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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Aerospace Series
- Sprache: Englisch
In-depth reference on fixed wing aircraft electrical and mechanical systems, covering electronics, hydraulics, and other essential components
Aircraft Systems delivers comprehensive material on the design and development of fixed wing aircraft electrical and mechanical systems, providing broad coverage of aircraft systems including electronics, hydraulics, pneumatics, flight control actuation, and landing gear. The book features many practical examples of existing commercial and military aircraft. Academic design studies and methods are presented, along with information on technical and mathematical methods of design. The book also features design guides for each system, including equations where appropriate to size sub-systems and major components, and discusses environmental concerns.
Topics discussed in Aircraft Systems include:
- Aircraft systems design philosophy and safety, covering systems design approaches, safety assessments, requirement captures, and component reliability
- Secondary power sources including main engines, auxiliary and ground power units, batteries, ram air turbines, and fuel cells
- Hydraulic system components, covering hydraulic fluids, pumps, and piping, reservoirs, filters, accumulators, and relief valves
- Aircraft icing and rain protection, covering ice protection systems such as electro-impulse de-icing and chemical ice protection systems
Aircraft Systems is an essential resource for undergraduate and postgraduate students studying the design of fixed wing aircraft systems. The book is also valuable to professionals in aerospace engineering due to its broad view of aircraft systems development and integration.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Series Preface
About the Authors
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Which Are the Airframe Systems?
1.2 Aircraft Systems Design Processes and Aircraft‐Level Considerations
1.3 Systems Integration
Bibliography
2 Airframe Systems Design Process
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Requirements Capture
2.3 System Safety Assessment
2.4 System Architectures
2.5 Systems Design for Maintainability
2.6 Aircraft Level Trade‐off Analysis
2.7 Cost
2.8 Summary
References
3 Aircraft Secondary Power Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Secondary Power Forms
3.3 Secondary Power Sources
4 Aircraft Pneumatic Power Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Requirements for Aircraft Pneumatic Power Systems
4.3 Bleed Air Systems Design
4.4 Bleed Air Systems Components
4.5 The Use of Bleed Air
4.6 Boeing 767 Pneumatic System
Bibliography
5 Hydraulic Power Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hydraulic System Components
5.3 Hydraulic System Aircraft Applications
5.4 Requirements, System Design, Analysis and Sizing
5.5 Summary
References
6 Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Requirements for Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
6.3 Electrical Power Generation
6.4 Electrical Power Conversion
6.5 Electrical Power Distribution
6.6 Electrical Power System Architectures
References
7 Flight Control Actuation Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Control Surfaces
7.3 Flight Control Linkage Systems
7.4 Trim Systems
7.5 Feel Systems
7.6 Actuation Systems Using Hydraulic Actuators
7.7 Actuation Systems Using Electro‐Hydrostatic Actuators
7.8 Actuation Systems Using Electro‐Mechanical Actuators
7.9 Fly‐By‐Wire Systems
7.10 Actuator Design Requirements and Sizing
7.11 Basic Actuator Design Considerations and ‘Rules of Thumb’ for Sizing
7.12 Summary
Bibliography
8 Aircraft Icing, Ice and Rain Protection Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Aircraft Icing Conditions in Flight
8.3 Airworthiness Requirements
8.4 Ice Build‐up in Flight
8.5 Estimation of Ice Accretion on an Aerofoil Surface in Flight
8.6 Aircraft Ice Protection Systems
8.7 Aircraft Ground Icing
8.8 Ground Anti‐icing and De‐icing
8.9 Rain Protection
Bibliography
9 Aircraft Environmental Control Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Requirements for Aircraft ECS
9.3 Cabin Heat Balance Calculations
9.4 ECS Designs
9.5 Environmental Control Subsystems
9.6 Oxygen Systems
9.7 Example Complete ECS
Bibliography
10 Fuel and Fuel Systems
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Aviation Fuels
10.3 Fuel System Components
10.4 Engine Feed Systems
10.5 Fuel Transfer Systems
10.6 Refuel/Defuel Systems
10.7 Vent Systems
10.8 Fuel Quantity Measurement Systems
10.9 Fuel System Contamination
10.10 Fuel Jettison
10.11 Design Process Considerations
10.12 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Requirements capture summary
Table 2.2 Failure condition severity classification and assurance l...
Table 2.3 Aircraft‐level FHA example
Table 2.4 System‐level FHA example
Table 2.5 Failure probability calculations for AND and OR gates
Table 2.6 Example of a failure modes and effects analysis in the fu...
Table 2.7 Summary of architecture types for airframe systems
Table 2.8 System architectures in the computational domain
Table 2.9 Typical maintenance cost prediction‐related parameters
Table 2.10 Life‐cycle phases and their cost elements
Table 2.11 Distribution of aircraft manufacturing costs
Table 2.12 Typical cost fractions of mid‐size civil aircraft (two ...
Table 2.13 Reoccurring cost breakdown for the 777‐200 aircraft – p...
Table 2.14 Non‐reoccurring part costs ($/lb) for the 777‐200 aircr...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Turbofan engine air conditions at bleed tappings for vari...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Hydraulic System Function to component mapping
Table 5.2 Selected hydraulic fluid requirements based on Airbus NSA...
Table 5.3 Positive displacement pump performance relationships
Table 5.4 Typical Inline piston pump efficiencies
Table 5.5 Hydraulic pipe flow minor loss coefficient values
Table 5.6 Allowable and in‐service targets of hydraulic fluid parti...
Table 5.7 Boeing 737 hydraulic systems functions
Table 5.8 Functional design requirement examples for hydraulic syst...
Table 5.9 Non‐functional design requirement examples for hydraulic ...
Table 5.10 Equations for the hydraulic load analysis of a control ...
Table 5.11 Equations for hydraulic load analysis of a hydraulic mo...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Flight control system functional overview and related sub...
Table 7.2 Overview of control surface functions and actuator soluti...
Table 7.3 Overview of control surface functions and actuator soluti...
Table 7.4 Flight control system EASA CS25 requirements
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Aircraft fuel subsystems, types and typical domains of ...
Table 10.2 Fuel properties for piston‐engine aircraft
Table 10.3 Fuel properties for turbine‐engine aircraft
Table 10.4 Tank functions and typical design characteristics
Table 10.5 Fuel pump categories
Table 10.6 Typical tank and subsystem design questions to be solve...
Table 10.7 Constraints and rational for fuel fluid system sizing
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Aircraft systems concept showing technologies and inter...
Figure 1.2 More‐electric secondary power systems aircraft overall ...
Figure 1.3 Cranfield University A‐17 Zephyr semi‐wide‐body, high‐a...
Figure 1.4 Locations of the main aircraft heat sources and sinks
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Relationships between guideline documents for aircraft ...
Figure 2.2 Simplified relationships between design phases and safe...
Figure 2.3 SysML diagrams
Figure 2.4 System‐level functional hazard assessment. HIRF: high i...
Figure 2.5 Fault tree analysis structure and quantitative analysis...
Figure 2.6 System architecture descriptions at various design reso...
Figure 2.7 Functional system architecture example
Figure 2.8 Physical component architecture example
Figure 2.9 System integration architecture example
Figure 2.10 Typical categories of maintenance requirements
Figure 2.11 Aircraft maintenance, utilisation rates, cost variati...
Figure 2.12 Modelling and data requirements for airframe system d...
Figure 2.13 Leading edge access and systems
Figure 2.14 Program life cycle comparison
Figure 2.15 Short‐ and long‐term strategies for airframe systems ...
Figure 2.16 Aircraft performance impact due to airframe systems c...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Typical consumers of pneumatic power
Figure 3.2 Typical consumers of hydraulic power
Figure 3.3 Typical consumers of electric power
Figure 3.4 Typical system secondary power demand profile
Figure 3.5 Common sources for secondary power
Figure 3.6 Auxiliary power unit tail cone installation
Figure 3.7 A typical turbofan power plant providing shaft and comp...
Figure 3.8 Gas turbine auxiliary power unit
Figure 3.9 Typical ram air turbine arrangement and installation
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Aircraft bleed air system schematic SOV: shut‐off valve...
Figure 4.2 Aircraft turbofan engine bleed air control system schem...
Figure 4.3 Shut‐off valve
Figure 4.4 Pressure‐regulating and shut‐off valve
Figure 4.5 Bleed air pre‐cooling system
Figure 4.6 Simplified pitot‐static system
Figure 4.7 B767 GE CF6–80C2 engine bleed air system
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Top‐level functions of aircraft hydraulic systems
Figure 5.2 Typical hydraulic system circuit
Figure 5.3 Hydraulic fluid viscosity and density variation with te...
Figure 5.4 Gear and vane pump schematics
Figure 5.5 Minimum inlet pressure requirements for varying pump sp...
Figure 5.6 Inline piston pump (left) and Stratopower pump (right)...
Figure 5.7 Typical performance curves for an inline pump at 5500 r...
Figure 5.8 Direct current and alternating current electric motor h...
Figure 5.9 Engine‐driven hydraulic pump
Figure 5.10 Vickers bend‐axis hydraulic motor
Figure 5.11 Typical hydraulic pipe structural interfacing – star ...
Figure 5.12 Typical hydraulic reservoirs – non pressurised (left)...
Figure 5.13 Bleed air pressurised hydraulic reservoir system arch...
Figure 5.14 Partial (a) and full‐flow filters (b) and a filter ca...
Figure 5.15 Filter with status indicator
Figure 5.16 Typical types of accumulators – piston (left), diaphr...
Figure 5.17 Pressure‐regulating valve
Figure 5.18 Examples of pressure‐relief valves for thermal and pr...
Figure 5.19 Fuel‐hydraulic heat exchangers
Figure 5.20 Hydraulic power control unit circuit in damping mode...
Figure 5.21 Power control unit circuit in first directional contr...
Figure 5.22 Power control unit circuit in second directional cont...
Figure 5.23 Solenoid‐powered hydraulic power control unit for fly...
Figure 5.24 Sequence/control valves
Figure 5.25 Boeing 737 hydraulic system high‐level circuit diagra...
Figure 5.26 Hawk 200 hydraulic system diagram
Figure 5.27 Typical hydraulic load profile for a large civil airc...
Figure 5.28 Actuation hydraulic load analysis
Figure 5.29 Motor hydraulic load analysis
Figure 5.30 High‐level functional architecture for a three‐circui...
Figure 5.31 Example component architecture for a dual redundant “...
Figure 5.32 Hydraulic model elements and I/O flows
Figure 5.33 SimScape hydraulic–thermal model
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Aircraft electrical power system schematic
Figure 6.2 Shunt wound generator schematic diagram
Figure 6.3 Integrated drive generator schematic diagram
Figure 6.4 Variable speed constant frequency schematic diagram
Figure 6.5 Direct current link variable speed constant frequency s...
Figure 6.6 Cycloconverter variable speed constant frequency schema...
Figure 6.7 Variable frequency schematic diagram
Figure 6.8 Alternating current generation system in parallel opera...
Figure 6.9 Transformer rectifier system schematic diagram
Figure 6.10 Transformer rectifier unit schematic diagram
Figure 6.11 Simplified aircraft busbar system schematic diagram
Figure 6.12 Aircraft electrical wire routing open conduit (racewa...
Figure 6.13 Robust aircraft standard plugs and bulkhead socket
Figure 6.14 Twin generator 28 VDC system architecture
Figure 6.15 A320 electrical system simplified architecture
Figure 6.16 Boeing 787 simplified electrical system architecture...
Figure 6.17 F‐22 Raptor electrical system architecture
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Functional decomposition of aircraft flight control sys...
Figure 7.2 Airbus single‐aisle family type aircraft (A319‐A320)
Figure 7.3 B‐2 Spirit and Experimental Aircraft Programme control ...
Figure 7.4 Hawk 200 flight control via mechanical push–pull rods
Figure 7.5 B737 mechanical cable and rod aileron control system
Figure 7.6 Hydraulic actuator pistons
Figure 7.7 Hydraulic actuators with electric control (Nimrod aircr...
Figure 7.8 Redundancy levels in hydraulic actuators with electric ...
Figure 7.9 Electro‐hydrostatic actuator components
Figure 7.10 Electro‐mechanical actuator components
Figure 7.11 Fly‐by‐wire architecture elements based on the A320
Figure 7.12 A320 overall flight control system architecture
Figure 7.13 A380 overall flight control architecture
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Clean and rime iced aerofoil: lift coefficient (C
L
) aga...
Figure 8.2 Atmospheric water droplet sizes and classifications (no...
Figure 8.3 Variation in crystallisation temperature with water dro...
Figure 8.4 Variation in frequency of icing encounter with altitude...
Figure 8.5 Flight speeds to give stagnation point surface temperat...
Figure 8.6 Probability of icing encounter plotted for water conten...
Figure 8.7 Continuous maximum (stratiform clouds) atmospheric icin...
Figure 8.8 Intermittent maximum (cumuliform clouds) atmospheric ic...
Figure 8.9 Intermittent maximum (cumuliform clouds) atmospheric ic...
Figure 8.10 Freezing drizzle, liquid water content.
Figure 8.11 Freezing rain, liquid water content.
Figure 8.12 Convective cloud ice crystal envelope.
Figure 8.13 Types of ice build‐up on unprotected airframe surface...
Figure 8.14 Flow of water droplets in a cloud onto and around a w...
Figure 8.15 Chord‐wise percentage icing frequency. This data come...
Figure 8.16 Engine bleed air wing ice protection system
Figure 8.17 Engine intake electric thermal ice protection system ...
Figure 8.18 Electro‐expulsive de‐icing system schematic
Figure 8.19 Rain protection air jet nozzles on Tornado aircraft
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Human breathing, heat and water output rates
Figure 9.2 Temperature versus water content in air and relative hu...
Figure 9.3 The variation of atmospheric and oxygen pressures with ...
Figure 9.4 Allowable rates of change of cabin altitude versus cabi...
Figure 9.5 Ram air coolant system schematic
Figure 9.6 Turbofan refrigeration system schematic
Figure 9.7 Regenerative turbofan refrigeration system schematic
Figure 9.8 Regenerative turbofan refrigeration with ram air coolin...
Figure 9.9 Typical temperature and pressure variations through a t...
Figure 9.10 Two‐wheel bootstrap refrigeration system simplified s...
Figure 9.11 Three‐wheel bootstrap refrigeration simplified system...
Figure 9.12 Four‐wheel bootstrap refrigeration system simplified ...
Figure 9.13 Typical temperature and pressure variations through a...
Figure 9.14 Electrically powered and bleed air–driven air‐cycle r...
Figure 9.15 Vapour refrigeration system simplified schematic
Figure 9.16 Avionics liquid cooling system schematic
Figure 9.17 Cabin pressure control system simplified valve arrang...
Figure 9.18 Humidification system simplified schematic
Figure 9.19 Environmental control systems pack heat exchanger of ...
Figure 9.20 Air cycle machine of approximate diameter 150 mm
Figure 9.21 Liquid oxygen system simplified schematic
Figure 9.22 On‐board oxygen generation system simplified schemati...
Figure 9.23 Legacy airliner environmental control systems with lo...
Figure 9.24 Typical airliner environmental control systems with h...
Figure 9.25 Typical twin‐turbofan‐engine airliner environmental c...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Aircraft fuel system top‐level functional requirement...
Figure 10.2 Fuel subsystem layout representation
Figure 10.3 Predicted ignition energy required for a sustained co...
Figure 10.4 Fuel tank arrangement of the Concorde
Figure 10.5 Fuel tank arrangement for a fighter aircraft
Figure 10.6 Booster pump canister, pump element and assembly
Figure 10.7 Booster and transfer pump performance characteristics...
Figure 10.8 Jet pump
Figure 10.9 Airframe and engine fuel system fuel pumps
Figure 10.10 Non‐return valves and fuel pipes
Figure 10.11 Shut‐off valves
Figure 10.12 Principle of operation of an optical level sensor
Figure 10.13 Fuel‐gauging probes and their operating modes
Figure 10.14 Typical fuel feed and recirculation system: archite...
Figure 10.15 Typical fuel feed and recirculation system: archite...
Figure 10.16 Fighter aircraft fuel feed, transfer and refuel sys...
Figure 10.17 Typical re‐fuel and de‐fuel systems
Figure 10.18 In‐flight refuelling probe and drogue components
Figure 10.19 Typical vent system
Figure 10.20 Typical architecture of a fuel quantity measurement...
Figure 10.21 Impact of system safety assessment activities on th...
Figure 10.22 Wing tank bay volume estimation
Figure 10.23 Aircraft pitch and wing tank fuel movements
Figure 10.24 Unlimited energy burst zones for a four‐engine airc...
Figure 10.25 Wing tank fuel‐burn schedules
Figure 10.26 Wingspan wise loading distributions and wing root‐b...
Figure 10.27 Pipe flow variables
Figure 10.28 Trade‐off between pipe diameter and feed system mas...
Figure 10.29 Vent intake flow stations and typical geometry
Figure 10.30 Vent Inlet stations and variables
Figure 10.31 Example results for duct velocity and pressure evol...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Series Preface
About the Authors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Aerospace Series List of Books
Series Editors: Peter Belobaba, Jonathan Cooper, Allan Seabridge
2006, Feb – Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge,
Military Avionics Systems
2006, Sep – Roy Langton,
Stability and Control of Aircraft Systems: Introduction to Classical
Feedback Control
2008, Apr – Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, Roy Langton,
Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical, and
Avionics Subsystems Integration, 3rd Edition
2008, Aug – Peter J. Swatton,
Aircraft Performance Theory and Practice for Pilots, 2nd Edition
2009, Apr – Dominic J. Diston,
Computational Modelling and Simulation of Aircraft and the
Environment, Volume 1: Platform Kinematics and Synthetic Environment
2009, May – Roy Langton, Chuck Clark, Martin Hewitt, Lonnie Richards,
Aircraft Fuel Systems
2009, Oct – David Allerton,
Principles of Flight Simulation
2010, Feb – Thereza Macnamara,
Introduction to Antenna Placement and Installation
2010, Apr – Reg Austin,
Unmanned Aircraft Systems: UAVS Design, Development and Deployment
2010, Aug – Allan Seabridge, Shirley Morgan,
Air Travel and Health: A Systems Perspective
2010, Aug – Peter J. Swatton,
Principles of Flight for Pilots
2010, Oct – Antonios Tsourdos, Brian White, Madhavan Shanmugavel,
Cooperative Path
Planning of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
2011, Jun – Ashish Tewari,
Advanced Control of Aircraft, Spacecraft and Rockets
2011, Jun – John M. Seddon, Simon Newman,
Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics, 3rd Edition
2011, Jul – Bernie MacIsaac, Roy Langton,
Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems
2012, Feb – John Valasek,
Morphing Aerospace Vehicles and Structures
2012, Mar – Plamen Angelov,
Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications
2012, May – G. D. McBain,
Theory of Lift: Introductory Computational Aerodynamics in MATLAB/
Octave
2012, Nov – Doug McLean,
Understanding Aerodynamics: Arguing from the Real Physics
2013, Feb – Keith A. Rigby,
Aircraft Systems Integration of Air‐Launched Weapons
2013, May – Egbert Torenbeek,
Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Analysis and
Optimization of Subsonic Civil Airplanes
2013, May – Christos Kassapoglou,
Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With Applications
to Aerospace Structures, 2nd Edition
2013, Jul – Wayne Durham,
Aircraft Flight Dynamics and Control
2013, Aug – Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, Malcolm Jukes,
Civil Avionics Systems, 2nd Edition
2013, Oct – T. W. Lee,
Aerospace Propulsion
2014, Sep – András Sóbester, Alexander I. J. Forrester,
Aircraft Aerodynamic Design: Geometry
and Optimization
2014, Oct – Tapan K. Sengupta,
Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics
2014, Dec – Jan R. Wright, Jonathan Cooper,
Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity and Loads,
2nd Edition
2015, Mar – Christos Kassapoglou,
Modeling the Effect of Damage in Composite Structures:
Simplified Approaches
2015, Jul – Peter Belobaba, Amedeo Odoni, Cynthia Barnhart,
The Global Airline Industry,
2nd Edition
2015, Dec – Ashish Tewari,
Adaptive Aeroservoelastic Control
2016, Aug – Ajoy Kumar Kundu, Mark A. Price, David Riordan,
Theory and Practice of Aircraft
Performance
2016, Aug – Nancy J. Cooke, Leah J. Rowe, Winston Bennett Jr., DeForest Q. Joralmon,
Remotely
Piloted Aircraft Systems: A Human Systems Integration Perspective
2016, Nov – Wayne Durham, Kenneth A. Bordignon, Roger Beck,
Aircraft Control Allocation
2017, Mar – Grigorios Dimitriadis,
Introduction to Nonlinear Aeroelasticity
2017, Mar – Farhan A. Faruqi,
Differential Game Theory with Applications to Missiles and
Autonomous Systems Guidance
2017, Apr – Pascual Marqués, Andrea Da Ronch,
Advanced UAV Aerodynamics, Flight Stability
and Control: Novel Concepts, Theory and Applications
2017, Aug – Andrew J. Keane, András Sóbester, James P. Scanlan,
Small Unmanned Fixed‐wing
Aircraft Design: A Practical Approach
2017, Nov – Trevor M. Young,
Performance of the Jet Transport Airplane: Analysis Methods, Flight
Operations, and Regulations
2018, Mar – Craig A. Kluever,
Space Flight Dynamics, 2nd Edition
2018. Sept – Gareth D. Padfield,
Helicopter Flight Dynamics: Including a Treatment of Tiltrotor
Aircraft, 3rd Edition
2018, Dec – Ajoy Kumar Kundu, Mark A. Price, David Riordan,
Conceptual Aircraft Design: An
Industrial Approach
2019, Dec – Allan Seabridge, Ian Moir,
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, 3rd Edition
2019, Dec – Rama K. Yedavalli,
Flight Dynamics and Control of Aero and Space Vehicles
2019, Nov – Saeed Farokhi,
Future Propulsion Systems and Energy Sources in Sustainable Aviation
2020, Mar – Mohammad H. Sadraey,
Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems
2020, Jun – Egbert Torenbeek,
Essentials of Supersonic Commercial Aircraft Conceptual Design
2020, Dec – Ashish Tewari,
Foundations of Space Dynamics
2021, May – James W. Gregory, Tianshu Liu,
Introduction to Flight Testing
2022, Apr – Allan Seabridge, Mohammad Radaei,
Aircraft Systems Classifications: A Handbook of
Characteristics and Design Guidelines
2022, Apr – Paul G. Fahlstrom, Thomas J. Gleason, Mohammad H. Sadraey,
Introduction to UAV
Systems, 5th Edition
2022, Nov – Dora Musielak,
Scramjet Propulsion: A Practical Introduction
2022, Dec – David Allerton,
Flight Simulation Software: Design, Development and Testing
2022, Mar – Douglas M. Marshall,
UAS Integration into Civil Airspace: Policy, Regulations and
Strategy
2023, Sep – Roberto Sabatini, Alessandro Gardi,
Sustainable Aviation Technology and Operations:
Research and Innovation Perspectives
2023, Nov – Grigorios Dimitriadis,
Unsteady Aerodynamics: Potential and Vortex Methods
2024, Feb – Dominic J. Diston,
Computational Modelling and Simulation of Aircraft and the
Environment, Volume 2: Aircraft Dynamics
2024, Oct – Mohammad H. Sadraey,
Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach,
2nd Edition
2025, Jan – Ethirajan Rathakrishnan,
Hypersonic Slender Body Aerodynamics
2025, Sep – Amir Javidinejad,
Standard Methods for Aerospace Stress Analysis
2025, Dec – Craig Lawson and David Judt,
Aircraft Systems: A Design and Development Guide
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
A DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT GUIDE
Craig Lawson
Cranfield University, United Kingdom
David Judt
ACE Aircraft Completion Engineering, France
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Series Preface
The field of aerospace involves a wide range of disciplines and domains that extend beyond engineering to many related supporting activities. This unique multi‐disciplinary combination enables the aerospace industry to design, produce and operate innovative and technologically advanced vehicles and systems. The breadth of knowledge and experience of practitioners and academics in different aerospace fields should be shared with others, including those working or planning to work in the industry.
The Aerospace Series is a practical and topical series of books aimed at engineering professionals, operators and users in the aerospace industry, academics and students at undergraduate and post‐graduate level, as well as those in a variety of related activities, for example, commercial, procurement and legal disciplines. The range of topics covered in the Series is intentionally broad, ranging from design and development, manufacturing, operation and support of aircraft to issues such as infrastructure operations and aviation management.
This book, Aircraft Systems: A Design and Development Guide by Craig Lawson and David Judt, covers the inter‐related systems of fixed‐wing aircraft from a first‐principles perspective of the aircraft as a whole. It describes those systems, mechanical, electrical and pneumatic, that provide the means by which the aircraft is started, operated throughout each flight and landed safely. These aircraft systems work in conjunction with the avionics and mission systems to give the aircraft its unique identity in commercial or military roles. The systems range across the spectrum of integrity from relatively routine to safety critical.
There are other books in the Series that describe some of the systems individually and as a set of systems with their digital control system, and this book complements the previous volumes by providing a refreshed view of new technologies and new aspects of the design and development process, including the use of modelling and simulation. It also includes discussion of the environmental impacts of aviation, specifically how various improvements designed to ameliorate these impacts will transform aircraft system architectures.
This clearly written and comprehensive book is a welcome addition to the Aerospace Series to complement previous books on the subject of Aircraft Systems, to enhance the experience of practitioners in the field and to provide a valuable resource for people entering the industry.
Peter Belobaba, Jonathan Cooper and Allan Seabridge
About the Authors
Craig Lawson is professor of aircraft design at Cranfield University, United Kingdom. He is a chartered engineer, Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and Fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy. He holds a BEng (Hons.) in electrical and mechanical engineering from the University of Edinburgh, graduating as dux litterarum (valedictorian). He also holds a PhD in aerospace from Cranfield University. He is an expert in aircraft design focusing on assessment of the impact of novel systems on aircraft design, performance and assembly. He supervises doctoral candidates and teaches aircraft design to postgraduate students, focussing on airframe systems and flight‐path performance through integrated group work for aircraft systems’ preliminary and detailed design. Through 20+ years of industry‐ and government‐funded research, he has created world‐leading modelling tools in aircraft systems design and aircraft‐level assessment for novel systems applied to both conventional and novel aircraft configurations. He was the chief systems engineer and flight trials commander for the BAE Systems/Cranfield University DEMON turbojet‐powered UAV and achieved a world‐first by demonstrating controlled Coanda effect flight without the use of moving control surfaces. He has worked on numerous aircraft research projects led by Airbus, GKN, Rolls Royce, Meggitt (now Parker‐Meggitt), Thales and Boeing.
David Judt is the head of airworthiness at Aircraft Completion Engineering, France. He is a Member of the Royal Aeronautical Society and Fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy. He holds an MEng in aeronautical engineering from Glasgow University and a PhD in aerospace from Cranfield University. Remaining at Cranfield University, he contributed to research efforts in the fields of mathematical optimisation in airframe system design, integrated thermal management and fuel and fluid systems simulation. As a senior lecturer, he was a course director for the Aerospace Design MSc program, teaching in the airframe systems field and supervising doctoral students. He now leads the certification and continued airworthiness activities for the cabin and oxygen system products at Aircraft Completion Engineering.
Preface
This book on ‘Aircraft Systems’ covers the airframe systems that have a significant impact on the early design work of a whole aircraft. Secondary power systems in the form of electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic power systems are highly integrated with the air conditioning, ice protection, actuation and fuel systems. These systems are also significantly integrated with the aircraft structure, and so their design must be considered early in the overall aircraft design process. By looking at the effects of these integrations and the impact systems have on the overall aircraft performance, the design and development of the systems can be achieved such that an optimal aircraft is the output rather than a series of optimised systems.
Over time, aircraft have become more complex and more highly integrated, and these trends are set to continue. The key challenge of our age is to reduce the negative impacts of aviation on our environment. While short‐ to medium‐term improvements have significant impact on system architectures, moving to alternative energy carriers in the longer term will transform aircraft systems. This book, focussing on systems viewed through the lens of the aircraft as a whole, provides a first principles development guide that stands the reader in good stead for the future of aerospace.
This book provides some information on the historical development of aircraft system, including those on the latest in‐service aircraft. It also provides analysis techniques fit for the development of future aircraft systems. The book is intended to be of value to:
Students studying aeronautical engineering or aircraft design at both under‐ and post‐graduate levels.
Practitioners working at whole aircraft design level and at aircraft systems design level.
Those looking to learn more about the details of the design of individual system and their development methods, by providing some high‐level information and references for suggested further reading.
This book covers a large number of important systems on fixed wing aircraft at a high level. This constitutes a broad and complex subject, and we have tried to treat matters from first principles and by example with a view to aiding wider understanding within the domain.
September 2025
Craig Lawson and David Judt
1Introduction
This book is written from the point of view of whole fixed‐wing aircraft design. The information herein is primarily of value in the preliminary design phase of an aircraft and in particular to the engineers involved in the design and integration of the electrical and mechanical, or airframe systems. Whether the reader is studying aerospace engineering at undergraduate or postgraduate level, or is an industry practitioner, the book contains valuable guidance and insights.
This volume is intended as a successor to Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical and Avionics Subsystems Integration, Third Edition, which was published in 2008. At that time, the last major airliners to enter into service, the Airbus A350 (2015) and the Boeing 787 (2011), were being designed. These aircraft have been very successful, with the number built approaching 2000 as of 2025. The incorporation of new systems technologies has enabled more electrical systems and improved operating efficiency and maintainability. These more‐electric aircraft systems are covered in this book, together with more conventional systems using hydraulics and pneumatics. Although this is not a recent development, the vast majority of aircraft in service feature such systems architectures, notably the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 series, which will be in production for at least another decade and in service beyond 2050.
There is an ever‐increasing focus on the environmental impact of air transport. As such, there are many research and development projects investigating alternative energy carriers to kerosene for the generation of propulsive power. These include so‐called sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) and battery electric, hydrogen and hybrid (battery plus kerosene or SAF or hydrogen) systems as energy carriers. The foreseeable energy density of battery electric systems limits applications for propulsive power to small and short‐range aircraft.
Hydrogen in cryogenic liquid form for aerospace use is presently at a very low technology readiness level, and the safety case is yet to be fully established. However, if these significant challenges can be overcome, it would offer a path towards a de‐carbonized air transport industry. Hydrogen can be used either in a fuel cell or in a gas turbine–based propulsion system, and the former brings enormous thermal management challenges for a potential gain in efficiency. Such a transformation will have significant implications for the airframe systems, particularly the fuel and aircraft thermal management systems.
In contrast to hydrogen, SAF has very similar properties to kerosene, and as such, the impact of its adoption on the aircraft and systems is minimal. Indeed, current in‐service aircraft have already been demonstrated to operate with blends of SAF and kerosene with relatively modest aircraft engineering changes. However, SAF has significant off‐aircraft challenges associated with its cost‐effective production and scalability as a biofuel.
1.1 Which Are the Airframe Systems?
This book covers the major airframe systems. It defines their roles and explains what drives their designs. It is useful to begin by identifying the major airframe systems. These systems can be divided into the following two useful categories:
Power Generation, Regulation and Distribution Systems
Secondary Power Systems
Pneumatic Systems
Hydraulic Systems
Electrical Systems
Power User Systems
Flight Control Actuation Systems
Aircraft Ice Protection Systems
Aircraft Environmental Control Systems
Aircraft Fuel Systems
It should be noted that, in some of these power user systems, the terms are very broad, themselves containing several discrete systems that are best considered individually. However, these definitions are a useful starting point, from which the details should become clearer throughout this book.
1.2 Aircraft Systems Design Processes and Aircraft‐Level Considerations
Before embarking on the design of complex, integrated and safety critical systems such as those on aircraft, it is vital to consider the processes that should be followed to achieve a successful design. The analysis of system safety is carried out in parallel with the development of the systems. Industry standards for phases and processes are carried out following the ‘v’ model (see Chapter 2) including conducting fault and failure analysis and establishing their consequences to aircraft safety.
1.3 Systems Integration
Modern aircraft systems are highly integrated with each other. Multiple functions are often fulfilled by subsystems that cut across traditional systems boundaries. Although each chapter in this textbook is focused on a particular major system, it is worth noting upfront that these interactions are of great importance, and they must be identified and recorded as part of the design process.
Integration may first be viewed at a functional level. For example, a fuel tank may have the primary function to store fuel so that it can be fed to the engines for propulsion. It may have a secondary function to store fuel to control the centre of gravity of the aircraft, typical on wide‐bodied airliners where there is often a trim tank in the horizontal tailplane, and on supersonic aircraft that experience large changes in centre of lift during the full flight envelope. The fuel tank may have a tertiary function to act as a heat sink for the hydraulic system, such as on the B737. As such, the fuel system in this case is intrinsically linked with the hydraulic system for thermal management and flight management systems for centre‐of‐gravity control.
The hardware available to provide functions and their interactions with each other can be considered early in the systems design process, when the overall aircraft and systems concept is being established. An example of such an aircraft‐level architecture is shown in Figure 1.1, where interrelations through different mediums, such as electrical power and heat, are shown. With subsystems models, an optimisation can be performed to suggest the most efficient overall systems architecture for best aircraft performance.
Once the architecture is established, a formal approach to design safe systems is followed using SAE ARP 4754B and SAE 4761A in tandem (see Chapter 2). This leads to a certifiable arrangement of system power provision consistent with the required loads. Figure 1.2 illustrates a preliminary design aircraft‐level layout for a more‐electric twin‐engine airliner. Various sources of electrical power and major loads are shown.
The physical integration of the systems within the airframe should also be investigated at this relatively early stage. The volume available and the accounting of systems in the aircraft mass and centre‐of‐gravity analysis will thus be achieved. The value of a computer‐aided design (CAD) model to highlight interference issues cannot be overstated. An example of the system sizing and integration after the preliminary design phase is illustrated in Figure 1.3. In this aircraft design, the fuel tanks are kept inboard of where the wing folds to achieve a high aspect ratio while still fitting at a single‐aisle airliner airport gate. This look at physical integration is an essential enabler to zonal safety assessment.
As aircraft become more complex and more highly integrated, synergies can be sought to achieve better aircraft‐level performance. An example of this is integrated thermal management, where heat is transported from where it needs to be rejected to where it needs to be supplied, cutting across traditional system boundaries. Additionally, disparate systems that require cooling, such as power electronics and the galleys, can be integrated into a single cooling system. An aircraft‐level heat load analysis, such as that depicted in Figure 1.4, is a good starting point for such considerations.
Figure 1.1 Aircraft systems concept showing technologies and interactions HX: heat exchanger, PV: photovoltaic, URPEM‐FC: unitised regenerative proton electron membrane fuel cell
Figure 1.2 More‐electric secondary power systems aircraft overall preliminary architecture showing generation distribution and major loads ACT SYS: actuation system, ECS: environmental control system, ESS: essential, LG: landing gear, RPU: remote power unit, WIPS: wing ice protection system
Figure 1.3 Cranfield University A‐17 Zephyr semi‐wide‐body, high‐aspect‐ratio‐wing airliner
Figure 1.4 Locations of the main aircraft heat sources and sinks
Bibliography
SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice ARP4754B “Guidelines for Development of Civil Aircraft and Systems”. Revision B. Issued 2023.
SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice ARP4761A “Guidelines and Methods for Conducting the Safety Assessment Process on Civil Airborne Systems and Equipment”. Revision A. Issued 2023.
2Airframe Systems Design Process
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Systems Design Approach
There are many approaches to systems design, and an experienced design engineer will develop and refine their own approach over time. In this section, a common generic approach to systems design is presented. While the details of a design task will vary greatly depending on the situation, the following universal stages can usefully be considered for airframe systems design:
Decide what the system must do.
Consider what it might have to do in the future.
Design a system to meet stages 1 and 2 and regulatory requirements.
Refine the system to make it:
Safe
Low cost
Low mass
Reliable
Easy to maintain
Easy to understand
Simplify whenever possible, as simplicity is likely to be beneficial in helping to satisfy stage 4.
While stage 1 may seem obvious, great care should be taken in defining the scope and boundaries of what the system has to do. It is also important not to be too heavily influenced by previous designs. While studying existing systems may provide extremely valuable information, it is important to return to first principles to address the problem of what is required for the particular application being designed.
Stage 2 involves consideration of what happens when an aircraft enters service. Whether it is a military or a civil aircraft, this usually involves the aircraft class’s life being extended by enhancement. This can be achieved relatively inexpensively by making limited systems changes, provided that this provision has been considered at the initial design stage.
Stage 3 is the start of the practical design work. As well as considering the broad objectives set out in stages 1 and 2, the relevant airworthiness regulations must be consulted to define their implications for the system. Although regulations do not overly influence the permissible design of systems, they do often imply particular types of systems. In many ways, airworthiness requirements reflect a summation of current safe practice and thus reflect past and present certified designs. This naturally leads to a review of existing aircraft.
Stage 4 explicitly mentions reliability and also brings in safety. A distinction between reliability and safety is useful: Reliability requires few failures, whereas safety requires few catastrophic failures. Redundancy in systems usually improves the latter, but often at the expense of the former.
In the past, the design of airframe systems has, unfortunately, been treated as something of an afterthought. However, with the increasing sophistication of aircraft over time, for modern and future aircraft, this is no longer the case. Due to the increased complexity of the systems themselves, and the greater integration between airframe, engines and systems, airframe systems design is now considered at an early stage in the aircraft design process.
The cost implications associated with systems should also be considered. On small and medium‐sized transport aircraft, the cost of the systems typically represents more than one third of the total initial cost of the aircraft. Furthermore, systems incur costs throughout the life of the aircraft due to increased fuel consumption (due to their weight, power requirements, and perhaps direct drag increases), maintenance requirements, and their less‐than‐100% reliability (causing delays and spares requirements).
These costs should all be considered during the systems design process to compare the overall effectiveness of one design against another.
2.1.2 Safety Assessment Philosophy
The safety assessment of aircraft systems can be divided into several stages, as follows:
What can go wrong?
What effect will this have? (stages 1 and 2 may be combined by asking: What happens if ….?)
How often will this occur?
Is this acceptable?
If not, what changes should be made?
When considering stage 1, it is important to keep in mind Murphy’s Law1: ‘Anything that can go wrong, will go wrong.’ The systems engineer generally appreciates this and designs to prevent failures that are likely to cause a hazard at the aircraft level. An important part of the process of enabling this to be achieved is identifying all of the failure modes, their link to aircraft hazards and their criticality classification.
