Apology, Crito, Phaedo
Apology, Crito, PhaedoIntroduction.The Apology Of Socrates.Introduction To The Crito.Crito, the Duty Of A Citizen.Introduction To The Phædo.Phædo, the Immortality Of The Soul.Copyright
Apology, Crito, Phaedo
Plato
Introduction.
Of all writers of speculative philosophy, both ancient and
modern, there is probably no one who has attained so eminent a
position as Plato. What Homer was to Epic poetry, what Cicero and
Demosthenes were to oratory, and what Shakespeare was to the drama
of England, Plato was to ancient philosophy, not unapproachable nor
unapproached, but possessing an inexplicable but unquestioned
supremacy.The authentic records of his life are meagre, and much that
has been written concerning him is of a speculative nature. He was
born at Athens in the year 427 B.C. His father's name was Ariston,
and his mother's family, which claimed its descent from Solon,
included among its members many Athenian notables, among whom was
Oritias, one of the thirty tyrants.In his early youth Plato applied himself to poetry and
painting, both of which pursuits he relinquished to become the
disciple and follower of Socrates. It is said that his name was
originally Aristocles, but that it was changed to Plato on account
of the breadth of his shoulders and forehead. He is also said to
have been an expert wrestler and to have taken part in several
important battles.He was the devoted friend and pupil of Socrates, and during
the imprisonment of his master he attended him constantly, and
committed to writing his last discourses on the immortality of the
soul.After the death of Socrates it is supposed that Plato took
refuge with Euclides in Megara, and subsequently extended his
travels into Magna Graecia and Egypt.Upon his return to Athens he taught those who came to him for
instruction in the grove named Academus, near the Cephisus, and
thus founded the first great philosophical school, over which he
continued to preside until the day of his death. Above the entrance
to this grove was inscribed the legend: "Let no one ignorant of
geometry enter here." Here he was attended by persons of every
description, among the more illustrious of whom were Aristotle,
Lycurgus, Demosthenes and Isocrates.There is a story to the effect that Plato three times visited
Sicily, once upon the invitation of the elder Dionysius, and twice
at the earnest solicitations of the younger. The former he is said
to have so seriously offended as to cause the tyrant to have him
seized on his return home and sold as a slave, from which state of
bondage he was, however, released by Anicerius of
Cyrene.The people of his time thought more of him than they did of
all their other philosophers, and called him the Divine Plato. So
great was the regard and veneration for him that it was considered
better to err with Plato than be right with any one
else.The writings of Plato are numerous, and most of them are in
the form of dialogues. The following pages contain translations of
three of his works, viz.: "The Apologia," "The Crito" and "The
Phædo," all of which have reference to the trial, imprisonment and
death of Socrates."The Apologia" represents Socrates on trial for his life,
undertaking his own defence, though unaccustomed to the language of
the courts, the occasion being, as he says, the first time he has
ever been before a court of justice, though seventy years of age.
Plato was present at the trial, and no doubt gives us the very
arguments used by the accused. Two charges were brought against
Socrates—one that he did not believe in the gods recognized by the
State, the other that he had corrupted the Athenian youth by his
teachings. Socrates does not have recourse to the ordinary methods
adopted by orators on similar occasions. He prefers to stand upon
his own integrity and innocence, uninfluenced by the fear of that
imaginary evil, death. He, therefore, does not firmly grapple with
either of the charges preferred against him. He neither denies nor
confesses the first accusation, but shows that in several instances
he conformed to the religious customs of his country, and that he
believes in God more than he fears man. The second charge he meets
by a cross-examination of his accuser, Melitus, whom he reduces to
the dilemma of charging him with corrupting the youth designedly,
which would be absurd, or with doing so undesignedly, for which he
could not be liable to punishment.His defence, however, avails him nothing, and he is condemned
by the judges to die by drinking the poisonous hemlock. In the
closing part of "The Apologia" Socrates is represented as
commenting upon the sentence which has been passed upon him, and as
expressing his belief that in going to his death he is only passing
to a better and a happier life.In "The Crito" Socrates is represented in conversation with a
friend of his named Crito, who had been present at his trial, and
who had offered to assist Socrates in paying a fine, had a fine
been the sentence imposed. Crito visits Socrates in his confinement
to bring to him the intelligence that the ship, the arrival of
which was to be the signal for his death upon the following day,
would arrive forthwith, and to urge him to adopt the means of
escape which had already been prepared. Socrates promises to follow
the advice of Crito if, upon a full discussion of the matter, it
seems right to do so. In the conversation which ensues Socrates
argues that it is wrong to return evil for evil and that the
obligations which a citizen owes to his State are more binding than
those which a child owes his parents or a slave his master, and,
therefore, it is his duty to submit to the laws of Athens at
whatever cost to himself. Crito has no answer to make to this
argument, and Socrates thereupon decides to submit to his
fate.Plato is said to have had two objects in writing this
dialogue: First, to acquit Socrates of the charge of corrupting the
Athenian youth; and, second, to establish the fact that it is
necessary under all circumstances to submit to the established laws
of his country."The Phædo" relates the manner in which Socrates spent the
last day of his life and the circumstances attending his death. He
is visited by a number of his friends, among whom are Phædo,
Simmias and Crito. When his friends arrive they find him sitting
upon a bed rubbing his legs, which have just been released from
bonds. He remarks upon the unaccountable connection between
pleasure and pain, and from this the conversation gradually turns
to a consideration of the question of the immortality of the soul.
He convinces his listeners of the pre-existence of the soul; but
they are still skeptical as to its immortality, urging that its
pre-existence and the fact that it is more durable than the body
does not preclude the possibility of its being mortal. Socrates,
however, argues that contraries cannot exist in the same thing at
the same time, as, for example, the same object cannot partake of
both magnitude and littleness at the same time. In like manner,
heat while it is heat can never admit the idea of cold. Life and
death are contraries and can never coexist; but wherever there is
life there is soul, so that the soul contains that which is
contrary to death and can never admit death; consequently the soul
is immortal.Having convinced his listeners, Socrates bathes and takes
leave of his children and the women of his family. Thereupon the
officer appears and tells him it is time for him to drink the
poison. At this his friends commence to weep and are rebuked by
Socrates for their weakness. He drinks the poison calmly and
without hesitation, and then begins to walk about, still conversing
with his friends. His limbs soon grow stiff and heavy and he lays
himself down upon his back. His last words are: "Crito, we owe a
cock to Æsculapius; pay it, therefore, and do not neglect
it."
The Apology Of Socrates.
I know not, O Athenians! how far you have been influenced by
my accusers for my part, in listening to them I almost forgot
myself, so plausible were their arguments however, so to speak,
they have said nothing true. But of the many falsehoods which they
uttered I wondered at one of them especially, that in which they
said that you ought to be on your guard lest you should be deceived
by me, as being eloquent in speech. For that they are not ashamed
of being forthwith convicted by me in fact, when I shall show that
I am not by any means eloquent, this seemed to me the most
shameless thing in them, unless indeed they call him eloquent who
speaks the truth. For, if they mean this, then I would allow that I
am an orator, but not after their fashion for they, as I affirm,
have said nothing true, but from me you shall hear the whole truth.
Not indeed, Athenians, arguments highly wrought, as theirs were,
with choice phrases and expressions, nor adorned, but you shall
hear a speech uttered without premeditation in such words as first
present themselves. For I am confident that what I say will be
just, and let none of you expect otherwise, for surely it would not
become my time of life to come before you like a youth with a got
up speech. Above all things, therefore, I beg and implore this of
you, O Athenians! if you hear me defending myself in the same
language as that in which I am accustomed to speak both in the
forum at the counters, where many of you have heard me, and
elsewhere, not to be surprised or disturbed on this account. For
the case is this: I now for the first time come before a court of
justice, though more than seventy years old; I am therefore utterly
a stranger to the language here. As, then, if I were really a
stranger, you would have pardoned me if I spoke in the language and
the manner in which I had been educated, so now I ask this of you
as an act of justice, as it appears to me, to disregard the manner
of my speech, for perhaps it may be somewhat worse, and perhaps
better, and to consider this only, and to give your attention to
this, whether I speak what is just or not; for this is the virtue
of a judge, but of an orator to speak the truth.2. First, then, O Athenians! I am right in defending myself
against the first false accusations alleged against me, and my
first accusers, and then against the latest accusations, and the
latest accusers. For many have been accusers of me to you, and for
many years, who have asserted nothing true, of whom I am more
afraid than of Anytus and his party, although they too are
formidable; but those are still more formidable, Athenians, who,
laying hold of many of you from childhood, have persuaded you, and
accused me of what is not true: "that there is one Socrates, a wise
man, who occupies himself about celestial matters, and has explored
every thing under the earth, and makes the worse appear the better
reason." Those, O Athenians! who have spread abroad this report are
my formidable accusers; for they who hear them think that such as
search into these things do not believe that there are gods. In the
next place, these accusers are numerous, and have accused me now
for a long time; moreover, they said these things to you at that
time of life in which you were most credulous, when you were boys
and some of you youths, and they accused me altogether in my
absence, when there was no one to defend me. But the most
unreasonable thing of all is, that it is not possible to learn and
mention their names, except that one of them happens to be a comic
poet.1Such, however, as,
influenced by envy and calumny, have persuaded you, and those who,
being themselves persuaded, have persuaded others, all these are
most difficult to deal with; for it is not possible to bring any of
them forward here, nor to confute any; but it is altogether
necessary to fight, as it were with a shadow, in making my defense,
and to convict when there is no one to answer. Consider, therefore,
as I have said, that my accusers are twofold, some who have lately
accused me, and others long since, whom I have made mention of; and
believe that I ought to defend myself against these first; for you
heard them accusing me first, and much more than these
last.Well. I must make my defense, then, O Athenians! and endeavor
in this so short a space of time to remove from your minds the
calumny which you have long entertained. I wish, indeed, it might
be so, if it were at all better both for you and me, and that in
making my defense I could effect something more advantageous still:
I think, however, that it will be difficult, and I am not entirely
ignorant what the difficulty is. Nevertheless, let this turn out as
may be pleasing to God, I must obey the law and make my
defense.3. Let us, then, repeat from the beginning what the
accusation is from which the calumny against me has arisen, and
relying on which Melitus has preferred this indictment against me.
Well. What, then, do they who charge me say in their charge? For it
is necessary to read their deposition as of public accusers.
"Socrates acts wickedly, and is criminally curious in searching
into things under the earth, and in the heavens, and in making the
worse appear the better cause, and in teaching these same things to
others." Such is the accusation: for such things you have
yourselves seen in the comedy of Aristophanes, one Socrates there
carried about, saying that he walks in the air, and acting many
other buffooneries, of which I understand nothing whatever. Nor do
I say this as disparaging such a science, if there be any one
skilled in such things, only let me not be prosecuted by Melitus on
a charge of this kind; but I say it, O Athenians! because I have
nothing to do with such matters. And I call upon most of you as
witnesses of this, and require you to inform and tell each other,
as many of you as have ever heard me conversing; and there are many
such among you. Therefore tell each other, if any one of you has
ever heard me conversing little or much on such subjects. And from
this you will know that other things also, which the multitude
assert of me, are of a similar nature.4. However not one of these things is true; nor, if you have
heard from any one that I attempt to teach men, and require
payment, is this true. Though this, indeed, appears to me to be an
honorable thing, if one should be able to instruct men, like
Gorgias the Leontine, Prodicus the Cean, and Hippias the Elean. For
each of these, O Athenians! is able, by going through the several
cities, to persuade the young men, who can attach themselves
gratuitously to such of their own fellow-citizens as they please,
to abandon their fellow-citizens and associate with them, giving
them money and thanks besides. There is also another wise man here,
a Parian, who, I hear, is staying in the city. For I happened to
visit a person who spends more money on the sophists than all
others together: I mean Callias, son of Hipponicus. I therefore
asked him, for he has two sons, "Callias," I said, "if your two
sons were colts or calves, we should have had to choose a master
for them, and hire a person who would make them excel in such
qualities as belong to their nature; and he would have been a groom
or an agricultural laborer. But now, since your sons are men, what
master do you intend to choose for them? Who is there skilled in
the qualities that become a man and a citizen? For I suppose you
must have considered this, since you have sons. Is there any one,"
I said, "or not?" "Certainly," he answered. "Who is he?" said I,
"and whence does he come? and on what terms does he teach?" He
replied, "Evenus the Parian, Socrates, for five minæ." And I deemed
Evenus happy, if he really possesses this art, and teaches
admirably. And I too should think highly of myself, and be very
proud, if I possessed this knowledge, but I possess it not, O
Athenians.5. Perhaps, one of you may now object: "But, Socrates, what
have you done, then? Whence have these calumnies against you
arisen? For surely if you had not busied yourself more than others,
such a report and story would never have got abroad, unless you had
done something different from what most men do. Tell us, therefore,
what it is, that we may not pass a hasty judgment on you." He who
speaks thus appears to me to speak justly, and I will endeavor to
show you what it is that has occasioned me this character and
imputation. Listen, then: to some of you perhaps I shall appear to
jest, yet be assured that I shall tell you the whole truth. For I,
O Athenians! have acquired this character through nothing else than
a certain wisdom. Of what kind, then, is this wisdom? Perhaps it is
merely human wisdom. For in this, in truth, I appear to be wise.
They probably, whom I have just now mentioned, possessed a wisdom
more than human, otherwise I know not what to say about it; for I
am not acquainted with it, and whosoever says I am, speaks falsely,
and for the purpose of calumniating me. But, O Athenians! do not
cry out against me, even though I should seem to you to speak
somewhat arrogantly. For the account which I am going to give you
is not my own; but I shall refer to an authority whom you will deem
worthy of credit. For I shall adduce to you the god at Delphi as a
witness of my wisdom, if I have any, and of what it is. You
doubtless know Chærepho: he was my associate from youth, and the
associate of most of you; he accompanied you in your late exile,
and returned with you. You know, then, what kind of a man Chærepho
was, how earnest in whatever he undertook. Having once gone to
Delphi, he ventured to make the following inquiry of the oracle
(and, as I said, O Athenians! do not cry out), for he asked if
there was any one wiser than I. The Pythian thereupon answered that
there was not one wiser; and of this, his brother here will give
you proofs, since he himself is dead.6. Consider, then, why I mention these things: it is because
I am going to show you whence the calumny against me arose. For
when I heard this, I reasoned thus with myself, What does the god
mean? What enigma is this? For I am not conscious to myself that I
am wise, either much or little. What, then, does he mean by saying
that I am the wisest? For assuredly he does not speak falsely: that
he could not do. And for a long time I was in doubt what he meant;
afterward, with considerable difficulty, I had recourse to the
following method of searching out his meaning. I went to one of
those who have the character of being wise, thinking that there, if
anywhere, I should confute the oracle, and show in answer to the
response that This man is wiser than I, though you affirmed that I
was the wisest. Having, then, examined this man (for there is no
occasion to mention his name; he was, however, one of our great
politicians, in examining whom I felt as I proceed to describe, O
Athenians!), having fallen into conversation with him, this man
appeared to be wise in the opinion of most other men, and
especially in his own opinion, though in fact he was not so. I
thereupon endeavored to show him that he fancied himself to be
wise, but really was not. Hence I became odious, both to him and to
many others who were present. When I left him, I reasoned thus with
myself: I am wiser than this man, for neither of us appears to know
anything great and good; but he fancies he knows something,
although he knows nothing; whereas I, as I do not know anything, so
I do not fancy I do. In this trifling particular, then, I appear to
be wiser than he, because I do not fancy I know what I do not know.
After that I went to another who was thought to be wiser than the
former, and formed the very same opinion. Hence I became odious to
him and to many others.7. After this I went to others in turn, perceiving indeed,
and grieving and alarmed, that I was making myself odious; however,
it appeared necessary to regard the oracle of the god as of the
greatest moment, and that, in order to discover its meaning, I must
go to all who had the reputation of possessing any knowledge. And
by the dog, O Athenians! for I must tell you the truth, I came to
some such conclusion as this: those who bore the highest reputation
appeared to me to be most deficient, in my researches in obedience
to the god, and others who were considered inferior more nearly
approaching to the possession of understanding. But I must relate
to you my wandering, and the labors which I underwent, in order
that the oracle might prove incontrovertible. For after the
politicians I went to the poets, as well the tragic as the
dithyrambic and others, expecting that here I should in very fact
find myself more ignorant than they. Taking up, therefore, some of
their poems, which appeared to me most elaborately finished, I
questioned them as to their meaning, that at the same time I might
learn something from them. I am ashamed, O Athenians! to tell you
the truth; however, it must be told. For, in a word, almost all who
were present could have given a better account of them than those
by whom they had been composed. I soon discovered this, therefore,
with regard to the poets, that they do not effect their object by
wisdom, but by a certain natural inspiration, and under the
influence of enthusiasm, like prophets and seers; for these also
say many fine things, but they understand nothing that they say.
The poets appeared to me to be affected in a similar manner; and at
the same time I perceived that they considered themselves, on
account of their poetry, to be the wisest of men in other things,
in which they were not. I left them, therefore, under the
persuasion that I was superior to them, in the same way that I was
to the politicians.8. At last, therefore, I went to the artisans. For I was
conscious to myself that I knew scarcely anything, but I was sure
that I should find them possessed of much beautiful knowledge. And
in this I was not deceived; for they knew things which I did not,
and in this respect they were wiser than I. But, O Athenians! even
the best workmen appeared to me to have fallen into the same error
as the poets; for each, because he excelled in the practice of his
art, thought that he was very wise in other most important matters,
and this mistake of theirs obscured the wisdom that they really
possessed. I therefore asked myself, in behalf of the oracle,
whether I should prefer to continue as I am, possessing none,
either of their wisdom or their ignorance, or to have both as they
have. I answered, therefore, to myself and to the oracle, that it
was better for me to continue as I am.9. From this investigation, then, O Athenians! many enmities
have arisen against me, and those the most grievous and severe, so
that many calumnies have sprung from them, and among them this
appellation of being wise; for those who are from time to time
present think that I am wise in those things, with respect to which
I expose the ignorance of others. The god, however, O Athenians!
appears to be really wise, and to mean this by his oracle: that
human wisdom is worth little or nothing; and it is clear that he
did not say this to Socrates, but made use of my name, putting me
forward as an example, as if he had said, that man is the wisest
among you, who, like Socrates, knows that he is in reality worth
nothing with respect to wisdom. Still, therefore, I go about and
search and inquire into these things, in obedience to the god, both
among citizens and strangers, if I think any one of them is wise;
and when he appears to me not to be so, I take the part of the god,
and show that he is not wise. And, in consequence of this
occupation, I have no leisure to attend in any considerable degree
to the affairs of the state or my own; but I am in the greatest
poverty through my devotion to the service of the god.10. In addition to this, young men, who have much leisure and
belong to the wealthiest families, following me of their own
accord, take great delight in hearing men put to the test, and
often imitate me, and themselves attempt to put others to the test;
and then, I think, they find a great abundance of men who fancy
they know something, although they know little or nothing. Hence
those who are put to the test by them are angry with me, and not
with them, and say that "there is one Socrates, a most pestilent
fellow, who corrupts the youth." And when any one asks them by
doing or teaching what, they have nothing to say, for they do not
know; but, that they may not seem to be at a loss, they say such
things as are ready at hand against all philosophers; "that he
searches into things in heaven and things under the earth, that he
does not believe there are gods, and that he makes the worse appear
the better reason." For they would not, I think, be willing to tell
the truth that they have been detected in pretending to possess
knowledge, whereas they know nothing. Therefore, I think, being
ambitions and vehement and numerous, and speaking systematically
and persuasively about me, they have filled your ears, for a long
time and diligently calumniating me. From among these, Melitus,
Anytus and Lycon have attacked me; Melitus being angry on account
of the poets, Anytus on account of the artisans and politicians,
and Lycon on account of the rhetoricians. So that, as I said in the
beginning, I should wonder if I were able in so short a time to
remove from your minds a calumny that has prevailed so long. This,
O Athenians! is the truth; and I speak it without concealing or
disguising anything from you, much or little; though I very well
know that by so doing I shall expose myself to odium. This,
however, is a proof that I speak the truth, and that this is the
nature of the calumny against me, and that these are its causes.
And if you will investigate the matter, either now or hereafter,
you will find it to be so.11. With respect, then, to the charges which my first
accusers have alleged against me, let this be a sufficient apology
to you. To Melitus, that good and patriotic man, as he says, and to
my later accusers, I will next endeavor to give an answer; and
here, again, as there are different accusers, let us take up their
deposition. It is pretty much as follows: "Socrates," it says,
"acts unjustly in corrupting the youth, and in not believing in
those gods in whom the city believes, but in other strange
divinities." Such is the accusation; let us examine each particular
of it. It says that I act unjustly in corrupting the youth. But I,
O Athenians! say that Melitus acts unjustly, because he jests on
serious subjects, rashly putting men upon trial, under pretense of
being zealous and solicitous about things in which he never at any
time took any concern. But that this is the case I will endeavor to
prove to you.12. Come, then, Melitus, tell me, do you not consider it of
the greatest importance that the youth should be made as virtuous
as possible?Mel.I do.Socr.Well, now, tell the judges who it
is that makes them better, for it is evident that you know, since
it concerns you so much; for, having detected me in corrupting
them, as you say, you have cited me here, and accused me: come,
then, say, and inform the judges who it is that makes them better.
Do you see, Melitus, that you are silent, and have nothing to say?
But does it not appear to you to be disgraceful, and a sufficient
proof of what I say, that you never took any concern about the
matter? But tell me, friend, who makes them better?Mel.The laws.Socr.I do not ask this, most excellent
sir, but what man, who surely must first know this very thing, the
laws?Mel.These, Socrates, the
judges.Socr.How say you, Melitus? Are these
able to instruct the youth, and make them better?Mel.Certainly.Socr.Whether all, or some of them, and
others not?Mel.All.Socr.You say well, by Juno! and have
found a great abundance of those that confer benefit. But what
further? Can these hearers make them better, or not?Mel.They, too, can.Socr.And what of the
senators?Mel.The senators, also.Socr.But, Melitus, do those who attend
the public assemblies corrupt the younger men? or do they all make
them better?Mel.They too.Socr.All the Athenians, therefore, as
it seems, make them honorable and good, except me; but I alone
corrupt them. Do you say so?Mel.I do assert this very
thing.Socr.You charge me with great
ill-fortune. But answer me: does it appear to you to be the same,
with respect to horses? Do all men make them better, and is there
only some one that spoils them? or does quite the contrary of this
take place? Is there some one person who can make them better, or
very few; that is, the trainers? But if the generality of men
should meddle with and make use of horses, do they spoil them? Is
not this the case, Melitus, both with respect to horses and all
other animals? It certainly is so, whether you and Anytus deny it
or not. For it would be a great good-fortune for the youth if only
one person corrupted, and the rest benefited them. However,
Melitus, you have sufficiently shown that you never bestowed any
care upon youth; and you clearly evince your own negligence, in
that you have never paid any attention to the things with respect
to which you accuse me.13. Tell us further, Melitus, in the name of Jupiter, whether
is it better to dwell with good or bad citizens? Answer, my friend;
for I ask you nothing difficult. Do not the bad work some evil to
those that are continually near them, but the good some
good?Mel.Certainly.Socr.Is there any one that wishes to
be injured rather than benefited by his associates? Answer, good
man; for the law requires you to answer. Is there any one who
wishes to be injured?Mel.No, surely.Socr.