Basic Statistics for Social Research E-Book

Robert A. Hanneman

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Research Methods for the Social Sciences
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 802

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

A core statistics text that emphasizes logical inquiry, not math

Basic Statistics for Social Research teaches core general statistical concepts and methods that all social science majors must master to understand (and do) social research. Its use of mathematics and theory are deliberately limited, as the authors focus on the use of concepts and tools of statistics in the analysis of social science data, rather than on the mathematical and computational aspects. Research questions and applications are taken from a wide variety of subfields in sociology, and each chapter is organized around one or more general ideas that are explained at its beginning and then applied in increasing detail in the body of the text.

Each chapter contains instructive features to aid students in understanding and mastering the various statistical approaches presented in the book, including:

• Learning objectives
• Check quizzes after many sections and an answer key at the end of the chapter
• Summary
• Key terms
• End-of-chapter exercises
• SPSS exercises (in select chapters)

Ancillary materials for both the student and the instructor are available and include a test bank for instructors and downloadable video tutorials for students.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Copyright

Tables and Figures

Preface

About the Authors

PART I: Univariate Description

Chapter 1: Using Statistics

Why Study Statistics?

Tasks for Statistics: Describing, Inferring, Testing, Predicting

Statistics in the Research Process

Basic Elements of Research: Units of Analysis and Variables

Chapter 2: Displaying One Distribution

Summarizing Variation in One Variable

Frequency Distributions for Nominal Variables

Frequency Distributions for Ordinal Variables

Frequency Distributions for Interval/Ratio Variables

Summarizing Data Using Excel

Chapter 3: Central Tendency

The Basic Idea of Central Tendency

The Mode

The Median

The Mean

Chapter 4: Dispersion

The Basic Idea of Dispersion

Dispersion of Categorical Data

Dispersion of Interval/Ratio Data

Chapter 5: Describing the Shape of a Distribution

The Basic Ideas of Distributional Shape

The Shape of Nominal and Ordinal Distributions

Unimodality

Skewness

Kurtosis

Some Common Distributional Shapes

Chapter 6: The Normal Distribution

Introduction to the Normal Distribution

Properties of Normal Distributions

The Standard Normal, or Z, Distribution

Working with Standard Normal (Z) Scores

Finding Areas “Under the Curve”

PART II: Inference and Hypothesis Testing

Chapter 7: Basic Ideas of Statistical Inference

Introduction to Statistical Inference

Sampling Concepts

Central Tendency Estimates

Assessing Confidence in Point Estimates

Chapter 8: Hypothesis Testing for One Sample

Hypothesis Testing

The Testing Process

Tests about One Mean

Tests about One Proportion

Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing for Two Samples

Comparing Two Groups

Comparing Two Groups’ Means

Comparing Two Groups’ Proportions

Nonindependent Samples

Using Excel for Two-Sample Tests

Interpreting Group Differences

Chapter 10: Multiple Sample Tests of Proportions: Chi-Squared

Comparing Proportions across Several Groups

Testing for Multiple Group Differences

Describing Group Differences

Chapter 11: Multiple Sample Tests for Means: One-Way ANOVA

Comparing Several Group Means with Analysis of Variance

Analyzing Variance and the F-Test

Analyzing Variance

The F-Test

Comparing Means

PART III: Association and Prediction

Chapter 12: Association with Categorical Variables

The Concept of Statistical Association

Association with Nominal Variables

Association with Ordinal Variables

Chapter 13: Association of Interval/Ratio Variables

Visualizing Interval/Ratio Association

Significance Testing for Interval/Ratio Association

Chapter 14: Regression Analysis

Predicting Outcomes with Regression

Simple Linear Regression

Applying Simple Regression Analysis

Multiple Regression

Applying Multiple Regression

Chapter 15: Logistic Regression Analysis

Predicting with Nonlinear Relationships

Logistic Regression

The Logistic Regression Model

Interpreting Effects in Logistic Regression

Estimating Logistic Regression Models with Maximum Likelihood

Applying Logistic Regression

Assessing Partial Effects

Extending Logistic Regression

APPENDIX

Chi-Squared Distribution: Critical Values for Commonly Used Alpha = 0.05 and Alpha = 0.01

F-Distribution: Critical Values for Commonly Used Alpha = 0.05 and Alpha = 0.01

Standard Normal Scores (Z-Scores), and Cumulative Probabilities (Proportion of Cases Having Scores below Z)

Student’s t-Distribution: Critical Values for Commonly Used Alpha Levels

Index

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

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List of Tables

Chapter 1: Using Statistics

TABLE 1.1 Levels of Measurement and Their Characteristics

Chapter 2: Displaying One Distribution

TABLE 2.1 Frequency Chart for a Nominal Variable

TABLE 2.2 Nominal Frequency Chart with Relative Frequencies: Marital Status in the 1978–1998 General Social Survey

TABLE 2.3 Respondent’s Highest Degree, U.S. 1978–1998 (General Social Survey)

TABLE 2.4 GNP in Five Categories

TABLE 2.5 GNP in Nine Categories

Student’s Responses to the Question: “How Many Shoes Are in Your Closet?”

Student’s Responses to the Question: “How Many Shoes Are in Your Closet?”

Property Crimes by Type, United States, 1990 and 1998

Fall Enrollments in Millions of Persons

United States: School Enrollments by Type and Level, 1980 and 2000

Case Summaries

Data from 1998 General Social Survey

Statistics

Feelings about the Bible

Respondent Socioeconomic Index

SEI in 5 categories

SEI in 5 categories

Chapter 3: Central Tendency

TABLE 3.1 Region of Interview

TABLE 3.2 Frequency Chart of Educational Attainment, 2008 General Social Survey

TABLE 3.3 Why Rounding Cumulative Percentages Is Problematic

TABLE 3.4 Attitudes about Court Sentencing

TABLE 3.5 Monthly Earnings of Students

TABLE 3.6 Birthrates

TABLE 3.7 Age Distribution of Students in Basic Statistics

Case Summaries

Value of Agricultural Exports (in $ millions) in Selected U.S. States

U.S. Number of Persons with Work Disabilities by Age and Race, 1999

Cars (millions) in Use in the United States, by Age of Vehicle

Chapter 4: Dispersion

TABLE 4.1 Guessing Strategies Compared

TABLE 4.2 How Maximum Dispersion Depends on the Number of Categories

TABLE 4.3 Frequencies of Marital Status Categories

TABLE 4.4 Hypothetical Distribution of Gender by Occupation

TABLE 4.5 Adjusting Frequencies to Obtain Equal Proportions

TABLE 4.6 Difference in Proportions as a Measure of Dispersion

Case Summaries

Value of Agricultural Exports (in $ millions) in Selected United States

Chapter 5: Describing the Shape of a Distribution

Statistics: Total Family Income

Average Years of School Completed

Chapter 6: The Normal Distribution

TABLE 6.1 Calculation of Z-Scores for Some Values of Median Income

TABLE 6.2 Proportions of Cases Having Values Lower and Higher Than Selected Values of Median Income

Chapter 7: Basic Ideas of Statistical Inference

Case Summaries

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Chapter 8: Hypothesis Testing for One Sample

TABLE 8.1 SPSS One-Sample t-Test Results

TABLE 8.2 SPSS Results for Testing a Proportion Using a Dummy Variable t-Test of Means

Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing for Two Samples

TABLE 9.1 Descriptive Statistics for Two Groups

TABLE 9.2 SPSS Output for Two-Group Mean Hypothesis Test

TABLE 9.3 Descriptive Statistics for Two-Group Comparison Using Dummy Variables

TABLE 9.4 Two-Sample Test for Proportions Using Dummy Variables

TABLE 9.5 Descriptive Statistics for Nonindependent Samples

TABLE 9.6 Test for Difference of Group Differences

Group Statistics: Think of Self as Liberal or Conservative

Independent Samples Test: Think of Self as Liberal or Conservative

Group Statistics: Helping Others Is Most Important

Independent Samples Test: Helping Others Is Most Important

Group Statistics: Completed More Than High School

Independent Samples Test: Completed More Than High School

Group Statistics: Is Life Exciting or Dull?

Independent Samples Test: Is Life Exciting or Dull?

Chapter 10: Multiple Sample Tests of Proportions: Chi-Squared

TABLE 10.1 Multiple Group Proportions of Marital Status by Race

TABLE 10.2 Frequencies Observed and Expected Assuming Independence

TABLE 10.3 Pearson (and Other) Chi-Squared Test Results: Marital Status by Race

TABLE 10.4 Educational Degree by Race, General Social Survey 1993, Observed Frequencies

TABLE 10.5 Educational Degree by Race, General Social Survey 1993, Expected Frequencies

TABLE 10.6 Educational Degree by Race, General Social Survey 1993, Residuals

TABLE 10.7 Educational Degree by Race, General Social Survey 1993, Chi-Squared Test

TABLE 10.8 Differences in Proportions: Marital Status by Race

TABLE 10.9 Differences in Proportions between “White” and “Black”

TABLE 10.10 Analyzing Residuals to Describe Group Differences

Have Gun in Home * Race of Respondent Cross-Tabulation

Chi-Squared Tests

Cross-Tabulation

Chi-Squared Tests

Chapter 11: Multiple Sample Tests for Means: One-Way ANOVA

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

ANOVA

Multiple Comparisons

Case Summaries

Scores of 30 Cases on the Political Conservativism Scale

ANOVA

Multiple Comparisons

Descriptives

ANOVA

Multiple Comparisons

Chapter 12: Association with Categorical Variables

TABLE 12.1 Cross-Tabulation of Region of Residence by Race

TABLE 12.2 Association between Marital Status and Race

TABLE 12.3 Chi-Squared Tests for the Association of Marital Status and Race

TABLE 12.4 Chi-Squared-Based Measures of Association for Marital Status by Race

TABLE 12.5 PRE Measures of Association between Marital Status and Race

TABLE 12.6 Marital Statuses by Class Identification, General Social Survey 1996

TABLE 12.7 Religious Service Attendance by Highest Educational Degree

TABLE 12.8 Perfect Positive Rank-Order Correlation: All Pairs Concordant

TABLE 12.9 Perfect Negative Rank-Order Correlation: All Pairs Discordant

TABLE 12.10 Less Than Perfect Positive Rank-Order Correlation

TABLE 12.11 Rank-Order Correlation with Ties on Y

TABLE 12.12 Relationship between Conservativism and Sentencing Attitudes

TABLE 12.13 Counts of Pairs for the Relationship between Conservativism and Sentencing Attitudes

TABLE 12.14 Partial Listing of Raw Infant Mortality and Fertility Data

TABLE 12.15 Calculation of Differences in Ranks

People Helpful or Looking Out for Selves * R’s Highest Degree Cross-Tabulation

Should Marijuana Be Made Legal? * R’s Highest Degree Cross-Tabulation

Chi-Squared Tests

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

Have Gun in Home * Race of Respondent Cross-Tabulation

Chi-Squared Tests

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

Courts Too Easy on Criminals * Degree of Conservatism Cross-Tabulation

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

Oppose or Favor Death Penalty for Murder * R’s Highest Degree Cross-Tabulation

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

How Often R Attends Religious Services * R’s Highest Degree Cross-Tabulation

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

Should Marijuana Be Made Legal? * Think of Self as Conservative Cross-Tabulation

Chi-Squared Tests

Directional Measures

Symmetric Measures

National Demographics ca. 1995

Literacy and Urbanism 1995

Chapter 13: Association of Interval/Ratio Variables

TABLE 13.1 Ordinal Association of Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy

TABLE 13.2 Spreadsheet Calculations for the Relationship of Property Crime and Unemployment Rates (Partial Listing)

1995 Data on 20 Selected U.S. States

Descriptive Statistics

Correlations

Descriptive Statistics

Correlations

Model Summary

ANOVA

Coefficients

Model Summary

ANOVA

Coefficients

Chapter 14: Regression Analysis

TABLE 14.1 Number of Class Factions and Anti-Instructor Comments (Hypothetical Data)

TABLE 14.2 Income and Education: Goodness of Fit Model Summary

TABLE 14.3 Income and Education: Effects Analysis

TABLE 14.4 Residuals for 10 Cases after Predicting Income with Education and Age: The 2008 General Social Survey

TABLE 14.5 Income, Education, and Age: Goodness of Fit

TABLE 14.6 Income, Education, and Age: Partial Effects

TABLE 14.7 Income, Education, Age, and Occupational Status: Goodness of Fit

TABLE 14.8 Income, Age, Education, and Occupational Status: Partial Effects

Histogram of Residuals Dependent Variable: Hours per Day Watching TV

ANOVA

Descriptive Statistics

Model Summary

ANOVA

Coefficients

Chapter 15: Logistic Regression Analysis

TABLE 15.1 How Odds and Probabilities Are Related

TABLE 15.2 Goodness of Fit in Predicting Support for Decriminalization

TABLE 15.3 Partial Effects on the Odds of Favoring Decriminalization of Marijuana

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2: Displaying One Distribution

FIGURE 2.1 Marital Status in the 1978–1998 General Social Survey

FIGURE 2.2 Modified Bar Charts

FIGURE 2.3 Marital Status in the 1978–1998 General Social Survey

FIGURE 2.4 Respondent’s Highest Degree, General Social Survey 1978–1998

FIGURE 2.5 Respondent’s Highest Degree, General Social Survey 1998

FIGURE 2.6 Numbers of Siblings, General Social Survey 1998

FIGURE 2.7 Cumulative Numbers of Siblings, General Social Survey 1998

Chapter 3: Central Tendency

FIGURE 3.1 Marital Status in the 2008 General Social Survey

FIGURE 3.2 Opinions about a Mediocre Class

FIGURE 3.3 Strong, Opposite Opinions about a Handout

FIGURE 3.4 Ranked Data and Median Height

FIGURE 3.5 Median When the Two Middle Scores Have the Same Value

FIGURE 3.6 Median When the Two Middle Scores Have Different Values

FIGURE 3.7 Educational Attainment

FIGURE 3.8 Educational Attainment in Years

FIGURE 3.9 The Sum of Deviations from the Mean

FIGURE 3.10 Squared Deviations from the Mean versus Other Squared Deviations

Chapter 4: Dispersion

FIGURE 4.1 Religious Affiliations in Two Different Communities, A and B

FIGURE 4.2 Religious Affiliations in Two Different Communities, C and D

FIGURE 4.3 Age of Respondent

FIGURE 4.4 Means and Variability in Numbers of Siblings

Chapter 5: Describing the Shape of a Distribution

FIGURE 5.1 Income Distribution for Nonblack Families

FIGURE 5.2 Income Distribution for Black Families

FIGURE 5.3 Box-and-Whiskers Plots of Educational Attainment by Race

FIGURE 5.3 Box-and-Whiskers Plots of Educational Attainment by Race

FIGURE 5.4 The Effect of Having More or Fewer Categories on the Mode

FIGURE 5.5 Skewness Displaces the Mean toward the Longer Tail

FIGURE 5.6 Respondents’ Ages in the General Social Survey

FIGURE 5.7 Effect of Skewness on the Location of Central Tendency Statistics

FIGURE 5.8 Distribution of Literacy Levels versus Normal Distribution

FIGURE 5.9 A Standard Normal Curve, and Positive and Negative Kurtosis

FIGURE 5.10 Respondents’ Ages in the General Social Survey

Chapter 6: The Normal Distribution

FIGURE 6.1 Theoretical Standard Normal Curve and Random Normal Data

FIGURE 6.2 Median Household Income, 1995

FIGURE 6.3 Area of the Standard Normal Curve above +1 Standard Deviation

FIGURE 6.4 The Normal Distribution Function in Excel

FIGURE 6.5 Area Between the Mean and +1 Standard Deviation

FIGURE 6.6 Finding the Area between Two Scores

Chapter 8: Hypothesis Testing for One Sample

FIGURE 8.1 Sampling Distribution of a Normally Distributed Statistic

FIGURE 8.2 Areas under the Normal Curve of the Sampling Distribution of a Statistic

FIGURE 8.3 Visualizing the Meaning of the t-Test Results

FIGURE 8.4 Visualizing the Z-Test Results

Chapter 12: Association with Categorical Variables

FIGURE 12.1 Comparative Bar Chart of the Association between Race and Region of Residence

FIGURE 12.2 Comparative Pie Charts of the Association between Region of Residence and Race

Chapter 13: Association of Interval/Ratio Variables

FIGURE 13.1 Interval/Ratio Association of Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy

FIGURE 13.2 Relationship of Infant Mortality to Education with Linear Regression Line

FIGURE 13.3 Relationship of Infant Mortality to Education with Nonlinear Regression Line

FIGURE 13.4 Property Crime Rates by Unemployment Rates in the United States

Chapter 14: Regression Analysis

FIGURE 14.1 The Best-Fitting Equation and the Regression Line for Predicting Anti-Instructor Comments

Chapter 15: Logistic Regression Analysis

FIGURE 15.1 Logistic Curve Showing the Relationship between Age and Percent of Homeowners

BASIC STATISTICS FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH

ROBERT A. HANNEMAN

AUGUSTINE J. KPOSOWA

MARK RIDDLE

Cover image: ©track5/istockphoto

Cover design: Mike Rutkowski

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hanneman, Robert.

Basic statistics for social research / Robert A. Hanneman, Augustine J. Kposowa, and Mark Riddle.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-470-58798-0 (pbk.); ISBN 978-1-118-22055-9 (ebk.);

ISBN 978-1-118-23415-0 (ebk.); ISBN 978-1-118-24930-7 (ebk.)

1. Social sciences–Statistical methods. I. Kposowa, Augustine J. II. Riddle, Mark, 1957- III. Title.

HA29.H2494 2013

519.5—dc23

2012011790

TABLES AND FIGURES

TABLES

Table 1.1

Levels of Measurement and Their Characteristics

Table 2.1

Frequency Chart for a Nominal Variable

Table 2.2

Nominal Frequency Chart with Relative Frequencies: Marital Status in the 1978–1998 General Social Survey

Table 2.3

Respondent’s Highest Degree, U.S. 1978–1998 (General Social Survey)

Table 2.4

GNP in Five Categories

Table 2.5

GNP in Nine Categories

Table 3.1

Region of Interview

Table 3.2

Frequency Chart of Educational Attainment, 2008 General Social Survey

Table 3.3

Why Rounding Cumulative Percentages Is Problematic

Table 3.4

Attitudes about Court Sentencing

Table 3.5

Monthly Earnings of Students

Table 3.6

Birthrates

Table 3.7

Age Distribution of Students in Basic Statistics

Table 4.1

Guessing Strategies Compared

Table 4.2

How Maximum Dispersion Depends on the Number of Categories

Table 4.3

Frequencies of Marital Status Categories

Table 4.4

Hypothetical Distribution of Gender by Occupation

Table 4.5

Adjusting Frequencies to Obtain Equal Proportions

Table 4.6

Difference in Proportions as a Measure of Dispersion

Table 6.1

Calculation of Z-Scores for Some Values of Median Income

Table 6.2

Proportions of Cases Having Values Lower and Higher Than Selected Values of Median Income

Table 8.1

SPSS One-Sample t-Test Results

Table 8.2

SPSS Results for Testing a Proportion Using a Dummy Variable t-Test of Means