatus, in which a mixture stream is brought into thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium with the environment.
Figure 5.3 Open system exchanging heat, work, and mass with the environment.
Figure 5.4 Relation between the total, physical, and chemical exergies of a nonflow system (top) and a flow system (bottom).
Figure 5.5
T–s
diagram for water, showing the position of water vapor () at state (
T
, ) and liquid water () at state (
T
,
P
).
Figure 5.6 Relation between relative humidity and humidity ratio for humid air at atmospheric pressure.
Figure 5.7 Adiabatic evaporative cooling process.
Figure P5.4
Figure P5.5
Chapter 6: Multiphase Systems
Figure 6.1 The energy minimum principle (fixed volume).
Figure 6.2 The enthalpy minimum principle (fixed pressure).
Figure 6.3 The Helmholtz free-energy minimum principle (fixed temperature).
Figure 6.4 The Gibbs free-energy minimum principle (fixed temperature and pressure).
Figure 6.5 Star diagram with the
U
,
H
,
F
, and
G
minimum and
S
maximum principles.
Figure 6.6 Isolated system for the study of thermal stability.
Figure 6.7 Isothermal process for the study of mechanical stability.
Figure 6.8 Constant-
T
and constant-
P
process for the study of internal chemical stability.
Figure 6.9 Reproduction of Andrews diagram (solid lines) and J. Thomson's continuous transition from vapor to liquid through a region of unstable equilibrium. (Figure is a mirror image of a Figure appearing in Ref. 4.)
Figure 6.10 and diagrams for a pure substance in vapor and liquid form. (From Ref. 3.)
Figure 6.11 Van der Waals isotherms in reduced-pressure and reduced-volume space.
Figure 6.12 (
a
) Three-dimensional surface corresponding to the van der Waals equation of state; (
b
) theoretically modified surface showing the two-phase region resulting from applying the equal-area rule described in Figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13 Equal-area rule for determining the pressure of the gas–liquid transition during isothermal compression.
Figure 6.14
P
(,
T
) surface of a single-component substance that contracts upon freezing (the middle diagram), the incompressible substance model (left), and the ideal gas model (right). (From Ref. 3.)
Figure 6.15
P
(,
T
) surface for water, showing the volume increase experienced upon freezing and the various transformations at very high pressures.
Figure 6.16 Regnault diagram (
P–T
) for water, steam, and ice I at moderate pressures.
Figure 6.17 Single- and two-phase domains of a binary mixture, or the effect of composition () on the Regnault diagram.
Figure 6.18 Two-phase domain of a binary mixture on the constant-
P
plane and the collapse of this domain at the point of azeotropic composition (
Q
).
Figure 6.19 Constant-
P
phase diagram of a mixture of two partially miscible liquids.
Figure 6.20 Nelson–Obert compressibility chart for the intermediate pressure region.
Figure 6.21 Regnault diagram in reduced coordinates for water, simple fluids (e.g., methane), and van der Waals fluid showing the definition of the Pitzer acentric factor.
Figure 6.22 Positions of the fluids of Table 6.2 in the plane .
Figure 6.23 Average position of the Joule–Thomson inversion curve versus four predictions based on analytical equations of state. (After Ref. 22.)
Figure 6.24 Compressibility chart for saturated, metastable, and unstable states of nonpolar fluids with .
Figure 6.25 Maximum temperature () that can be reached during the isobaric () heating of a saturated liquid. (After Ref. 33.)
Figure 6.26 Tree-shaped structures form during rapid solidification: dendritic ice in the region once occupied by subcooled (metastable) liquid water. (From Ref. 34.)
Figure 6.27 Karimi and Lienhard's
T–s
diagram for stable, metastable, and unstable water.
Figure P6.10
Figure P6.12
Figure P6.13
Chapter 7: Chemically Reactive Systems
Figure 7.1 Advancement of the reaction at constant temperature and pressure and the formation of an equilibrium mixture of reactants and products.
Figure 7.2 Locus of equilibrium states in the space for a reactive system that has two features: The heat of reaction is negative and the volume increases as increases at constant and .
Figure 7.3 Approximately linear relation between log
10
K
p
and 1/
T
for some of the equilibria documented in Table 7.1.
Figure 7.4 Isothermal and isobaric process for the conversion of stoichiometric quantities of reactants into products.
Figure 7.5 Steady-flow apparatus for a reaction at constant
T
and
P
.
Figure 7.6 First-law analysis of steady flow through a combustion chamber.
Figure 7.7 Enthalpy change function for several of the ideal gases encountered in analyses of combustion processes. (From Ref. 10.)
Figure 7.8 Conservation of enthalpy during an adiabatic and zero-work combustion process leading to products at the adiabatic flame temperature .
Figure 7.9 Lowering of the adiabatic flame temperature because of the partial dissociation of one of the products of combustion. (This Figure is a continuation of Figure 7.8.)
Figure 7.10 Second-law analysis of steady flow through a combustion chamber.
Figure 7.11 Absolute entropy at atmospheric pressure for several of the ideal gases encountered in analyses of combustion. (From Ref. 10.)
Figure 7.12 Steady-flow apparatus for the production of useful mechanical work from a combustion process in communication with the reference temperature reservoir.
Figure 7.13 Device for defining the effective flame temperature of the combustion chamber viewed as a source of exergy, .
Figure 7.14 Power plant driven by the counterflow cooling of the products of combustion.
Figure 7.15 Boiler and superheater for a steam-turbine power plant (Example 7.6).
Figure 7.16 Reversible combustion process for calculating the chemical exergy of 1 mol of hydrocarbon .
Figure 7.17 End states of a combustion process confined by a constant-volume and impermeable boundary.
Figure P7.7
Figure P7.8
Chapter 8: Power Generation
Figure 8.1 Highlights of the early developments of power generation (the power generation data are from Ref. 1).
Figure 8.2 Evolution of the first-law efficiency of power plants in the middle part of the twentieth century (data from Ref. 2).
Figure 8.3 Time evolution of the second-law efficiency of modern power plants. (Data from Ref. 3.)
Figure 8.4 Power plant model with two finite-size heat exchangers (left) and the minimization of the power output when the total size is constrained (right).
Figure 8.5 Power plant model with unmixed hot stream in contact with a nonisothermal and finite heat transfer surface. (From Ref. 14.)
Figure 8.6 Distribution of temperature along the stream and the heat transfer surface of Figure 8.5. (From Ref. 14.)
Figure 8.7 Twice-maximized power output corresponding to the model of Figure 8.5. (From Ref. 14.)
Figure 8.8 Optimal imbalance of the counterflow heat exchanger used in conjunction with the model of Figure 8.5. (From Ref. 14.)
Figure 8.9 Twice-minimized heat transfer surface for the model of Figure 8.5 with specified power output. (From Ref. 15.)
Figure 8.10 External irreversibilities in an ideal Rankine cycle with superheat. (Here and in subsequent Rankine cycle diagrams, the
T–s
diagrams are correct scale drawings for water above 0°C. One feature of these drawings is that at subcritical pressures the compressed liquid states that reside on the isobar are graphically indistinguishable from the neighboring saturated liquid states.)
Figure 8.11 Two graphic constructions of the area that represents the specific exergy intake .
Figure 8.12 Effect of high pressure on cycle efficiency and average low temperature of the ideal Rankine cycle of Figure 8.10 at constant and ).
Figure 8.13 Growth of the lost-exergy area as a result of internal irreversibilities in the four components of the ideal Rankine cycle of Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.14 Successive increases in the average high temperature of a simple ideal Rankine cycle (a) through the insertion of a superheater (b) and a reheater (
c
).
Figure 8.15 Decreasing the condenser external irreversibility by lowering the condenser pressure.
Figure 8.16 Simple Rankine cycle with four stages of regenerative feed heating.
Figure 8.17 Steam cycle with superheat and a train of contact feed heaters and feed pumps.
Figure 8.18 diagram and Mollier chart () showing the distribution of
n
contact feed heaters.
Figure 8.19 Equivalence between the cycle of Figure 8.18 and a cycle with feed-heating stages and a saturated liquid state (
B
) as inlet to the boiler.
Figure 8.20 Relative reduction in the heat input due to the use of
n
contact feed heaters. , , . (After Ref. 21.)
Figure 8.21 Optimal positioning of contact feed water heaters around the reheater of a steam cycle.
Figure 8.22 Interaction between reheating and feed heating toward increasing the global performance.
Figure 8.23 Effect of regenerative feed heating on the
η
increase caused by reheating. , reheater pressure drop . (After Ref. 24.)
Figure 8.24 External and internal irreversibilities of a gas turbine power plant.
Figure 8.25 External irreversibilities of a simple gas turbine power plant.
Figure 8.26 Effect of the regenerative heat exchanger on the heat transfer external irreversibilities of the gas turbine power plant of Figure 8.25.
Figure 8.27 Effect of reheating and intercooling on the heat transfer external irreversibilities of the power plant of Figure 8.26.
Figure 8.28 Theoretical limit of a gas turbine cycle with perfect regenerator and infinitely many reheating and intercooling stages.
Figure 8.29 High-temperature part of a gas turbine cycle showing the cooled section of the turbine and the acceptance of higher turbine inlet temperatures.
Figure 8.30 Evolution of the gas turbine inlet temperature in Rolls-Royce engines.
Figure 8.31 Combined gas turbine and steam turbine cycle.
Figure P8.9
Figure P8.10
Figure P8.11
Figure P8.12
Figure P8.14
Figure P8.15
Figure P8.16
Figure P8.17
Figure P8.18
Figure P8.20
Figure P8.24
Chapter 9: Solar Power
Figure 9.1 Enclosure with perfectly reflecting internal surfaces.
Figure 9.2 Pencil of rays of unit solid angle (left) and the concentration of a parallel beam into the pupil of an enclosure filled with isotropic radiation (right)
Figure 9.3 Fundamental relation for a volume filled with isotropic blackbody radiation showing the location of isotherms (or isobars) on the
U
(
S
,
V
) surface.
Figure 9.4 Entropy increase associated with the constant-energy transformation of monochromatic radiation into blackbody radiation.
Figure 9.5 Temperature decrease (entropy increase) caused by the scattering of monochromatic solar radiation.
Figure 9.6 Energy and entropy currents between a blackbody (
A
,
T
) and a surrounding black surface of a different temperature (
T
e
).
Figure 9.7 Reversible and adiabatic expansion for calculating the nonflow exergy of enclosed blackbody radiation. (From Ref. 1, p. 207.)
Figure 9.8 Petela's efficiency as a function of the temperature ratio. (From Ref. 1, p. 209.)
Figure 9.9 Reversible cycle executed by an enclosed-radiation system in communication with two temperature reservoirs. (After Ref. 14.)
Figure 9.10 Relative position of the three theories of the ideal conversion of blackbody radiation. (After Ref. 14.)
Figure 9.11 The operation of Jeter's flow system is analogous to the cyclical operation of the apparatus used in Figure 9.9. (After Ref. 14.)
Figure 9.12 Heat transfer across two temperature gaps, and , as a mechanism of entropy generation in an installation with fixed-area collector and reversible engine.
Figure 9.13 The three radiative contributions to [eq. (9.111)] and the opportunity for maximizing by varying the cutoff frequency
ν
0
. (After Ref. 22.)
Figure 9.14 Optimal collector temperature and maximum power output as a function of cutoff frequency. (After Ref. 22.)
Figure 9.15 Optimal temperature of a single-frequency collector that receives unconcentrated solar radiation. (After Ref. 22.)
Figure 9.16 Linear convective cooling model for low-temperature solar collectors. (After Ref. 24.)
Figure 9.17 Heat exchanger between collector and engine. (After Ref. 24.)
Figure 9.18 Optimal collector temperatures, showing the combined effect of radiative and convective heat loss. (After Ref. 26.)
Figure 9.19 Extraterrestrial power plant with heat transfer irreversibilities at the hot and cold ends.
Figure 9.20 Earth model with equatorial () and polar () surfaces, and convective heat current between them. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.21 Natural convection loops in a fluid layer connecting the equatorial and polar surfaces. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.22 Effect of the area allocation fraction
x
on the equatorial zone and polar zone temperature. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.23 Maximization of the power output, convective heat transfer rate, and convective thermal conductance with respect to the surface allocation ratio. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.24 Optimal allocation ratios corresponding to the peaks of the three curves shown in Figure 9.27. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.25 Maximized global performance resulting from the maximization of ,
q
, and in Figure 9.27. (From Ref. 28.)
Figure 9.26 Coolant flow paths through the rotor and stator of a generator.
Figure 9.27 The origin of the self pumping effect experienced by a stream that is accelerated to a larger radius of rotation, and then heated at that radius.
Figure 9.28 The natural circulation of the atmosphere in the plane of the meridian is driven as a heat engine, which is equivalent to the self-pumping effect discussed in Figure 9.27.
Figure 9.29 The reverse of the circulation shown in Figure 9.28 is impossible, because by itself the heat current does not flow from cold to hot.
Figure P9.1
Figure P9.3
Figure P9.4
Figure P9.5
Figure P9.10
Chapter 10: Refrigeration
Figure 10.1 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle with one Joule–Thomson expansion stage.
Figure 10.2 Reaching toward lower temperatures by inserting a counterflow heat exchanger in a cycle with Joule–Thomson expansion.
Figure 10.3 Construction of the temperature distribution along a counterflow heat exchanger.
Figure 10.4 Work-producing expansion as another escape route for out of the cold zone of a refrigeration machine.
Figure 10.5 Two cycles that combine bottom-end (Joule–Thomson) expansion with work-producing expansion at intermediate temperatures: Claude (left) and Heylandt (right).
Figure 10.6 Decomposition of the cycles executed by and , showing that the cycle cools the midsection of the main counterflow heat exchanger.
Figure 10.7 Irreversibilities present in the cold zone of the Brayton refrigeration cycle: the ideal cycle (left) and the cumulative effect of internal irreversibilities (right).
Figure 10.8 Example of how the destruction of exergy is distributed among the components of a helium gas Brayton cycle with regenerative heat exchanger.
Figure 10.9 A counterflow heat exchanger is a conduit for convective heat leak, which flows in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 10.10 Optimal temperature distribution of an ideal gas counterflow heat exchanger.
Figure 10.11 Tapering of the versus distribution, by using one, two, and three intermediate expanders.
Figure 10.12 Counterflow heat exchanger with continuously distributed isothermal expanders.
Figure 10.13 Elements of thermal insulation: (
a
) mechanical support without intermediate cooling; (
b
) continuous cooling provided by a single stream of cold gas; (
c
) discrete cooling concentrated in two cooling stations; (
d
) continuous cooling provided by boil-off gas; (
e
) continuous cooling for two parallel insulations (e.g., two mechanical supports); (
f
) discrete cooling of a stack of radiation shields; (
g
) continuous single-stream cooling of an electrical power cable.
Figure 10.14 Entropy generation reduction due to the use of optimal intermediate cooling on a constant-conductivity mechanical support. (From Ref. 5.)
Figure 10.15 The operating domain of a current cable stretching from 300 to 4.2 K. (From Ref. 23.)
Figure 10.16 Liquefier with one expander and its relation to a closed-loop refrigerator.
Figure 10.17 Helium liquefier with three expanders (left side) and liquid–nitrogen precooling (right side).
Figure 10.18
T–s
diagram of a Heylandt nitrogen liquefier. See Figure 10.16 (left side) with and .
Figure 10.19 Temperature distribution inside the imbalanced counterflow heat exchanger 3–1–6–7 of Figure 10.18.
Figure 10.20 Domain of permissible end temperature differences for the design of the heat exchanger 3–1–6–7 of Figure 10.18.
Figure 10.21 Existence of a minimum compressor flow rate per unit of liquefied nitrogen.
Figure 10.22 Second-law efficiencies of refrigerators and liquefiers. (After Ref. 25.)
Figure 10.23 Empirical data (horizontal bars) showing that decreases as increases and the theoretical curves based on the model of Figure 10.24.
Figure 10.24 Refrigerator model with heat-leak irreversibility.
Figure 10.25 Model of a refrigerator with unsteady operation and frost accumulation on the evaporator surface. (From Ref. 26.)
Figure 10.26 Minimization of the refrigerator power by selecting the “on” interval of intermittent operation. (From Ref. 26.)
Figure 10.27 Optimal “on” interval of an intermittent defrosting refrigerator. (From Ref. 26.)
Figure 10.28 Highlights in the development of refrigeration technology and the progress toward absolute zero.
Figure 10.29 Constant lines on the plane of a paramagnetic salt and the process of adiabatic demagnetization.
Figure 10.30 Saturation pressure of liquid helium 3 and helium 4.
Figure 10.31 Unattainability of absolute zero by means of a finite sequence of isothermal magnetization and adiabatic demagnetization processes of the type shown in Figure 10.29.
Figure P10.8
Figure P10.9
Figure P10.10
Figure P10.11
Figure P10.17
Figure P10.18
Figure P10.20
Chapter 11: Entropy Generation Minimization
Figure 11.1 Entropy generation number , or relative entropy generation rate through a smooth tube. (From Ref. 6.)
Figure 11.2 Augmentation entropy generation number associated with the application of sand grain roughness to a pipe. (From Ref. 12.)
Figure 11.3 Critical irreversibility distribution ratio for the use of sand grain roughness in a pipe; the actual must be smaller than the critical if is to be less than 1. (From Ref. 12.)
Figure 11.4 Optimal pin fin length and diameter for minimum entropy generation. (From Ref. 13.)
Figure 11.5 Volumetric distribution of entropy generation rate in a laminar boundary layer flow on a flat wall with heat transfer. (From Ref. 16.)
Figure 11.6 Brayton cycle heat engine with counterflow heat exchanger. (From Ref. 17.)
Figure 11.7 Entropy generation number for one side of the heat exchanger surface as a function of , , and . (From Ref. 17.)
Figure 11.8 The remanent (flow imbalance) irreversibility in parallel flow is greater than in counterflow.
Figure 11.9 Structure of entropy generation in a heat exchanger.
Figure 11.10 Two sources of irreversibility during the heating phase of a sensible-heat exergy storage process. (From Ref. 20.)
Figure 11.11 Optimal charging time for minimum entropy generation during the sensible-heat storage process. (From Ref. 20.)
Figure 11.12 Minimum entropy generation corresponding to the optimal charging time of Figure 11.11. (From Ref. 20.)
Figure 11.13 Optimal size of the heat exchanger for the sensible-heat storage system of Figure 11.12. (From Ref. 20.)
Figure 11.14 Evolution of the temperature of the storage material during a complete storage and removal cycle. (After Ref. 21.)
Figure 11.15 Effect of the charging time on the entropy generated during the storage and removal cycle. (After Ref. 21.)
Figure 11.16 Total coolant mass ratio versus the heat transfer coefficient exponent
q
, showing the effect of the specific-heat exponent
p
. (From Ref. 24.)
Figure 11.17 Steady production of power using a one-phase-change material and one mixed stream. (From Ref. 25.)
Figure 11.18 Power production based on melting and solidification in two materials placed in series. (From Ref. 25.)
Figure 11.19 Models of power plants with heat transfer irreversibilities. (From Ref. 31.)
Figure 11.20 Reversible power-producing device driven by hot and cold streams. (From Ref. 31.)
Figure 11.21 Leff's [39] optimized Joule–Brayton cycle as an illustration of a power-producing compartment for the general arrangement shown in Figure 11.20. (From Ref. 31.)
Figure 11.22 Entire region affected by the operation of the device proposed in Figure 11.20. (From Ref. 31.)
Figure 11.23 Extraction of mechanical power from the flow of a fluid between two pressure reservoirs. (From Ref. 40.)
Figure 11.24 Analogy between maximum power from fluid flow and maximum power from heat flow. (From Ref. 40.)
Figure 11.25 Analogy between maximum-power operation in electromechanical and thermomechanical power converters. (From Ref. 43.)
Figure 11.26 Origin of the optimal size of the flow component (organ) of a larger flow system (animal) that moves.
Figure 11.27 Wall surface with specified heat transfer rate.
Figure 11.28 Round tube with specified mass flow rate.
Figure P11.10
Figure P11.11
Figure P11.12
Figure P11.13
Chapter 12: Irreversible Thermodynamics
Figure 12.1 Unidirectional flow of heat and mass (top) and energy and mass (bottom) through a conducting and permeable material.
Figure 12.2 One-dimensional conductor with simultaneous flow of heat and electric current. Left: conjugate fluxes and forces. Right: formulation in terms of physically meaningful quantities.
Figure 12.3 Junction between two one-dimensional isothermal conductors, showing the origin of the Peltier heat release.
Figure 12.4 Two junctions at the same temperature showing that the Peltier heat released by one is the same as the Peltier heat absorbed by the other.
Figure 12.5 Two junctions maintained at different temperatures create the end-to-end potential difference .
Figure 12.6 One-dimensional conductor whose zero-electric-current temperature distribution is maintained by contact with a series of temperature reservoirs.
Figure 12.7 Thermoelectric power generator consisting of two differentially heated thermoelectric elements.
Figure 12.8 Thermoelectric refrigerator with two one-dimensional legs.
Figure 12.9 Two-dimensional anisotropic conducting medium and general orientation of the system of coordinates ().
Figure 12.10 Principal directions and fluxes.
Figure 12.11 Isotherms and heat flux lines in a two-dimensional anisotropic medium with concentrated heat source.
Figure P12.5
Figure P12.10
Chapter 13: The Constructal Law
Figure 13.1 Constructal law proceeds in time against empiricism or copying from nature (Ref. 8). Bottom: the Lena delta and dendritic architecture derived from the constructal law.
Figure 13.2 Performance–freedom to change configuration at fixed global external size (Ref. 9).
Figure 13.3 Performance–freedom domain of flows that connect the center with
N
equidistant points on a circle.
Figure 13.4 Performance vs freedom to change configuration, at fixed global internal size (Ref. 9).
Figure 13.5 More freedom “to morph” leads to higher performance and asymmetry in the circle-point tree networks of Figure 13.3 (after Ref. 28).
Figure 13.6 The evolution of the cross-sectional configuration of a stream composed of two liquids, low and high viscosity. In time, the low-viscosity liquid coats all the walls and the high-viscosity liquid migrates toward the center. This tendency of “self-lubrication” is the action of the constructal law of the generation of flow configuration in geophysics (e.g. volcanic discharges, drawn after Ref. 29) and in many biological systems.
Figure 13.7 Elemental area of a river basin viewed from above: seepage with high resistivity (Darcy flow) proceeds vertically and channel flow with low resistivity proceeds horizontally. Rain falls uniformly over the rectangular area . The external shape is such that the flow from the area to the point (sink) encounters reduced global resistance. The generation of configuration is how the area-point flow system assures its persistence in time, its survival.
Figure 13.8 Constructal sequence of assembly, from the elemental area (, Figure 13.7) to progressively larger area-point flows.
Figure 13.9 Area-point flow in a porous medium with Darcy flow and grains that can be dislodged and swept downstream (Ref. 33).
Figure 13.10 The evolution (persistence, survival) of the tree structure when the flow rate
M
is increased in steps . (Ref. 33).
Figure 13.11 The evolution (persistence, survival) of the tree structure in a random-resistance, erodible domain ( and
M
increases in steps of ). (Ref. 33).
Figure 13.12 Floating object at the interface between two fluid bodies with relative motion (Ref. 8).
Figure 13.13 Turbulence, dendritic solidification, electrodiffusion, mud cracks, dust aggregates, stony corals and bacterial colonies owe their configurations to the natural tendency to flow more easily. To achieve this, they combine two flow mechanisms in a particular way. The distance travelled by diffusion increases in time as , and the speed of the diffusion front decreases as . Greater flow access calls for a mechanism that is more effective at long times: convection (streams). Together, the two mechanisms provide greater flow access than one mechanism alone, provided that they are arranged in this order: diffusion, at short time and length scale, woven with convection at larger scales. Nature always chooses this arrangement, and not the opposite.
Figure 13.14 The universal proportionality between the length of the laminar section and the buckling wavelength in a large number of flows (Ref. 31).
Figure 13.15 Formation of new needles after every time interval as a repeated manifestation of the trade-off shown in the lower-left figure, which shows the simultaneous growth of the needle and the warmed liquid sphere generated by the tip of the needle.
Figure 13.16 Bérnard convection as a constructal design: the intersection of the many-cell and few-cell asymptotes.
Figure 13.17 The construction of the tree of convective heat currents: (
a
) the constructal design of a T-shaped construct; (
b
) the stretched tree of constructs; (
c
) the superposition of two identical trees oriented in counterflow; and (
d
) the convective heat flow along a pair of tubes in counterflow (Refs. 8 and 50).
Figure 13.18 The predicted relation between animal hair strand diameter and body length scale.
Figure 13.19 The distributed destruction of useful energy (food or fuel exergy) during flight.
Figure 13.20 (
a
) The periodic trajectory of a flying animal and (
b
) the cyclical progress of a swimming animal.
Figure 13.21 The flying speeds of insects, birds, and airplanes and their theoretical constructal speed (Ref. 8).
Figure 13.22 Comparison of theoretical predictions with the speeds, stroke frequencies, and force outputs of a wide variety of animals (from Ref. 51 and references therein). The theoretical predictions are based on scale analysis, which neglects factors of order 1 and therefore should be accurate in an order-of-magnitude sense. Note, however, that in nearly all cases the constructal theory of flight comes closer than order-of-magnitude agreement with empirical data.
Figure 13.23 (
a
) Few large and many small in the movement of freight on vehicles on the landscape. The movement is enhanced when a certain balance is established between the number of small vehicles allocated to a large vehicle and the balance between the distances traveled by the few and the many. (
b
) Few large and many small in how animal mass is moving on the globe, on land, in water, and in the air. The natural organization of animal mass flow is the precursor to our own design as human and machine species (humans and vehicles) sweeping the globe.
Figure 13.24 Examples of S-curve phenomena: the growth of brewer's yeast, the spreading of radios and TVs, and the growth of the readership of scientific publications [26].
Figure 13.25 Line-shaped invasion, followed by consolidation by transversal diffusion. The predicted history of the area swept by diffusion reveals the S-shaped curve [26].
Figure 13.26 Emergence of asymmetry in the layot of trees consisting of triangular and hexagonal area elements [76].
Figure 13.27 A volume is bathed by a single stream that flow as two trees matched canopy to canopy: (1) Elemental volumes stacked as a deck of cards; (2) Trees with two branching levels; (3) Trees with three branching levels [82].
Figure 13.28 The stepwise evolution of the vascular architecture as the volume size (
n
) increases and in Figure 13.27 [83].
Figure 13.29 Closed system in steady state, with heat flow in and out: (
a
) without flow organization (design); (
b
) with flow organization; (
c
) every moving body, animate or inanimate, functions as an engine that dissipates its power entirely into a brake during movement. The natural tendency of evolving design is the same as the tendency toward more power (the engine design, animal, or machine) and toward more dissipation (mixing the moved with the ambient).
Figure 13.30 Knowledge is the spreading of the ability to effect design changes that facilitate greater and more lasting movement over the covered territory.
Figure P13.1
Figure P13.2
Figure P13.5
Figure P13.6
Figure P13.7
Figure P13.8
Figure P13.9
Figure P13.10
Figure P13.12
Figure P13.13
Figure P13.14
Figure P13.17
Figure P13.18
Figure P13.19
Figure P13.21
Figure P13.22
Figure P13.24
Figure P13.25
Figure P13.26
Figure P13.27
List of Tables
Chapter 1: The First Law
Table 1.1 Examples of Simple (Uncoupled) Forms of Energy Storage and Corresponding Work Interactions
Table 1.2 Highlights in the Conceptual Development of Classical Thermodynamics
Chapter 2: The Second Law
Table 2.1 Thermodynamics Structure: Scheme Rooted in Mechanics and Heat Transfer–Based Reconstruction
Chapter 3: Entropy Generation, or Exergy Destruction
Table 3.1 Two Main Problems in Thermal Engineering as Two Distinct Approaches to Entropy Generation Minimization
Chapter 4: Single-Phase Systems
Table 4.1 Samples of Substances in Internal Equilibrium: Distinction between
Homogeneous
and
Heterogeneous
and
Single Component
and
Multicomponent
As a Way of Visualizing the Meaning of Simple System and Pure Substance
Table 4.2 Alternatives to Reconstructing the Information Content of the Fundamental Relation
Table 4.3 Legendre Transforms of the Fundamental Relation: Enthalpy, Helmholtz Free-Energy, and Gibbs Free-Energy Fundamental Relations (
N
i
=
N
1
,
N
2
, …,
N
n
)
Table 4.4 Maxwell's Relations for a Single-Component System
Table 4.5 Ideal Gas and Incompressible Liquid Limits of the Relations Measured during the Special Processes Discussed in Connection with Fig. 4.8
Table 4.6 Bridgman's Relations for First Partial Derivatives
a
Table 4.7 Calculation of Changes in Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy Based on the Information Provided by the
P
=
P
(,
T
) Surface and Specific-Heat Measurements
Chapter 5: Exergy Analysis
Table 5.1 Summary of Exergy Names and Symbols
Chapter 6: Multiphase Systems
Table 6.1 Critical-Point Properties [3]
Table 6.2 Critical Compressibility Factors and Pitzer Acentric Factors
Chapter 7: Chemically Reactive Systems
Table 7.1 Values of Log
10
K
P
(
T
) for Eight Examples of Reactive Ideal Gas
Table 7.2 Enthalpy of Formation, Gibbs Free Energy of Formation, and Absolute Entropy of Some of the Most Common Substances Encountered in the Analysis of Combustion Processes (
T
= ,
P
= 1 atm)
Table 7.3 Lower Heating Values (LHV), Higher Heating Values (HHV), Gibbs Free-Energy Decrease (– Δ
G
), and Chemical Exergy of Various Fuels at
T
0
= and
P
0
= 1 atm
Chapter 9: Solar Power
Table 9.1 Effect of the Heat Transfer Model on the Results of the Double Maximization of the Power Produced and Destroyed by Global Circulation
Chapter 10: Refrigeration
Table 10.1 Main Temperature and Pressure Characteristics of Some of the Most Common Refrigerants
Table 10.2 Minimum Mechanical Power Required by the Liquefaction of Cryogenic Fluids
Chapter 13: The Constructal Law
Table 13.1 Laminar Flow Resistances of Ducts with Regular Polygonal Cross Sections with
n
Sides
Table 13.2 Optimized Cross-Sectional Shapes of Open Channels
Table 13.3 Traditional Critical Numbers for Transitions in Several Key Flows and the Corresponding Local Reynolds Number
Table 13.4 The Balancing of High-Resistivity Flow with Low-Resistivity Flow in a Wide Diversity of Flow Systems
Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics
Fourth Edition
Adrian BejanJ. A. Jones Distinguished ProfessorDuke UniversityDurham, North Carolina
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Names: Bejan, Adrian, 1948- author.
Title: Advanced engineering thermodynamics / Adrian Bejan.
Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016023367 | ISBN 9781119052098 (cloth : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781119281030 (epdf) | ISBN 9781119281047 (epub)
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Preface to the First Edition†
I have assembled in this book the notes prepared for my advanced class in engineering thermodynamics, which is open to students who have had previous contact with the subject. I decided to present this course in book form for the same reasons that I organized my own notes for use in the classroom. Among them is my impression that the teaching of engineering thermodynamics is dominated by an abundance of good introductory treatments differing only in writing style and quality of graphics. For generation after generation, engineering thermodynamics has flowed from one textbook into the next, essentially unchanged. Today, the textbooks describe a seemingly “classical” engineering discipline, that is, a subject void of controversy and references, one in which the step-by-step innovations in substance and teaching method have been long forgotten.
Traveling back in time to rediscover the history of the discipline and looking into the future for new frontiers and challenges are activities abandoned by all but a curious few. This situation presents a tremendous pedagogical opportunity at the graduate level, where the student's determination to enter the research world comes in conflict with the undergraduate view that thermodynamics is boring and dead as a research arena. The few textbooks that qualify for use at the graduate level have done little to alleviate this conflict. On the theoretical side, the approach preferred by these textbooks has been to emphasize the abstract reformulation of classical thermodynamics into a sequence of axioms and corollaries. The pedagogical drawback of overemphasizing the axiomatic approach is that we do not live by axioms alone and the axiomatic reformulation seems to change from one revisionist author to the next. Of course, there is merit in the simplified phrasing and rephrasing of any theory: This is why a comparative presentation of various axiomatic formulations is a component of the present treatment. However, I see additional merit in proceeding to show how the theory can guide us through the ever-expanding maze of contemporary problems. Instead of emphasizing the discussion of equilibrium states and relations among their properties, I see more value in highlighting irreversible processes, especially the kind found in practical physical systems.
With regard to the presentation of thermodynamics at the graduate level, I note a certain tendency to emphasize physics research developments and to deemphasize engineering applications. I am sure that the engineering student—his† sense of self-esteem—has not been well served by the implication that the important and interesting applications are to be found only outside the domain chosen by him for graduate study. If he, like Lazare and Sadi Carnot two centuries earlier, sought to improve his understanding of what limits the “efficiency” of machines, then he finished the course shaking his head wondering about the mechanical engineering relevance of, say, negative absolute temperatures.
These observations served to define my objective in designing the present treatment. My main objective is to demonstrate that thermodynamics is an active and often controversial field of research and encourage the student to invest his creativity in the future growth of the field.
The other considerations that have contributed to defining the objective of the present treatment are hinted at by the title Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. The focus is being placed on “engineering” thermodynamics, that is, on that segment of thermodynamics that addresses the production of mechanical power and refrigeration in the field of engineering practice. I use the word thermodynamics despite the campaign fought on behalf of thermostatics as the better name for the theory whose subjects are either in equilibrium or, at least, in local equilibrium. I must confess that I feel quite comfortable using the word thermodynamics in the broad sense intended by its creator, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin): This particular combination of the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power) is a most appropriate name‡ for the field that united the “heat” and “work” lines of activity that preceded it (Table 1.2).
