Aerospace Actuators 3 E-Book

Jean-Charles Mare

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 268

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

This book is the third in a series dedicated to aerospace actuators. It uses the contributions of the first two volumes to conduct case studies on actuation for flight controls, landing gear and engines. The actuation systems are seen in several aspects: signal and power architectures, generation and distribution of hydraulic or mechanical power, control and reliability, and evolution towards more electrical systems. The first three chapters are dedicated to the European commercial airplanes that marked their era: Caravelle, Concorde, Airbus A320 and Airbus A380. The final chapter deals with the flight controls of the Boeing V-22 and AgustaWestland AW609 tiltrotor aircraft. These address concerns that also apply to electromechanical actuators, which should be fitted on more electrical aircraft in the future. The topics covered in this series of books constitute a significant source of information for individuals and engineers from a variety of disciplines, seeking to learn more about aerospace actuation systems and components.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Copyright

Introduction

List of Acronyms

1 European Commercial Aircraft before the Airbus A320

1.1. Introduction

1.2. The Caravelle and irreversible primary flight servocontrols

1.3. The Concorde and flight controls with analog electrical signals and controllers

2 Airbus A320 and Electrically Signaled Actuators

2.1. Airbus A320 or Signal-by-Wire with digital computers

2.2. Flight controls

2.3. Landing gears

2.4. Hydraulic system architecture

2.5. Hydraulic pumps

3 Airbus A380

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Data transmission and processing [BER 07, BUT 07, ITI 07]

3.3. Power generation and distribution

3.4. Flight controls

3.5. Landing gears

3.6. Thrust reversers

3.7. Subsequent programs

4 V-22 and AW609 Tiltrotors

4.1. V-22 Osprey military tiltrotor

4.2. AW609 civil tiltrotor

4.3. Comparison of the pylon conversion actuator approaches for the V-22 and AW609

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

2 Airbus A320 and Electrically Signaled Actuators

Table 2.1. Mechanical characteristics of the Airbus A320 actuators (according to [SOC 11] and [SOC 12])

Table 2.2. Comparison of concepts for the Airbus A320 linear actuators

3 Airbus A380

Table 3.1. Power needs for the actuation functions on the A380

Table 3.2. Braking and steering functions for the landing gears

4 V-22 and AW609 Tiltrotors

Table 4.1. Main characteristics of the V-22 flight control actuators (according to SOC 12)

Table 4.2. Power capacity of the AW609 flight control actuators (according to [SOC 12])

Table 4.3. Comparison of the solutions used for the actuation of pylons of the V-22 and the AW609

List of Illustrations

1 European Commercial Aircraft before the Airbus A320

Figure 1.1. Aerodynamic assistance concepts. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.2. SE-210 Caravelle (© Air France Archives)

Figure 1.3. The Caravelle Servodyne under maintenance at Arlanda Airport (© SAS Scandinavian Airlines)

Figure 1.4. Caravelle Servodyne servocontrol (according to [SAB 61, SWI 60]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.5. Equivalent diagram of the Servodyne servocontrol (half-actuator, active normal mode). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.6. Artificial feel on Caravelle flight controls. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.7. Simplified diagram of the Caravelle hydraulic power generation/distribution architecture (according to [DAR 65]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.8. The Concorde (© Air France Archives). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.9. Concorde flight control surfaces (according to [BRI 79])

Figure 1.10. Example of setpoint elaboration for the yaw axis of the Concorde (upper: architecture with 3 loops; lower: generation of position setpoints). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.11. Use of synchros for the elaboration of flight control setpoints. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.12. PFCU of the Concorde elevon (according to [BRI 79]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.13. Photographs of Concorde flight control actuators (upper: relay jack (courtesy of Concordescopia Museum, Toulouse); lower: PFCU). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.14. Simplified architecture of the Concorde artificial feel function (setpoint generator inputs depend on the axis considered). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 1.15. Simplified architecture of the Concorde hydraulic generation and distribution (according to [BRI 79]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

2 Airbus A320 and Electrically Signaled Actuators

Figure 2.1. The Airbus A318, the smallest aircraft in the A320 family. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.2. Principle of electrical flight controls on the Airbus A320. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.3. Simplified representation of the architecture of the Airbus A320 electrically signaled flight controls. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.4. Topology and redundancy of the Airbus A320 electrical flight controls (according to [AIG 16]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.5. Hydraulic architecture of an Airbus A320 aileron actuator (according to [VOL 10]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.6. Photograph of an Airbus A320 aileron actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.7. The Airbus A320 rudder control surface actuator (according to an original image © Liebherr). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.8. Hydraulic architecture of the Airbus A320 elevator actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.9. Photograph of the Airbus A320 elevator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.10a. Trimmable horizontal stabilizer actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.10b. Trimmable horizontal stabilizer actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.11. No-back with friction disks (upper: sectional view of a no-back according to [NFO 06]; lower: partial perspective view, according to [MOR 99]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.12. Actuator of deployed right wing spoiler no. 2. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.13. Airbus A320 secondary flight controls. Top image: high-lift flaps and lift dumpers deployed; bottom image: power control unit (according to an original photograph © Liebherr). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.14. Simplified architecture of the Airbus A320 slat actuation (according to [FAL 04, WIL 08]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.15. Architecture of the Airbus A330 braking system (according to [LAL 02]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.16. Mechanically signaled auxiliary landing gear steering on the Airbus A310 (upper: diagram of the mechanical transmission of commands (© Airbus); lower: photograph of the actuator). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.17. Electrically signaled auxiliary landing gear steering on the Airbus A320 (according to [DAN 17]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.18. Architecture of hydraulic generation/distribution for the Airbus A320 (© Airbus). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.19. Hydraulic power generation at constant pressure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.20. Evolution of variable displacement pumps

Figure 2.21. Main pump of the Airbus A320 (© Eaton Aerospace LLC 2016. All Rights Reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.22. Hydraulic architecture of an Airbus A320 EDP pump. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.23. Electric motor pump (EMP) of the Airbus A320 (© Eaton Aerospace LLC 2016. All Rights Reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 2.24. Power transfer unit (PTU) of the Airbus A320 (© Eaton Aerospace LLC 2016. All Rights Reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

3 Airbus A380

Figure 3.1. The Airbus A380 in low-speed flight, deployed slats and flaps. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.2. Electric cables in the cabin of an Airbus A380 prototype (© SIPA). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.3. Integrated modular architecture of the Airbus A380 (upper: ADCN/AFDX network and interfacing possibilities; middle: top view of CPIOM topology, according to [MOI 13]; lower: photographs of a CPIOM (©Thales)). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.4. Power architecture for the actuation functions of the Airbus A380 (updated from [Mar 04b]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.5. Schematic cross-section of an EDP of the Airbus A380 (Drawing © Eaton Aerospace LLC 2016. All Rights Reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.6. EMP of the Airbus A380 (© Eaton Aerospace LLC 2016. All Rights Reserved). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.7. RAT of the Airbus A380. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.8. Concept of the accumulator with a metallic bellow (according to [DAC 04]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.9. Signal and power topology of the Airbus 380 flight controls (according to [CHA 07, LET 07, VAN 15]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.10. New power-metering concepts introduced on the Airbus A380 for flight control actuators. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.11. IMA architecture (flight control part) of the Airbus A380 (according to [BUT 07]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.12. Removal of the mechanical transmission of rudder actuator setpoints on the Airbus A340-600. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.13. Signal and power interfaces of a PbW actuator for the A380. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.14. Topology of the actuation of the Airbus A380 slats and flaps (upper: power architecture for the flaps [HAU 05]; lower: power architecture for the slats [BOW 04]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.15. Hydraulic channel of the PCU of the Airbus A380 slats [BOW 04]. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.16. PCU of the Airbus A380 flaps [HAU 05]. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.17. Hydraulic architecture of an EHA (according to [VOL 10]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.18. Spoiler EBHA for the Airbus A380 [BIE 04]. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.19. Integration of EHA and EBHA on the Airbus A380 (according to [TOD 07]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.20. Trimmable horizontal stabilizer actuator for the Airbus A380 (left: elements, according to [PHI 04]; right: photograph of the upper part). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.21. Mechanical architecture of the THSA of the Airbus A380. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.22. Architecture of a hydraulic channel of the THSA of the Airbus A380. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.23. Landing gears of the Airbus A380 (upper: the Airbus A380 upon landing at Farnborough; lower: references of landing gears and wheels (top view)). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.24. The 3 local electrohydraulic generation systems of the Airbus A380 [DEL 04]. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.25. Simplified power architecture of the steering of the nose landing gear (according to [DEL 04]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.26. Steering of the nose landing gear of push–pull type (upper: example of hydraulic architecture for push–pull actuator; lower: hydraulic block for steering of A380 nose landing gear). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.27. Power architecture of the Airbus A380 brakes (according to [DEL 04]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.28. Thrust reverser according to the cascade concept (upper: stowed reverser; middle: deployed reverser; lower: main mechanical elements). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 3.29. Simplified diagram of the signal and power architectures of the ETRAS of the Airbus A380 (according to [RÉS 14]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

4 V-22 and AW609 Tiltrotors

Figure 4.1. Flight envelopes of V-22 (according to [BOE 11]) and AW609 (according to [CAP 04]) tiltrotors. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.2. V-22 in taxi mode. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.3. Triplex PFCS architecture of the V-22 (according to [BAL 91]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.4. Top view of the V-22 flight control power architecture (according to [MCM 85]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.5. Control loop of a V-22 swashplate actuator (according to [MCM 85]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.6. Generic architecture of a V-22 control surface actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.7. Simplified hydromechanical diagram of the swashplate actuator (according to [MCM 85]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.8. Photograph of a V-22 swashplate actuator (© Moog Inc.). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.9. Kinematics of V-22 pylon actuation (upper: simplified diagram of the side view; middle: actuator/pylon gimbal joints; lower: wing/actuator (adapted from [HIC 92])). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.10. Geometric integration of the V-22 pylon conversion actuator (upper: ground photograph, rotor tilted at about 60°; left lower: attachment to the right pylon; right lower: anchorage on the left wing). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.11. Nut-screw system viewed as a mechanical quadriport (angles and positions are defined with respect to a shared frame of reference; the sign convention may depend on the application according to functional needs). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.12. Power architecture of the V-22 pylon conversion actuator (upper: schematic diagram (according to [CAE 92]); lower: power channels (according to [FEN 01])). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.13. Pylon actuator in retracted configuration (airplane mode), showing the elements of PCA with the electrical backup channel (according to [WHI 93]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.14. Examples of power paths in reference to Figure 4.12 (left: normal case with 2 active electrohydraulic channels; right: actuation by the backup channel). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.15. Simplified diagram of an electrohydraulic channel of the pylon conversion actuator (represented in active mode). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.16. Simplified representation of the backup actuation channel (initially electrical version). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.17. Flight controls of the AW609 (photograph according to [FEN 05], courtesy of Bell Helicopter Inc.). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.18. Hydraulic power architecture of the AW609 (according to an original image from [FEN 05], courtesy of Bell Helicopter Inc.). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.19. Simplified representation of the initial hydraulic architecture of an actuator. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.20. Simplified representation of the ITFV hydraulic architecture of the AW609 (according to [FEN 06]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.21. Simplified representation of the hydraulic architecture and photograph of redundant ITFV for the AW609 collective pitch actuation (according to [FEN 05]). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.22. Integration of the pylon conversion actuator on the AW609 (according to an original image from [FEN 00], courtesy of Bell Helicopter Inc.). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.23. Pylon conversion actuator of the AW609 (photograph courtesy of Woodward, Inc.). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.24. Architecture of PCA of the AW609 (upper: topology (according to [FEN 00] and courtesy of Bell Helicopter Inc.); lower: signal and power architecture). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.25. Architecture of a hydraulic power drive unit of the AW609. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

Figure 4.26. Shock damper with conical elastic rings (upper: partial sectional view, © Ringfeder® Power Transmission GMBH; lower: example of integration on the nut-screw as the end-stop). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip

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Series EditorJean-Paul Bourrières

Aerospace Actuators 3

European Commercial Aircraft and Tiltrotor Aircraft

Jean-Charles Maré

First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

27-37 St George’s Road

London SW19 4EU

UK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

111 River Street

Hoboken, NJ 07030

USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2018

The rights of Jean-Charles Maré to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959463

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84821-943-4

Introduction

This book is the third in a series of volumes that cover the topic of aerospace actuators. The first volume, Aerospace Actuators 1, focuses on aerospace actuation needs, concepts of reliability and redundancy, and hydraulically-powered actuation solutions. The second volume, Aerospace Actuators 2, focuses exclusively on more electric solutions, with regard to both signal (Signal-by-Wire or SbW) and power (Power-by-Wire or PbW). This third volume of the series, Aerospace Actuators 3, is entirely about the detailed analysis of operational applications. Rather than putting together the most exhaustive possible catalog of implemented solutions, the objective is to rely on generic solutions that have been presented in the first 2 volumes from an architectural and functional perspective in order to highlight the constraints and opportunities offered by the technologies used. A particular aim is to provide, by means of examples, a matrix view that covers various applications in an aircraft (power generation, primary and secondary flight controls, landing gears and engines) and various types of aircraft (fixed wing and rotor wing) at the same time. This book is structured into chapters dedicated to aircraft types or families. The chapters cover various actuation-related applications. The first 3 chapters cover the evolution of actuation for European commercial aircraft, focusing on aircraft representing the technological breakthroughs of each decade. The first chapter relates to the Caravelle, which introduced irreversible, hydraulically-powered flight controls with no mechanical backup for 3 axes, and to the supersonic Concorde of the 1970s, which introduced analog flight controls with mechanical backup. Chapter 2 deals with the Airbus A320 from the 1980s–1990s, which introduced electrically-signaled and digitally-controlled flight control systems with mechanical signaling as backup for 2 axes. Chapter 3 addresses the Airbus A380 from the 2000s, which introduced disruptive innovations concerning more electric actuation, particularly with the introduction of Electrohydrostatic Actuators (EHA). Chapter 4 provides an opportunity to analyze and compare architectural, design and technological solutions that have been implemented for the Boeing-Bell V-22 tiltrotor military aircraft and the Agusta Westland AW609 tiltrotor civil aircraft. Particular attention has been given to linear screw jacks developed for the tilting of nacelles, ensuring the transition between plane and helicopter modes. Although hydraulically powered, these highly critical actuators use rotary hydraulic motors to generate output translational motion. Consequently, the power transmission solutions implemented, and particularly those for secondary functions and reliability, present an interest, as similar preoccupations relate to Electromechanical Actuators (EMA), which are on their way to replacing Hydraulic Servo Actuators (HSA), also known as Servo-Hydraulic Actuators (SHA), for high power. All chapters cover hydraulic power generation, which is quasi-exclusively related to actuation functions. On the contrary, none of the chapters cover electric power generation. The reason for this is twofold: it is not specific to actuation and it is very well described by many references, some of which are mentioned below.

Similar to previous volumes, further bibliographic references are recommended as sources of valuable information referring to aerospace actuation:

– books focusing on hydraulic actuation for aerospace [NEE 91, RAY 93];

– books covering all aircraft systems, in English [MOI 08, ROS 00, USF 12, WIL 08] or in French [DAN 17, LAL 02, SAU 09];

– state-of-the-art reviews (

Aerospace Information Report

or AIR) by the

Society of Automotive Engineers

(SAE) [SOC 12, SOC 16];

– conference proceedings, particularly those exclusively focusing on aerospace actuators (

Recent Advances in Aerospace Actuation Systems and Components

, INSA Toulouse, 2001, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016).

Some of these references provide the reader with information related to other types of aircraft besides those covered in this volume, such as the Boeing B737 and B747 models or the US military aircraft models F-15, F-16, F-18 and B2.

These references will also provide the reader with information on the actuation of aircraft models covered in this volume. However, this is most often exclusively presented as descriptive information. By contrast, throughout the following chapters, significant effort has been put into analyzing the adopted solutions in terms of architecture, design and technology. Various aspects of these solutions are discussed (power capacity, reliability/redundancy, control and monitoring, maintenance and operation, etc.), as part of the generic solutions presented in the first 2 volumes. The difference in terms of objective and targeted audience also explains why the diagrams in this volume are not presented in a form that is similar to that used by aircraft manufacturers. As in the previous volumes, the diagrams in this volume distinguish between the signal view (full arrow) and the energy or power view (half-arrow). The direction of signal arrows represents the direction of information flow. As for power transmission, the half-arrow indicates only the functional direction; however, in the case of reversible elements, it is possible for power to flow in the opposite direction (which is, for example, the case of an aiding load). Finally, while technological aspects are only to a certain extent covered in this volume, to the benefit of architectural aspects, it is not because they are considered unimportant. On the contrary, it should be kept in mind that it is often due to technological imperfections that the industrial interest in certain architectural solutions is limited at a given time.

List of Acronyms

ABCU:

Alternate Braking Control Unit

ADC:

Air Data Computer

ADCN:

Avionics Data Communication Network

ADIRU:

Air Data and Inertial Reference Unit

AFCS:

Automatic Flight Control System

AFDX:

Avionics Full DupleX switched ethernet

APPU:

Asymmetry Position Pick-off Unit

APU:

Auxiliary Power Unit

BCM:

Backup Control Module

BCS:

Brake Control System

BFWS:

Blade Folding and Wing Stowing

BHB:

Backup Hydraulic Brake

BHPDU:

Backup Hydraulic Power Drive Unit

BLG:

Body Landing Gear

BPS:

Backup Power Supply

BSCU:

Braking and Steering Control Unit

BTV:

Brake To Vacate

BWS:

Body Wheel Steering

CCQ:

Cross Crew Qualification

CFRP:

Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

CPIOM:

Core Processing Input/Output Module

CSM/G:

Constant Speed Motor Generator

DDV:

Direct Drive Valve

EBCU:

Emergency Brake Control Unit

EBHA:

Electrical Backup Hydraulic Actuator

ECAM:

Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring

ECU:

Electronic Control Unit

EDP:

Engine-Driven Pump

EEC:

Electric Engine Control

EFCS:

Electrical Flight Control System

EHA:

Electrohydrostatic Actuator

EIS:

Entry Into Service

ELAC:

Elevator and Aileron Computer

EMA:

Electromechanical Actuator

EMI:

Electromagnetic Interference

EMP:

Electric Motor Pump

EMS:

Elastic Mode Suppression

EPDU:

Electric Power Drive Unit

ETRAC:

Electric Thrust Reverser Actuator Controller

ETRAS:

Electric Thrust Reverser Actuation System

FbW:

Fly-by-Wire

FAC:

Flight Augmentation Computer

FADEC:

Full Authority Digital Engine Control

FCDC:

Flight Control Data Concentrator

FCGC:

Flight Control and Guidance Computer

FCPC:

Flight Control Primary Computer

FCRM:

Flight Control Remote Module

FCS:

Flight Control System

FCSC:

Flight Control Secondary Computer

FFCM:

Free Fall Control Module

FHS:

Fluide Hydraulique Standard

FOD:

Foreign Object Debris

FPPU:

Feedback Position Pick-up Unit

GDO:

Ground Door Opening

HIRF:

High-Intensity Radiated Field

HPDU:

Hydraulic Power Drive Unit

HSA:

Hydraulic Servo Actuator

HSTA:

Horizontal Stabilizer Trim Actuator

IDT:

Interconnect Drive Train

IMA:

Integrated Modular Avionics

IOM:

Input/Output Module

IPPU:

Instrumentation Position Pick-up Unit

ITFV:

Integrated Three Function Valve

LAF:

Load Alleviation Function

LEHGS:

Local Electrohydraulic Generation System

LGCIS:

Landing Gear Control and Indication System

LGCIU:

Landing Gear Control/Interface Unit

LGERS:

Landing Gear Extension and Retraction System

LRM:

Line Replaceable Module

LRU:

Line Replaceable Unit

LVDT:

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

MCE:

Motor Control Electronics

MCPU:

Motor Control and Protection Unit

MDE:

Motor Drive Electronics

MLC:

Maneuver Load Control

MLG:

Main Landing Gear

MPD:

Motor Power Drive

MPE:

Motor Power Electronics

MSU:

Motor Switching Unit

MTBF:

Mean Time Between Failure

MTBFCF:

Mean Time Between Flight Critical Failure

MTOW:

Maximum Take-Off Weight

MWGB:

Mid-Wing Gear Box

neo:

New Engine Option

NLG:

Nose Landing Gear

NWS:

Nose Wheel Steering

PbW:

Power-by-Wire

PCA:

Pylon Conversion Actuator

PCS:

Pylon Conversion System

PCU:

Power Control Unit

PDU:

Power Drive Unit

PFBIT:

Pre-Flight Built-In Test

PFCS:

Primary Flight Control System

PFCU:

Powered Flying Control Unit

PHB:

Primary Hydraulic Brake

PHPDU:

Primary Hydraulic Power Drive Unit

PLS:

Primary Lock System

POB:

Pressure-Off Brake

PTU:

Power Transfer Unit

RAT:

Ram Air Turbine

RCCB:

Remote Current Circuit Breaker

RDC:

Remote Data Concentrator

RJ:

Relay Jack

RPK:

Revenue Passenger Kilometer

RVDT:

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

SAE:

Society of Automotive Engineers

SAR:

Search and Rescue

SbW:

Signal-by-Wire

SFCC:

Secondary Flight Control Computer or Slat and Flap Control Computer

SEC:

Spoiler and Elevator Computer

SHA:

Servo-Hydraulic Actuator

THS:

Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer

THSA:

Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer Actuator

TLS:

Tertiary Lock System

TRPU:

Thrust Reverse Power Unit

UAV:

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

VFG:

Variable-Frequency Generator

V/STOL:

Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing

WLG:

Wing Landing Gear

WTB:

Wing-Tip Brake

ZFW:

Zero Fuel Weight

1European Commercial Aircraft before the Airbus A320

1.1. Introduction

European industry abounds in examples that highlight the 4 major stages of the evolution of commercial aircraft actuation:

– the Caravelle (Sud Aviation), the first short/medium-range jetliner that used, from the end of the 1950s, irreversible servocontrols without the possibility for human-powered control

1

of the 3 axes of primary flight controls (roll, pitch and yaw);

– the Concorde (Sud Aviation and British Aircraft Corporation), the only supersonic commercial jetliner, which by the mid-1970s introduced electrically-signaled flight controls driven by analog electric controllers;

– the Airbus A320 that introduced by the mid-1980s electrically-signaled flight controls with digital computers, which are often called

Fly-by-Wire

(FbW);

– the Airbus A380 that by the mid-2000s introduced electrically-powered actuators and electrically-powered local hydraulic power generation used as backup.

This chapter focuses only on the first 2 examples, the Airbus A320 and A380 being dealt with in their own specific chapters.

1.2. The Caravelle and irreversible primary flight servocontrols

At the end of the 1930s, several planes were already using hydraulic actuators for end-stop to end-stop positioning functions (extension/retraction of landing gear, deployment/retraction of wing flaps, opening/closure of engine cowling flaps) or functions of force transmission for wheel braking (see Figure 1.7 in Volume 1 [MAR 16b]). For primary flight controls, hydraulic actuators were also installed, along with cable controls that transmitted pilot actions to mobile surfaces. This allowed for the imposition of the flight control surface position setpoints by the automatic pilot when this was engaged (see Figure 1.8 of Volume 1 [MAR 16b]). Due to the increase in aircraft size, speed and flight duration, the need to reduce the level of force generated by the pilot for primary flight controls rapidly became essential. The introduction of tabs, deflected in the direction opposite to that intended for flight control surface deflection, provided assistance to the pilot’s efforts without using an airborne power source: being subjected to aerodynamic forces, the tab produces a deflection moment that orients the flight control surface in the intended direction of movement. The application of this concept has led to several variants [LAL 02, ROS 00]:

– the

servo tab

(

Figure 1.1(a)

), for which the pilot acts only on the tab (if the assistance is insufficient, the bell crank arrives at end-stop and then the pilot acts directly on the flight control surface);

– the

auto tab

(

Figure 1.1(b)

), for which the pilot acts only on the flight control surface (tab deflection results from the flight control surface movement relative to the fixed surface);

– the

spring tab

(

Figure 1.1(c)

), for which the tab generates assistance only beyond a certain value of the maneuvering force, which allows for the improvement of control accuracy at small deflections;

– the

servo tab with compensation panel

(

Figure 1.1(d)

), which increases the servo tab aid rate due to the moment produced by a panel subjected to the difference in pressure between the lower surface and the upper surface of the wing profile.

Figure 1.1.Aerodynamic assistance concepts. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/mare/aerospace3.zip