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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A new study of the challenges presented by manufacturing bakery products in a health-conscious world The impact of bakery products upon human nutrition is an increasingly pressing concern among consumers and manufacturers alike. With obesity and other diet-related conditions on the rise, the levels of salt, fat, and sugar found in many baked goods can no longer be overlooked. Those working in the baking industry are consequently turning more and more to science and technology to provide routes toward healthier alternatives to classic cake, bread, and pastry recipes. With Baking Technology and Nutrition, renowned food scientist Stanley P. Cauvain and co-author Rosie H. Clark present an innovative and much-needed study of the changes taking place in the world of baking. Their discussion focuses on the new avenues open to bakers looking to improve the nutritional value of their products and encompasses all related issues, from consumer preferences to the effects of nutritional enhancement upon shelf-life. Featuring an abundance of new research and insights into the possible future of modern baking, this unique text: * Offers practical guidance on developing, delivering, and promoting high-nutrition bakery products * Discusses reducing ingredients such as salt, fat, and sugar for improved nutrition while preserving quality and consumer acceptability * Explores how wheat-based products can be ideal vehicles for improving the nutrition of major sectors of populations * Suggests real-world solutions to problems rising from poorly defined quality guidelines and inadequate dialogue between bakers and nutritionists Baking Technology and Nutrition is an indispensable and timely resourcefor technologists, manufacturers, healthcare practitioners, or anyone else working in today's food and nutrition industries.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
1 An Introduction to the History of the Manufacture of Bakery Products and Relevant Studies in Human Nutrition
1.1 The Historical Development of Bakery Products
1.2 Historical Links Between Baked Products, Nutrition and Health
1.3 A Brief History of Concerns Over Fibre, Fat, Sugar and Salt in Baked Products
1.4 Current Nutrition and Health Concerns
1.5 Improving the Micronutrient Content of Wheat‐Based Products
1.6 Conclusions
References
2 Summary of the Manufacture of Bakery Products and Their Key Characteristics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A Synopsis of Common Bread and Fermented Product Types, and Their Manufacturing Processes
2.3 The Bread Manufacturing Processes
2.4 A Synopsis of Biscuit, Cookie and Cracker Types and Their Manufacturing Processes
2.5 A Synopsis of Pastry Types and Manufacturing Processes
2.6 A Synopsis of Cake and Sponge Types and Manufacturing Processes
2.7 The Key Sensory Properties of Bakery Products
2.8 Shelf‐Life of Bakery Products
2.9 Nutritional Profiles of Common Bakery Products
2.10 Conclusion
References
3 Delivering Health Benefits via Bakery Products
3.1 Micronutrients
3.2 Vitamins and Antioxidants
3.3 Minerals
3.4 Fortification of Flour and Bakery Products
3.5 Ancient Grains
3.6 Functional Foods
3.7 Prebiotics and Probiotics
3.8 ‘Botanicals’
3.9 Allergens and Special Diets
3.10 Anti‐nutrients and Undesirable Compounds in Raw Materials
3.11 Undesirable Compounds Which May Form During Processing and Baking
3.12 Conclusions
References
4 Drivers for Improved Health and Nutrition via Bakery Products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dietary Contributions and Potential Health Impacts
4.3 Lifestyle Choices and Bakery Products
4.4 The Role of Legislation
4.5 The Role of Food Retailers
4.6 The Food Manufacturer
4.7 Conclusions
References
5 Barriers to the Acceptance of Bakery Products with Improved Nutrition
5.1 The Nature of the Barriers
5.2 Government‐Led Interventions on Fortification
5.3 Legislative Barriers
5.4 Consumer Expectations and Preferences
5.5 Consumer and Social Barriers
5.6 Economic and Commercial Barriers
5.7 Technology Barriers
5.8 Sustainability Barriers
5.9 Media Generated Barriers
5.10 Conclusions
References
6 The Opportunities for Developing Improved Nutrition via Bakery Products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ingredient Declarations and Analytical Considerations
6.3 The Reformulation Conundrum
6.4 Impacts on Product Microbial Shelf‐Life
6.5 Reducing Fat and Changing Type
6.6 Reducing Sugar and Changing Sugar Type
6.7 Reducing Energy (Calories)
6.8 Reducing Salt (Sodium)
6.9 Increasing Dietary Fibre
6.10 Fortification for Health Benefits
6.11 Conclusions
References
7 Approaches to Development of Nutritionally Enhanced Bakery Products
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Empirical Rules and Product Development
7.3 Mathematics and Product Development
7.4 Visualisation and Simulation Techniques for Product Development
7.5 The Role of Product Evaluation in the Development of Nutritionally Enhanced Bakery Products
7.6 Examples of Linking Sensory and Objectively Measured Qualities with Bakery Products
7.7 Strategies for Developing Product and Process Developments to Deliver Enhanced Nutrition
7.8 Finding a ‘Starting Point’
7.9 Continuing the Development Process
7.10 Identifying Processing Options
7.11 Verifying Nutritional Targets
7.12 Conclusions
References
8 Communicating Relevant Messages
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Communicating Nutrition and Health Information on Relevant Food Sources
8.3 Communication of Basic Dietary Information by Food Manufacturers
8.4 Macronutrient Claims and Product Composition
8.5 Micronutrient Claims
8.6 Communication of Non‐specific Health and Dietary Benefits by Food Manufacturers
8.7 Communications Between Health Specialists and the Baking Industry
8.8 Communications and Consumers
8.9 Media Communicated Information and Disinformation
8.10 Conclusions
References
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Key elements of biscuit and cookie types.
Table 2.2 Important characteristics of bakery product sub‐groups.
Table 2.3 Nutritional profiles of some common bakery products (100 g baked we...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Sources of minerals in common bakery raw materials.
Table 3.2 Examples of prebiotics.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 UK recommended daily intake for energy and macronutrients.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Some typical examples of white bread recipes throughout the world.
Table 5.2 Comparison of salt, sugar, and fat levels in 100 g white bread based on...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Basic cake recipe.
Table 6.2 Effect of compositional changes on the nutritional values for the b...
Table 6.3 Impact of cake reformulation on its microbial shelf‐life.
Table 6.4 Relative sweetness of common sugar types.
Table 6.5 Common forms of high‐intensity sweeteners.
Table 6.6 Common polyols and sugar alcohols.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Cake recipe expressed in Bakers' percentage.
Table 7.2 Examples of cake textural attributes terms.
Table 7.3 Average sensory scores for doughnut acceptability.
Table 7.4 Example specification for a new bakery product.
Table 7.5 Sensory scoring attributes for cakes illustrated in Figure 7.9.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Example of a common form of ingredient declaration for a bakery pro...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sour dough and artisan breads.
Figure 1.2 London (UK) bloomer loaf.
Figure 1.3 Packs of triangular sandwiches.
Figure 1.4 Hovis bread products.
Figure 1.5 Comparison of white and increased fibre breads: left, white bread...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Sub‐classes of bakery products.
Figure 2.2 Relationship between final product moisture and water activity fo...
Figure 2.3 Relationship between final product moisture and eating quality.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Examples of sandwich thins.
Figure 4.2 Example of sports nutrition bars.
Figure 4.3 Protein‐enriched cake.
Figure 4.4 Example of a product based on Quorn.
Figure 4.5 Impact of removing skimmed milk powder in cakes (note dark streak...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Example of an ingredient list and nutrition data for double choco...
Figure 6.2 Example of front of pack nutrition data for Cherry Bakewells (com...
Figure 6.3 Example of back of pack nutritional information for cake.
Figure 6.4 Cakes with sucrose concentration of 0.29 (left) and 0.41 (right)....
Figure 6.5 Cake with standard fat level (a) and 50% reduction (b).
Figure 6.6 Impact of fat reduction on the hardness of short dough biscuits....
Figure 6.7 Effects of DATA and SSL emulsifier addition in the manufacture of...
Figure 6.8 Impact of sucrose addition on bread dough fermentation.
Figure 6.9 Impact of sugar reduction on puff pastry texture.
Figure 6.10 Replacement of sucrose with dextrose in cake (cf standard cake –...
Figure 6.11 Example of energy declaration per serving for a breakfast biscui...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Examples of cake profiles.
Figure 7.2 Principles of the knowledge tree visualisation approach.
Figure 7.3 Example of a knowledge‐tree outlining the factors which affect pr...
Figure 7.4 Effect of increasing water on fruit cake quality.
Figure 7.5 Knowledge fragment for salt in bread
Figure 7.6 Relationship between sensory and objective data for pie pastry.
Figure 7.7 Average acceptability score of doughnuts with time after producti...
Figure 7.8 Relationship between sensory and objective data for doughnuts.
Figure 7.9 Example of spider diagram for sensory attributes for a cake produ...
Figure 7.10 Example of a dendogram used in the evaluation of enzyme–flour in...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Example of ‘front of pack’ nutrition information.
Figure 8.2 Macronutrient composition and reference intake information.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Baking Technology and Nutrition
Towards a Healthier World
Stanley P. Cauvain and Rosie H. Clark
BakeTranWitney
This edition first published 2019© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Cauvain, Stanley P., author. | Clark, Rosie H., 1966– author.Title: Baking technology and nutrition : towards a healthier world / Stanley P. Cauvain, Rosie H. Clark.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2019017437 (print) | LCCN 2019021606 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119387121 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119387169 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119387152 (hardcover)Subjects: LCSH: Baked products. | Baking. | Nutrition.Classification: LCC TX552.15 (ebook) | LCC TX552.15 .C385 2019 (print) | DDC 664/.752–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019017437
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © karp5/Shutterstock
Preface
There is no doubt that we are living at a time of global food crises; food depravation and malnutrition continue, for various reasons, to blight some parts of the world while elsewhere consumer obesity has become a major issue. Bakery food products have a significant role to play in both scenarios because of the ubiquitous nature of baked products manufacture. In the case of potential malnutrition, the fortification of wheat flour can make major contributions to improving health. In the case of the obesity epidemic, there is the potential for bakery foods to contribute to nutritional enhancement and health through reformulation to increase fibre, reduce energy density, salt, sugar, and fat. In setting out to write this book we recognised the dual role that the development of healthier bakery food products could play, as a response by bakers to government‐led initiatives (fortification) and interventions (reformulation), and from consumers seeking healthier lifestyles (consumer‐pull).
The manufacture of bakery products involves changes of state (e.g. dough to bread) which are the result of complex interactions between ingredients, recipe, and processing. The different sub‐groups of bakery products are delivered through the management of these complex interactions This means that changes in one aspect in the different bakery product relationships has significant ‘knock‐on’ effects for the processing requirements and final product quality. Such complexities are not always immediately recognised when potential dietary changes are only recommended or implemented from a nutritional viewpoint. Even when nutritionists and bakery technologists work closely together, the product development road is a long and often arduous one.
In writing this book we have considered the potential for the nutritional enhancement of baked products from a number of different viewpoints. We have attempted to enlighten nutritionists as to the complexities of baking and bakery product quality and, at the same time, present to bakers the opportunities that new ‘healthier’ bakery products could bring to their businesses. In identifying the latter, we have illustrated a few of the possible paths for the development of new products, some traditional and some less so.
Ultimately the success or otherwise, of nutritionally enhanced bakery products in the market place lies with consumers. There will be huge differences in attitude between consumers requiring improved basic nutrition and those fortunate enough to live in parts of the world with largely unrestricted food sources. For the latter group of consumers, the abundance and variety of bakery products available, results in greater emphasis being placed on the sensory pleasure associated with the eating of the products, rather than the needs for basic nutrition. Within the fortunate consumer groups the challenges for improving the nutritional background of bakery foods are greater for bakers. However, many bakers are cognisant of their potential contribution to reducing the global obesity crisis and its related health issues, and will no doubt continue to make positive efforts to meet nutritional targets. We hope that in some way this book will help them meet the challenges of developing those healthier bakery products.
Stanley P. CauvainRosie H. Clark
1An Introduction to the History of the Manufacture of Bakery Products and Relevant Studies in Human Nutrition
1.1 The Historical Development of Bakery Products
Bakery products as we know them today, have a wide range of forms and commonly, the most important ingredient in the recipe is wheat flour. It is probably about 20 000 years ago that humankind discovered the nutritional qualities of the wild grass progenitors of modern wheats in the Middle East (Ucko and Dimbleby 1969). Recent research has shown that the processing of grains, the manufacture of dough and baking of bread, extends back to around 15 000 years ago (Arranz‐Otaegui et al. 2018) pre‐dating the arrival of ‘agriculture’ by some 4000 years. Thus, it appears that so‐called ‘hunter‐gatherer’ peoples, were the first to turn grains into a palatable and easily transported (convenience) food. Early breads were almost certainly similar to the flatbreads which are still available in the Middle East and many other parts of the world, today. This basic form of (unleavened) bread became the first processed and convenience food. No doubt it was not long before these early bakers discovered that the addition of salt improved the flavour profile of the mixture. Leaving the uncooked mixture exposed to the atmosphere would make it susceptible to contamination with wild yeasts and it would not be long before people began to appreciate the improvement in digestibility that would come from a spontaneously fermented mixture, and the light and aerated bread that came with it; a process still practised today and commonly referred to as ‘sour dough’ or artisan breads (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Sour dough and artisan breads.
From these early beginnings, producers of bread began to establish the principles which still underpin breadmaking today; mainly the manipulation and control of fermentation which delivers the carbon dioxide gas allowing the dough to rise and yield a light, aerated structure in the final product. Gradually from the early stages of domestic production, the baking of bread and other grain based products, moved to becoming a specialised craft and in civilisations like those of ancient Egypt, it developed into an industrialised form (Ashton 1904). The techniques recorded by the Egyptians in the paintings adorning the walls of a number of tombs, include the kneading of the dough in large tubs and the oven baking of the mixture in a mould are – the origins of the modern pan bread production. At this time, sifted wheat flour would have been chosen by the rich, while lower classes and workers would have had to make do with much coarser bread, often based on a mixture of wheat and barley (Bailey 1975).
Bread quickly became established as a staple food, classically referred to as ‘the staff of life’, because of the plentiful supply of wheat and other grains. Very soon those skilled in the art of baking began to add other ingredients to improve flavour and nutrition, and introduce new forms and shapes. Even in ancient times, fat was added to the dough to improve the softness and mouthfeel of the baked product, and honey to provide sweetness, yielding products which are referred to in ancient texts as ‘cakes’. Such products were often associated with festivals and baked in moulds of various forms, often to represent animals, and in ancient Greece occasionally more erotic forms (Toussaint‐Samat 1992).
By Roman times, baking had become a skilled art and a wide variety of products were available. At this time, the milling of wheat still mostly consisted of producing a coarse wholemeal flour. Following traditions established in ancient Egypt, this coarse wholemeal flour was sieved to remove a proportion of the bran, with the remaining flour being used for products to feed the elite classes. At the highest levels in Roman society the flour used would be comparable to the white flours of today, although with a little more bran than we are used to. These white flours were particularly favoured in the production of sweetened forms of breads and included confections based on ‘flaky’ pastry sheets, with cheese and honey figuring in the recipes. Even in Roman times, the position of bread in society was more than just providing sustenance, as exemplified from the quote from a satirical poet, Juvenal, in the late first century CE about satisfying the common people with bread and circuses; given the violent nature of the latter, this represents a curious juxtaposition of sensory pleasures. The ever‐increasing need of the Roman Empire to provide its population with basic foods, was a key driver behind the conquest of the grain rich growing regions of France (known then as Gaul) and Britain. This was to introduce the Romans to very different forms of wheat, in particular spelt, the flour from which was used to make a very round and soft off‐white loaf in the Gaulish regions. Today there has been a resurgence of interest in ancient grains in relationship to their potential contribution to ‘healthy’ eating, as will be discussed below.
Bakery products have a long association with symbolism and rituals and this resulted in the development of products that we would still recognise today, many of which are still associated with the festivals of many religions. In the northern hemisphere, there has been a long tradition of making special breads to celebrate successful harvest of wheat, for example the traditional wheatsheaf and representations of the Cornucopia (horn of plenty); the latter stretching back several thousand years. Not all traditional products are associated with religions, for example the croissant is believed to have been invented by the bakers of Vienna to celebrate their timely warning against the attack by the Ottoman Turks in the fifteenth century. There can be more mundane reasons for creating special products or marking the surface of bread with symbols. For example, bread produced for the Roman legions was stamped with the relevant legion number to ensure that the product reached the relevant customer. The origins of cutting the dough's surface to create a particular pattern, has the pragmatic function of differentiating your product from that of another baker; such practices still exist today but have often become enshrined in the desirable characteristics of the product, for example the London Bloomer illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 London (UK) bloomer loaf.
As far back as the time of the Egyptian Pharos, baking had become a large‐scale state sponsored and organised industry in order to feed the large workforce necessary for construction of monuments like the pyramids (Samuel 1999). While the individual bakeries were small in size, the organisation of the production was based on creating central sites to deliver the mass of bread required. The Romans were to employ a similar approach to feeding their armies throughout their empire. Other examples of centralised or state organised bread production, include those associated with the sites of major castles and monasteries, some of which could have had resident populations equivalent to small medieval towns, and certainly larger than villages. In medieval towns there would be many bakeries but of a less organised nature, however, the continuing rise in bread production in the medieval period was to lead to the voluntary organisation of baking in the form of guilds and other similar organisations. In part this was a response to regulatory pressures from local and regional authorities to ensure that consumers would be getting the required quality of product, at appropriate prices. Crucially in medieval periods, significant measures were undertaken to control the weight of bread at the point of sale (Bailey 1975) and in many cases the price was set by governments. In the modern era, legislative control of bread price is less common, though control of bread weights is universally applied and there may be a maximum limit to product moisture or minimum solids control to ensure that consumers get what they pay for.
Alongside bread, other forms of bakery products were evolving, so that by 1440 there are references to pastry cooks, and the baking of cakes and biscuits. There were pies in both savoury and sweet forms using flaky and filo‐style pastries. Around the same time, there are references to fritters, wafers, waffles, and tarts. The growing appetite of the western world for sugar, known from ancient Roman and Greek times through the access to the ‘Sakcharon’ (sweet reed) and based on raw materials from the Indian sub‐continent, was accelerated by the voyages of discovery to the Caribbean, and it became a key ingredient of many baked products and other confections. The high price of sugar at this time would have restricted its consumption to the higher social orders, with those of lower class having a diet in which bread still played a critical role. The inability of some states to provide sufficient bread could have serious consequences, even leading to rioting. An illustration of how important bakery products had become by the seventeenth century is the (in)famous quote from Marie Antoinette who, on being told that French peasants were rioting because they had no bread, is supposed to have said, ‘Let them eat cake’ (the traditional translation of the French phrase ‘Qu'ils mangent de la brioche’). Though this attribution is unproven, it has become a long‐standing illustration of the importance of bread in society and of the divide between the elite and the common populous. If the French peasantry lacked bread, they were most unlikely to have access to sweetened bakery products.
Gradually, the artisanal base of baking was to give way to increasing industrialisation as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace in eighteenth century Europe. With increasing access to reliable sources of power, mills and bakeries were able to grow in size and provide large‐scale production of bread for the industrial workers of the developing cities. At the same time, the knowledge of the world around us was expanding as a result of the work of scientists. In the context of baking an important discovery came from the work of Louis Pasteur on fermentation. His studies on yeast fermentation were to eventually lead to the manufacture of modern bakers' yeasts (Cauvain 2015). With a reliable source of carbon dioxide production, bakers were able to produce more consistent products. Around the same time, the large wheat growing areas of North America were being developed and the importation of the strong wheats that they yielded, changed the quality of the flour that millers could make available to bakers. On the back of such events, there was a general shift towards the consumption of white bread throughout all communities; white bread was no longer the province of the elite.
The association between the consumption of white bread and a rise in social standing has a long history (Bailey 1975; Marchant et al. 2008). Even in relatively modern times this phenomenon has been observed. For example, before 1990 large‐scale production of bread in South Africa was focussed on a high extraction rate flour (~80% of the grain) which was used to deliver a standardised loaf controlled by the government of the day. When deregulation arrived in South Africa, there was an immediate shift by the populous to the consumption of white bread. This choice of white bread as a primary product is still being seen today with the increase of bread consumption in communities throughout South East Asia. While the products may have some historical links with bread production in Europe, the bread recipe in South East Asia is quite different and typically contains high levels of sugar and fat. Indeed, without sugar many South East Asian consumers will refer to the bread as having a ‘sour’ taste, even though sour dough technology has not been used for its production. The consumption of bakery products is now so widespread that they have become an integral part of consumer choice, even in countries that cannot grow wheat. There is no doubt that part of the reason for such developments is related to delivering sensory pleasure – taste, flavour and texture – and convenience. With their convenient forms and good shelf‐life bakery products are often seen as readily available alternatives to more traditional diets; for example, bread needs no preparation in order to provide a satisfactory breakfast meal, even if it has to be toasted.
Perhaps the most readily observed convenient form for bread consumption is the ubiquitous sandwich, which takes slightly different forms in different parts of the world. The sandwich consumption tradition in the UK stretches back many years where many of the ‘working‐class’ lunches were based on sandwiches prepared in the home. Gradually, the convenience of sliced bread, combined with a variety of fillings, moved from the home to mainstream food production. Today the triangular pre‐packed sandwich has become an established food source (Figure 1.3), not least in the business community, where longer working hours and shorter lunch breaks often means that sandwiches are eaten at the desk instead of a visit to the company canteen or nearby restaurant. British consumers manage to munch their way through 11.5 billion sandwiches each year and it is said, that if you laid each one end to end they would go around the world about 44 times. In the UK alone in 2017 (www.statista.com/statistics/281823/market‐value‐of‐sandwiches‐and‐baguettes‐in‐the‐uk‐from‐2007) around £495 million was spent on the purchase of sandwiches, rolls and baguettes, with sales through retail stores, garages, chemists, high street bakers and coffee shops. In the United States, the sandwich takes a different form, with the type of bread being more similar to rolls in that they contain more sugar. Today, half of all bread products manufactured in the US are sold for the preparation of sandwiches, including those that are associated with well‐known fast food outlets. While such sandwiches offer the convenience of ‘food on the go’, they illustrate the diversity of the nutritional profiles of the products and emphasise the variations in geographical preferences for bakery products (see Chapter 5).
Figure 1.3 Packs of triangular sandwiches.
As noted above, sandwiches may be bought in different formats. In the UK and elsewhere, there has been a progressive trend in the bread choice, with the traditional white bread loaf increasingly giving way to variations based on wholemeal, granary, rye, and wheat‐germ flour varieties. Bread variants often now include the addition of other non‐wheat seeds. In part, this is associated with the desire to confer perceived health benefits for this sector of products. The challenges for the sandwich making industry include, dealing with salt reduction in the bread component (in some parts of the world, especially the UK) and more recently with greater focus on the nutritional value of the fillings. Gone are the days of the restricted choice of only cheese or ham, occasionally garnished with sliced tomato! The increase in the sandwich filling variety has not come without its problems, not least shown by the recent call by Public Health England (PHE) (2018) to reduce the calorie count of sandwiches by 20% by 2024.
1.2 Historical Links Between Baked Products, Nutrition and Health
As knowledge of a contribution of foods to health and well‐being of humankind developed, many manufacturers of bakery products have been mindful of their role in delivering improved and relevant nutrition. In some cases, nutritionally enhanced bakery products have been introduced by pioneering individuals, while in others (e.g. fortification) the changes have been government‐led. Practical examples related to the value of increasing fibre in the diet can be found in the stories of two bread products developed in the UK in the later nineteenth century. In that period of time the American vegetarian, Sylvester Graham (of Graham cracker fame), insisted on using un‐sifted wholewheat flour to bake bread, so that consumers could benefit from the laxative properties of the bran. In the UK the same theme was being picked up by Dr Thomas Allinson, who wrote articles on the benefits of vegetarianism and bread, including in 1891 the advantages of eating wholemeal bread (Marchant et al. 2008). At the time he was writing, Dr Allinson considered that no mills produced wholemeal flours to his required standard, so that in 1892 he acquired an interest in a London‐based flour mill. He went on to form ‘The Natural Food Company’, which traded under the slogan ‘health without medicine’, a theme which still resounds in many quarters today (though the description of bread as ‘natural’ would be under greater scrutiny today; see Chapter 8). Allinson wholemeal flour and bread made therefrom, remain available to this day in the UK.
In the preparation of white flour during the nineteenth century, the common practice was to divert bran and wheat‐germ components to animal feed. A particular problem is the instability of wheat‐germ because of its high fat content which causes it to go rancid relatively quickly. This phenomenon limited its high vitamin and mineral nutritive value for human consumption, a fact quickly recognised by Richard ‘Stoney’ Smith, a miller in the UK. He found that by heating wheat‐germ with steam and a little salt, it would keep much better (Marchant et al. 2008). He established a patent for a bread product based on a wheat‐germ treatment method in 1885, later selling the concept to another milling company in 1887. A competition to establish a suitable brand name for the flour and the bread made therefrom, was launched. It was won by a London student, Herbert Grime, who took the Latin for ‘strength of man’ – hominis vis – and shortened it to Hovis. The Hovis Bread Company was formed in 1898 and quickly established itself as a branded bread product, the flour being supplied to bakers along with the method of production and baking pans carrying the Hovis name impressed into the sides of metal pans. The manufacture of the wheat‐germ product continues today in the UK, though the Hovis brand name is now applied to a wide range of bread products, including white (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4 Hovis bread products.
Despite the long history of producing fibre rich breads in the UK and elsewhere, the production and consumption of white bread has continued to dominate. As a greater emphasis was progressively placed on the role of dietary fibre throughout the 1980s, bakers began to study potential ways of increasing the fibre content of bread while retaining, as much as possible, the sensory characteristics of white bread. Many fibre rich breads in the 1970s were small in volume, dense in character with a rough mouthfeel and poor keeping qualities. For some sectors of consumers (especially children), these were significant barriers to increasing their fibre consumption using bread products and they were more likely to turn to breakfast cereals. Many of breakfast cereals derive from the interest of nineteenth century physicians, such as John Harvey Kellogg, who was actively engaged in developing and promoting such products so that consumers could benefit from fibre‐rich diets. Today the healthy image of breakfast cereals is equally under a degree of nutritional pressure because a number of them are associated with high levels of sugar consumption, an aspect of particular concern for the nutrition of children.
With an increased interest in delivering dietary fibre using bread and other bakery products, technical innovations implemented by millers and bakers were able to deliver new wholemeal and fibre‐richer products to consumers and in many parts of the world, there has been a gradual (and important) shift in bread consumption away from white bread. The developments have seen the introduction on non‐wheat fibre‐rich raw materials, including seeds and other grains, with some extension of the approach to other groups of bakery products. While the move from historical coarse‐grained, off‐white breads was undoubtedly fuelled in part, by lower prices for flour and bread, there were other factors involved in that progressive switch. Amongst the key factors in delivering increased consumption of non‐white breads are improvements to the sensory character of the products. The presence of fibre, certainly as large particles of wheat bran, for many consumers, reduces the sensory pleasure associated with eating bread. In order to deliver more consumer suitable enriched fibre products, developments in flour milling and baking technology were necessary. Such developments combined with appropriate baking technology resulted in the production of fibre‐enriched breads using white and wholemeal flour mixtures For example, in the UK and elsewhere there has been successful growth in products in which the dietary fibre is to some extent less obvious in the bread crumb, such as illustrated in Figure 1.5. In addition to the obvious crumb colour differences, consumers would observe differences in bread volume (lower with wholemeal), crumb texture and eating qualities. Less coloured forms of fibres may also be used to increase the dietary fibre content of breads. Less well‐developed, but of increasing interest today, are moves by bakers to limit the contributions of their products to the level of fats and sugars in consumer diets. As will discussed in Chapter 5, consumer geographical sensory preferences will play a significant role in the continuing interest of bakers to making positive contributions to consumer diet and health with their products.
Figure 1.5 Comparison of white and increased fibre breads: left, white bread; middle, 50/50; right, 100% wholemeal.
1.3 A Brief History of Concerns Over Fibre, Fat, Sugar and Salt in Baked Products
The science of nutrition is not new; interest in the relationship between foods, diet, and health stretches back many hundreds of years, as recorded in the texts of physicians in antiquity (Gentilcore 2015). As medical knowledge has developed, so has the understanding of the contribution of food nutrients to the human diet and the well‐being of consumers. As noted above, physicians of the latter nineteenth century were well‐aware of the contribution of fibre in the diet, with a particular interest in the laxative effects and the contribution to regular bowel movements. Medical references often used the term ‘roughage’ to convey the concept to consumers, along with encouragement to increase the quantity consumed in the diet. It might be said that more recent and increased interest in the contribution of fibre in the diet, intensifies following the studies of Burkitt (1986) and others. While reminding us that prominent physicians of many hundreds of years ago recognised the value of wheat fibre as part of a healthy diet, Burkitt drew attention to the role of fibre in alleviating the ‘diseases of western civilisation’ such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and bowel cancers.
In earlier years, the wheat flour milling industry commonly described and measured fibre under the heading of ‘crude’ fibre and linked it with cellulose (e.g. Kent‐Jones 1939). Crude fibre was to become part of legislative definitions introduced in many parts of the world and even international standards were set, for example the International Association for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC) method 113 (Cauvain 2018). As the study of fibre components and their potential contribution to the diet increased, the needs for more relevant definitions of and analytical methods for measuring fibre became increasingly apparent (McCleary and Prosky 2001), which has led to increasing cooperation between nutritionists and cereals scientists. Today, dietary fibre is better understood and defined, though universal acceptance has still to be achieved. The complexity of defining dietary fibre has not made the task of product development easy for the baking industry. While obviously high levels of fibre are universally associated with wholemeal bread, the position with respect to white or ‘brown’ breads is less clear. One example of the difficulties which are faced by bakers, revolves around the concept of resistant starch, the definition of which is covered in four different categories. Not all defined forms of resistant starch are present in all forms of bakery products, which hampers the understanding of what might or might not, be analysed as dietary fibre and how this may fit with any related nutritional data and what claims may or may not, be made. In the context of dietary fibre, two recent collaborations between nutritionist and cereal scientists worthy of note are the Healthgrain Forum (https://healthgrain.org) and the Wholegrains Council (https://wholegrainscouncil.org/about‐us), both formed to promote greater consumption of dietary fibre through grain‐based foods, based on sound science and relevant measurements techniques. Both organisations are active in addressing the negative nutrition and health connotations which have been advocated in recent times and become associated with bread and related products.
Discussions related to the contribution of fat in the diet also have a long and chequered history. Naturally higher in energy density than all of the other major nutrients, the limitation of the level of dietary fat in diets has always been on the nutritionist's agenda. However, in addition to the well‐understood energy density contribution, medical research has also focussed on the nature of fats in the diet. Early attention (COMA 1984) focussed on recommendations not only on limiting the proportion of fat in UK diets derived from fat (to 75% of the 1984 intake), but also on a reduction in the consumption of saturated fats. The concepts in the COMA report focussed on improving the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fat (P/S ratio). At that time trans fatty acids were included with the saturated fats for the purposes of the calculation of the P/S ratio. Typically, at that time, around 4.3% of all fatty acids consumed in the UK diet were in the trans form (Burt et al. 1983). Later research (e.g. Mozaffarian et al. 2006) was to highlight the role of trans fatty acids with respect to the incidence of cardiovascular disease and add to growing concerns over the negative roles of the various types of fat in consumers' diets. Concerns linking the contribution of dietary saturated fat to high levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream, have also received much attention in the nutrition and medical fields, though it is necessary to distinguish between the so‐called ‘good’ and ‘bad’ forms of cholesterol; known respectively as high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) because of the combination of lipid (fat) and proteins which form in the bloodstream.
Possibly the seminal work which altered nutritionists' views of the medical dangers of excessive consumption of sugar in the diet, was that produced by John Yudkin, a Professor in the Department of Nutrition at Queen Elizabeth College, London. First published in 1972 and later republished a number of times (Yudkin 2016), Pure, White and Deadly: How Sugar is Killing Us and What We Can Do to Stop it, set the scene for much of the research on sugars in the diet in the last 40 years or so (see for example, Goran et al. 2015). Ground‐breaking as Yudkin's treatise was, it did little to stop the increasing consumption of sugar in the years which followed its initial publication. Sugars provide a readily assimilated source of energy and induce sensory pleasure during consumption. However, Mintz (1985) identified that the desire of sweetness in the human diet is not innate, and also drew attention to historical and social factors which may have contributed to the significantly and progressively increasing consumption of sugar and sugar‐containing foods. Lustig et al. (2012) argued that the negative health aspects of excess consumption of sugars were so serious that added sweeteners should be controlled in a similar manner to that of alcohol. The role of food companies in ‘promoting’ sugar consumption was recently discussed by McLennan et al. (2015) who drew attention to role of advertising and brand image in sugar‐containing foods. In doing so, they have highlighted the key and responsible role that food producers can play in delivering improved nutrition and health.
While in most recent years there has been a strong focus on levels of salt in consumers' diets and the contribution that bakery products might make in this context, medical concerns regarding salt and health are not entirely new. Perhaps the most active geographic area has been the UK, with the UK's Food Standards Agency and Department of Health taking a particular interest in lowering the level of salt in bread following a survey of sodium in the diet in the late 1980s (Gregory et al. 1990). Such surveys coincided with increased medical concerns being raised regarding the contribution of sodium to high blood pressure and other potential negative effects on health, as outlined by a number of medical practitioners, including extensive studies by He and MacGregor (2007). The formation in the UK of a Committee for Action on Salt and Health (CASH) led to a series of consultations between representatives of the UK baking industry through the Federation of Bakers and the UK Food Standards Agency which established a series of targets for salt reduction in bread and other fermented products, according to an agreed timetable. This collaboration was voluntary in nature and with the support of the UK baking industry, was to lead to significant reductions in the contribution of bread and fermented products for dietary sodium levels. Using the collaborative principles established with bread, the UK baking industry was to extend its actions to reducing dietary sodium levels in other baked products. In some parts of the world the process of salt reduction has been voluntary, though in others it has been mandatory in nature, not least by taking into account the UK's lead on this topic.
