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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Ratgeber
- Sprache: Englisch
Your ticket to a healthier brain and a healthier you!
Your brain, like every part of your body, needs and deserves all the TLC you can give it so you can live a long and healthy life. In Brain Health For Dummies, neuroscientist and author Dr. Sarah McKay walks you through some simple and easy steps you can take—right now—to get smarter, stay healthier, and better support the elders in your life.
This is the ultimate, evidence-based guide to help you understand how your brain works around the clock to keep you sharp, healthy, and happy. It offers straightforward advice to help you optimize your brain health, including:
- How to lessen your chance of disease and decline by managing common health risks
- Simple lifestyle tips to help you maintain a healthy brain at every stage of life
- Sex- and age-specific strategies to help keep your brain in top form
Optimal performance is something your brain works on all day long. Make sure you're living your best life by learning how to maintain your hardest-working organ with Brain Health For Dummies. Grab a copy today!
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Brain Health For Dummies®
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond the Book
Where to Go from Here
Part 1: An Introduction to Brain Health
Chapter 1: Embracing Brain Health Fundamentals
Getting to Grips with the Biopsychosocial Model of Health
Understanding How a Healthy Brain Works
Practical Tips to Get Started
Your Brain Health Journey Starts Here
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Brain and Nervous System
Navigating Nervous System Anatomy
Connecting Neurons and Synapses
Honing in on Neuroplasticity
Synthesizing Knowledge: How It All Works Together
Chapter 3: Measuring and Monitoring Brain Health
How Scientists Study the Brain
Study Design and Levels of Evidence
Navigating the Maze of Brain Health Assessments
Chapter 4: Examining Brain Health Disorders and Diseases
Receiving a Diagnosis
Understanding Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Managing Mood and Mental Health Disorders
Navigating Neurological Problems
Addressing Structural and Acquired Brain Disorders
Investigating Neurodegenerative Disorders
Chapter 5: Calculating the Causes and Risks of Brain Health Problems
Understanding Statistical Terms Simply
Understanding Genetic Risk Factors and Family History
Nurturing Brain Health through Lifestyle Choices
Taking a Holistic View of Brain Health
Part 2: Charting Brain Health at Different Ages and Stages
Chapter 6: Nurturing Healthy Brain Development in Childhood
From Chromosomes to Complexity
Shaping the Developing Brain: Critical Periods for Brain Development
Laying the Foundations: The First 1,000 Days
The Importance of Warm, Caring Relationships
Educating Little Brains
Untangling the Impact of Early Childhood Trauma and Toxic Stress
Chapter 7: Fostering Healthy Brain Development in Adolescence
Adolescence: A Sensitive Phase of Brain Development
Navigating Puberty
Cultivating Social Ties
Assessing the Risk of Risky Business
Understanding the Ups and Downs of Mental Health Challenges in Teenagers
Emphasizing Positive Brain Behaviors for Adolescent Brain Health
Chapter 8: Supporting Healthy Brain Aging
Living to 100: Modern Trends in Aging
Connecting with Centenarians
Charting Healthy Trajectories of Brain Aging
Knowing What’s Normal: Aging Versus Dementia
Demystifying Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
Part 3: Beyond Aging: Other Factors That Impact Brain Health
Chapter 9: Understanding the Interplay of Sex and Gender in Brain Health
Approaching Sex and Gender Differences in the Brain
Examining Hormones and Brain Health Across the Lifespan
Addressing Brain Health in Men
Delving into Brain Health in Women
Chapter 10: Managing Brain Health after Head Injury
Defining Brain Injuries
Exploring the Impacts of Brain Injuries
Implementing Concussion Prevention Strategies
Chapter 11: Wondering at the World: The Environment and Brain Health
Investigating Environmental Factors
Moving Between Time Zones and Seasons
Living Urban versus Rural
Exploring the Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Brain Health
Part 4: Keeping Your Brain Healthy
Chapter 12: Nourishing Your Brain: Nutrition and Brain Health
So What's Food For, Anyway?
Understanding Nutrition Science and Its Findings
Studying the Mediterranean Diet
Taking a Brain Health Approach to Nutrition: The Evidence
Understanding Neuronal Health: Energy, Metabolism, and Mitochondria
Navigating the Gut-Brain Axis: A Two-Way Street
Answering Common Brain Health-Nutrition Questions
Chapter 13: Moving Your Body for Brain Health
Getting Brain Gains from Physical Activity
Analyzing Evidence for Exercise for Brain Health
Decoding the Exercise Effect
Implementing Movement into Your Everyday Life
Chapter 14: Sleeping Your Way to Better Brain Health
Understanding Sleep’s Significance for Brain Health
Tuning Into Your Circadian Rhythms
Understanding the Consequences of Sleep Deprivation and Disruption
Building Better Bedtime Habits
Overcoming Insomnia
Chapter 15: Socializing Your Way to a Healthier Brain
Understanding the Importance of Linked Lives
Studying the Social Brain
Decoding the Biology of Love
Confronting Loneliness and Its Health Implications
Prescribing Social Connection and Support
Chapter 16: Challenging Your Cognition for Better Brain Health
Characterizing Cognitive Challenge
Assessing the Effectiveness of Brain Training Programs
Seeking Purpose and Passion for Brain Health and Longevity
Prescribing Cognitive Challenges for Your Brain
Part 5: Avoiding Brain Health Hazards
Chapter 17: Buffering Against Toxic Stress
Recognizing and Defining Stress
Tuning into the Neuro-Symphony of Stress
Mapping the Impact of Stress on Brain Terrain
Cultivating Resilience and Growth
Prescribing Calm
Chapter 18: Rethinking Drugs and Alcohol
Assessing Alcohol’s Effect on Brain Health
Understanding Cannabis’ Influence on the Brain
Probing the Use of Psychedelics
Prescribing Healthy Imbibing
Chapter 19: Avoiding Metabolic Syndrome
Characterizing Metabolic Syndrome
Linking Metabolic Syndrome to Brain Health
Implementing Preventative Strategies
Chapter 20: Avoiding Hearing Loss
How Hearing Loss Can Lead to Poor Brain Health
Recognizing That You May Have Hearing Loss
Taking Charge of Your Hearing
Listening to Advice on Hearing Loss
Part 6: The Part of Tens
Chapter 21: Ten Ways to Hurt Your Happy, Healthy Brain
Never Get Enough Sleep
Become a Hermit
Stress Yourself Out
Eat Junk Food
Lay Around Doing Nothing
Blast the Music and Ditch the Bike Helmet
Avoid Ever Learning Anything New
Drink and Take Illicit Drugs (Daily)
Avoid Joy and Wallow around in Doom and Gloom
Embrace the Couch and Cake Life
Chapter 22: Ten Functions of a High-Performing, Happy, Healthy Brain
Cognitive Abilities: Your Brain’s CEO
Learning and Memory: Your Brain’s Dynamic Workshop
Attention and Focus: Your Brain’s Spotlight
Recognition of People: Your Brain’s Face Detector
Language Capacity: Your Brain’s Translator
Navigational Skills: Your Brain’s GPS
Emotional Regulation: Your Brain’s Mood Manager
Stress Management: Your Brain’s Chill Pill
Creative Potential: Your Brain’s Artist
Sense of Self: Your Brain’s Dream Machine
Index
About the Author
Advertisement Page
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 6
TABLE 6-1 Developmental Milestones from Birth to 12 Months
TABLE 6-2 Developmental Milestones from 12 Months to Five Years
Chapter 8
TABLE 8-1 Ten Examples of Normal Aging Versus Dementia
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1-1: The Bottom-Up Outside-In Top-Down model of the brain.
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2-1: Divisions of the nervous system.
FIGURE 2-2: Lobes of the neocortex.
FIGURE 2-3: Grey matter and white matter.
FIGURE 2-4: Subcortical nuclei and brainstem.
FIGURE 2-5: Divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
FIGURE 2-6: Different types of neurons.
FIGURE 2-7: Neuron and synapse.
FIGURE 2-8: Types of glia.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6-1: Critical periods of child development.
FIGURE 6-2: The first 1,000 days.
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7-1: Changes in synapse density from childhood to adolescence.
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8-1: A healthy young brain (left) and an aging brain (right) with severe...
FIGURE 8-2: Variation in age-related cognitive decline.
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14-1: Stages of sleep recorded by polysomnography.
FIGURE 14-2: Sleep architecture.
FIGURE 14-3: Sleep architecture change during the lifespan.
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15-1: Social brain networks.
Chapter 17
FIGURE 17-1: The Yerkes-Dodson curve.
FIGURE 17-2: Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and the Parasympathetic Nervous S...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Begin Reading
Index
About the Author
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Brain Health For Dummies®
Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, www.wiley.com
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Introduction
Welcome to Brain Health For Dummies, your guide to understanding and maintaining a healthy brain throughout your life.
I’m a neuroscientist, which means I spent years in neurobiology research labs exploring the mysteries of the mind, unraveling the complexities of neurons, synapses, and brain networks, and figuring out how our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors come together and what happens when they’re damaged.
These days, I focus on translating the latest neuroscience research into practical, brain health tips anyone can use. Or, as I like to say, I explain the brain!
As you read this book, think of me as a part neuroscientist, part tour-guide, here to help you navigate and appreciate what I believe is the coolest thing in the universe: your brain!
Maybe you hope to boost your memory, manage stress better, or understand how your lifestyle choices affect your brain. Perhaps you’re deeply concerned about a loved one’s mental health, or you're caring for someone with dementia and want to avoid the same fate. Or maybe you’re a parent looking to give your kids the best start in life by understanding how to nurture their developing brains. Whatever your goals, age, or life stage, this book will guide you in understanding and maintaining a healthy brain.
About This Book
This book gives you a practical guide to understanding your brain and keeping it in tip-top shape. It’s not just about avoiding issues like mental health problems or dementia; it's about thriving, feeling great, and being your best self at any age. I’ve structured the chapters into several parts, each addressing different aspects of brain health. Here’s a sneak peek:
Introduction to Brain Health:
Learn about the brain’s structure and function. You’ll look at the tools, tests, and gadgets used to monitor brain health, dig into disorders like ADHD and Alzheimer’s Disease, and explore quirky brain traits. Plus, I’ll break down the numbers on risk factors, genetics, and lifestyle choices, making it all easy to understand.
Charting Brain Health at Different Ages and Stages:
Here, you’ll examine how brain health evolves from childhood through adolescence to old age. I’ll discuss critical periods of brain development, the importance of nurturing healthy brains in children, and the challenges of aging gracefully.
Beyond Aging: Other Factors That Impact Brain Health:
This part covers the interplay of sex and gender in brain health, the impact of environmental and technological factors, and the unique challenges faced after brain injuries.
Keeping Your Brain Healthy:
Practical strategies for maintaining and enhancing brain health are covered here. I’ll look at the effects of nutrition, exercise, sleep, social engagement, and cognitive challenges on brain health.
Avoiding Brain Health Hazards:
Finally, you’ll learn how to buffer against toxic stress, rethink the use of drugs and alcohol, avoid metabolic diseases, and take charge of hearing loss.
Implementing the strategies in this book can boost your brain health, but some conditions need specialized care. If you’re even slightly worried, seek professional help. This book is a great resource, but it can’t replace personalized care. Start by talking to your family doctor or therapist about how this information can support your treatment. Remember, maintaining brain health is a life-long journey; seeking help is a strength, not a weakness.
Foolish Assumptions
I know brain science can seem intimidating. After all, I’ve spent my career watching the wide-eyed look people give me at dinner parties when I say what I do. (And no, I can’t read your mind!) But don’t worry, you don’t need to be a doctor, scientist, or even a “rocket surgeon” to get the hang of it. That’s because in writing this book, I made a few “foolish assumptions.”
First, I figured that you, like many others, are curious about your brain and eager to learn how to take care of it, even if the topic sometimes feels a bit overwhelming. But you’re probably not a complete newbie when it comes to taking an interest in health and wellbeing.
Second, I also guessed that you might not have much time on your hands. (Who does these days?) So I’ve made sure the information is clear and easy to digest.
I also guessed you’re not just another person looking for generic advice like “Drink plenty of water” or “Exercise regularly.” Whether you’re a busy professional juggling a million things, a student cramming for exams, a parent trying to give your kids the best start, a woman navigating midlife brain health challenges, a retiree looking to stay mentally agile, or someone managing a pre-existing condition, I’ve included something here for everyone.
Icons Used in This Book
Throughout this book, I use icons to highlight different types of information:
Practical advice or helpful insights.
Key points or important information to keep in mind.
More detailed scientific information that you can skip if you’re not interested.
Cautionary notes about potential risks to be aware of, or suggestions to seek professional medical advice.
Beyond the Book
In addition to the content within these pages, you can find additional resources online. Visit www.dummies.com and search for “Brain Health For Dummies Cheat Sheet” for extra tips and information.
Where to Go from Here
This book is designed so that you can jump into any chapter that interests you. You don’t need to read it from cover — cover although you’re welcome to do so! If you’re new to the topic, you might want to start with Part 1, where I cover the basics of the brain and brain health. If you’re interested in specific topics like childhood, adolescence, women’s health or hearing loss, diet, or exercise, feel free to skip ahead to those chapters. Each chapter stands on its own, allowing you to explore the content in any order you like.
Let’s start the next chapter in your brain health journey!
Part 1
An Introduction to Brain Health
IN THIS PART …
Explore brain health and discover how to thrive and perform at your best.
Understand your brain by learning about structure and how your nervous system influences how you think, feel, and behave.
Discover how scientists study brain health using advanced research and brain scans.
Learn about brain disorders ranging from neurodevelopmental to mental health conditions.
Calculate your brain health risks by understanding the impact of genetics and lifestyle.
Chapter 1
Embracing Brain Health Fundamentals
IN THIS CHAPTER
Knowing what a healthy brain means
Finding out about brain health models
Understanding how healthy brains perform best
Implementing some quick brain health tips
Having a healthy brain is about more than avoiding mental health problems, diseases, or dementia; it’s about thriving, feeling good, and performing at your best.
Some people think being healthy means not being sick, but the World Health Organization sees it differently. They say health is all about “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” This definition also means that health isn’t just about eating veggies or keeping cholesterol in check. It’s a more holistic view, nicely aligned with what we often call “well-being.”
Let’s be real: Some brain health conditions are out of our control, thanks to genetics or just plain bad luck. But don’t worry! You can do plenty of things to lower your risk or improve symptoms for many diagnoses, diseases, and quirks. Remember, being healthy isn’t just about dodging illness; it’s about making the most of your brain health, no matter your diagnosis.
Getting to Grips with the Biopsychosocial Model of Health
To truly understand brain health, you need to consider the bio-psycho-social model, which looks at the interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors.
This is not as boring as it sounds!
Taking a bio-psycho-social approach acknowledges that your health is influenced not only by your biology (such as genes, hormones, muscle strength, or gut health) but also by your psychological state (such as your stress levels and mental health) and your social environment (including relationships and community).
I like to put the brain in the middle of the bio-psycho-social model and call it the “Bottom-Up Outside-In Top-Down” model of the brain, shown in Figure 1-1.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FIGURE 1-1: The Bottom-Up Outside-In Top-Down model of the brain.
Bottom-Up
elements are the biological or physiological determinants of brain health, development, and aging. The elements include genes, hormones, the immune system, nutrition, exercise, sleep, and the constant streams of data about what’s happening inside your body, some of which you’re conscious of (such as a full bladder, sore back, or kicking baby), other factors you’re unaware of (such as hormone levels or gut pH).
Outside-In
elements are outside in the environment and make their way in via our senses (what you see, hear, smell, touch, and taste). Outside includes your social circle, the culture you grew up in, the built and natural environment, current circumstances, and external stressors.
Top-Down
elements include what you think of as your mind — your conscious thoughts, emotions, personality, language, expectations, and belief systems.
My version of the bio-psycho-social model may help you understand the complex and dynamic nature of brain health. And I remind you of it plenty of times in this book!
Understanding How a Healthy Brain Works
To maintain a healthy brain, it’s helpful to understand its main duties.
Your brain is responsible for perceiving the world, interpreting biological signals, guiding behavior, feeling emotions, thinking and reasoning, socializing with others, controlling movement, storing and retrieving memories, and maintaining homeostasis.
Here are a few ways a healthy brain performs when it’s in peak condition:
Perceiving your world
Your brain constantly processes sensory information from your environment. This includes everything you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell. The brain’s ability to perceive and interpret sensory data enables you to navigate and understand the world. This sensory processing is vital for learning, memory, and everyday functioning.
Interpreting biological signals
Your brain receives and interprets signals from within your body, such as hunger, thirst, and pain. These internal signals are crucial for maintaining homeostasis and responding to your body’s needs. Understanding these signals helps you manage your health and well-being more effectively.
Guiding your behavior
Your brain is the command center that guides your actions and decisions. It integrates information, plans, and executes behaviors to help you achieve your goals. Whether performing daily tasks, solving problems, or pursuing long-term objectives, your brain’s executive functions are at work.
Feeling emotional
Emotions are an integral part of your brain’s function. They influence your thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with others. Emotional health is about recognizing, understanding, and managing your feelings. A well-regulated emotional brain contributes to resilience, mental health, and overall well-being.
Thinking and reasoning
Cognitive functions such as thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving are essential for navigating life’s challenges. Your brain’s ability to process information, make decisions, and learn new skills is fundamental to personal and professional growth. Cognitive health ensures you can think clearly, remember information, and stay mentally agile.
Socializing and interacting with others
Humans are inherently social beings; our brains are wired for social interaction. Effective communication, empathy, and relationship-building are all functions of a healthy brain. Social connections provide emotional support, reduce stress, and enhance cognitive function. Maintaining a social network (IRL, not online!) is crucial for brain health.
Practical Tips to Get Started
Here are a few practical tips to start improving your brain health right away:
Connect:
Being loved by and connected to others protects against cognitive decline and poor mental health. Socializing is a cognitive workout, involving thinking, feeling, sensing, reasoning, and intuition. Social isolation is as bad for you as smoking, so make sure you stay connected! For more on this topic, check out
Chapter 15
.
Sleep:
Our biological rhythms are set by the sun. Skimping on sleep affects cognition, mood, and learning and increases the risk of depression and dementia. Healthy sleep consolidates memory, sparks creativity, and smooths emotional edges. Prioritize your sleep for better control over your thoughts and feelings. For lots more on sleep, see
Chapter 14
.
Nourish:
The secret to longevity isn’t in the fine details of diet but in avoiding processed foods. Eat less than you think you need — your brain works best when you’re slightly hungry and looking for food. For more on nutrition, see
Chapter 12
.
Move:
Your brain evolved for movement. Moving your body through the natural world by whatever means you enjoy most is the best exercise for your brain. So, get up and get going! (And read
Chapter 13
for more tips on exercising.)
Calm:
Not all stress is bad, but chronic or toxic stress, especially life events that are out of your control, can mess up your mind and brain health. I cover this topic in
Chapter 17
. The key to handling stress is improving your perceived ability to cope. Find peace in the chaos. Pay attention to your breath, which is a core component of many mindfulness practices — it reduces anxiety and depression and improves sleep.
Nature:
The world around you profoundly impacts your brain and behavior, as I discuss in
Chapter 11
. You probably already know how refreshing nature can be. You’re happier and healthier when surrounded by nature, parkland, or even indoor plants. So, get a bit wild and enjoy the greenery.
Challenge:
Kids love to run and play, while adults tend to take life more seriously. We don’t stop playing and learning because we get old; we get old because we stop playing and learning. Staying mentally engaged and challenging yourself reduces the risk of age-related cognitive decline and dementia. There’s more on this topic in
Chapter 16
.
Feel:
“We don’t laugh because we’re happy; we’re happy because we laugh.” Embrace the good that comes your way and spiral into positivity. Practicing and repeating positive experiences and emotions leads to better mental and physical health. So, laugh more and savor those moments!
Seek:
Purpose and meaningful work bring positive emotions such as love, compassion, and gratitude, which counteract stress. Living a meaningful life may seem like a strange addition to a neuroscience-based list, but having a purpose correlates with robust brain health, mental health, and even longevity.
Protect:
Hearing loss is more than an inconvenience; it can lead to social isolation depression and increase your risk of dementia. Don’t ignore it — check your hearing and use hearing aids if needed. See
Chapter 20
for more advice. And protect your brain from injuries, as I cover in
Chapter 10
. Wear helmets during risky activities and take steps to prevent falls. Show the youngsters you’re still nimble but do it safely!
Your Brain Health Journey Starts Here
This book is designed to be your companion on your brain health journey. Each chapter is packed with information and tips to help you understand and enhance your brain’s health.
You embark on a mesmerizing trip, zooming in to explore the microscopic world of neurons, neurotransmitters, and synapses. You zoom out to observe the bigger picture, examine brain scans, study population-wide trends, meet some of the researchers, and read about their work.
It may feel dizzying as you switch perspectives, but don’t worry — I’m here to provide a steady hand and guide you through every twist and turn of this incredible neuro-adventure!
Chapter 2
Getting to Know Your Brain and Nervous System
IN THIS CHAPTER
Exploring the brain’s architecture and neural pathways
Investigating neuron connections and synapse functions
Understanding chemical communication within the brain
Examining the brain’s capacity to adapt and change
Integrating how the brain’s systems work in unison
Welcome to the human brain! The place inside your head is more intricate and mysterious than even the most complex constellations strewn across the universe. And if you reach up and pat yourself on the head, just there beneath your fingertips lies the seat of all your thoughts, feelings, a lifetime of memories and dreams. It might seem scary to start this journey of understanding because, let’s face it, neuroscience sounds as complex as rocket surgery! But don’t worry — getting a sense of the basic structure of your brain and nervous system is the first step to keeping it healthy, and the journey starts in the most familiar place: your own head.
By the end of this chapter, you’ll have a basic understanding of how these parts work together to give you a complete picture of neural function that is beautiful and useful for maintaining the health of every brain (yours and those you love).
Navigating Nervous System Anatomy
When you think about brain health, you probably picture the brain alone. However, the nervous system is a network that includes the brain, the spinal cord, and numerous branching nerves reaching out to every organ and muscle, fingertip, and toe in your body.
Mapping the divisions of the nervous system
Neuroscientists typically divide the nervous system into two main divisions and multiple sub-divisions, which you can see in Figure 2-1.
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FIGURE 2-1: Divisions of the nervous system.
The central nervous system (CNS) is the body’s command center, consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the central integrator for sensory data from both the world around you and your body, directing behavior, cognitive processes, memory encoding, and the body’s homeostatic regulation. The spinal cord, encased within the spine’s vertebrae, is a superhighway for nerve signals between the brain and body, handling swift, reflexive responses.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which branches out from the CNS, is a vast network of nerves that carries signals to and from the body's organs, muscles, and sensory receptors.
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system, overseeing voluntary movements, and the autonomic nervous system, controlling involuntary functions such as heartbeat and digestion. The latter is split again into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which work together to gear the body up for action and promote relaxation. Also, part of this intricate network is the enteric nervous system, managing the gut independently yet in constant dialogue with the brain, a fascinating topic explored further in Chapter 12.
Digging into the brain’s structure and organization
The brain’s cortex is indeed deeply folded into ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci). The folds mean more neurons can be packed into the limited space inside your skull (much like scrunching up tissue paper to stuff into a box).
Mapping the brain’s cortex
If you take a bird’s eye view of the brain, you’ll see it is made of two hemispheres (the left and right hemispheres). Traditionally, the cortex is subdivided into four lobes per hemisphere: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital (see Figure 2-2).
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FIGURE 2-2: Lobes of the neocortex.
This convoluted walnut-like appearance varies from person to person but follows a general pattern that neuroanatomists have meticulously mapped. Each lobe has a few specific jobs that are listed here:
Frontal lobes,
positioned right behind your forehead, are the command center for personality and our ability to communicate and make decisions. The pre-frontal cortex (PFC), located at the very front, is critical for complex cognitive tasks and orchestrating social behavior.
Temporal lobes,
found beneath your temples, act as the brain’s auditory processors, allowing you to interpret sounds and language. Deep under the surface of the lobes, the hippocampus plays a crucial role in forming memories and processing emotions.
Parietal Lobes,
situated between the crown of your head and the tips of your ears, are the meeting place for sensory information, weaving together input from touch, taste, and smell, and are essential for understanding spatial orientation and navigation.
Occipital lobes,
located at the very back of your head just above the nape of your neck, serve as the brain’s visual processing center, translating signals from your eyes into the images you see.
Cerebellum,
tucked under the occipital lobes at the base of your skull, coordinates voluntary motions, maintaining posture and balance and modulating reflexes.
Going below the cortical surface
The wrinkled outer layer of the cortex is sometimes called grey matter, which gets its name from its color! Grey matter comprises brain cells such as neurons and glia (more about both shortly). The white matter sits just beneath the cortex, about one centimeter down, as shown in Figure 2-3. It’s called white matter because it appears white due to nerve fibers covered in a fatty substance called myelin, which insulates these fibers like the plastic coating on a cable.
White matter tracts serve as communication pathways between the cortical grey matter and deeper processing hubs or clusters of brain cells called subcortical nuclei, shown in Figure 2-4. Subcortical nuclei have various jobs including motor control, emotions, memory, and reward processing. Their interactions with the cortex are essential for complex behaviors and cognitive processes.
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FIGURE 2-3: Grey matter and white matter.
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FIGURE 2-4: Subcortical nuclei and brainstem.
Some of the more important subcortical nuclei and their main roles include:
Thalamus:
The brain’s grand central station for sensory information (excluding smell), channeling signals from the senses to the cortex for processing.
Basal ganglia:
Responsible for coordinating movement, storing automatic movements and habits, influencing decision-making, and emotional cognition.
Amygdala:
Central to processing emotions, it tags experiences with emotional significance, and is essential for storing emotional memories.
Hippocampus:
Plays a key role in forming memories and spatial navigation. It holds short-term memories and transfers them for long-term storage, often during sleep.
Hypothalamus:
A monitoring center for the body’s vital functions, including temperature control, metabolism, hunger, thirst, aggression, sexual arousal, circadian rhythms, and stress responses.
Nucleus accumbens:
Oversees the reward and pleasure circuits, facilitating learning through positive reinforcement.
Pituitary gland:
Known as the “master gland,” it regulates various hormones and coordinates the endocrine system's activities.
Pineal gland:
Governs sleep patterns by secreting the hormone melatonin in response to darkness.
Each of these structures is essential for the proper functioning of the brain and contributes to the complexity of human behavior and cognitive abilities.
The control center of basic life functions
Sitting at the base of the brain is the brainstem. The brainstem is fundamental to life’s bare necessities, housing the control centers for functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and reflexes for swallowing and vomiting. In the context of brain health, the following brainstem and related structures are particularly important:
Medulla oblongata:
Regulates vital functions, such as heart rate and respiration
Pons:
Contains nuclei that deal with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, and posture
Midbrain (Mesencephalon):
Plays a role with numerous inputs and outputs carrying information about vision, hearing, eye movement, and body movement
Reticular formation:
A network of neurons within the brainstem involved in regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions
Although the cortical lobes, subcortical nuclei, and brainstem subdivisions are responsible for different jobs, they all work together. Just as musicians and their instruments come together in a symphony orchestra to create a harmonious performance, the various parts of the brain work in concert to orchestrate the complex symphony of human thoughts, emotions, and actions.
Getting a sense of your senses
Your senses are your window to the world, allowing you to perceive and interact with the environment. Vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell work together to provide a complete picture of the world around you.
LOOKING AT VISION
Seeing is the dominant sense of humans, and 30 percent to 40 percent of your cerebral cortex is devoted to vision. This emphasis on sight is reflected in how you interact with the world around you — you likely rely on vision for everything from recognizing faces to driving your car to reading the words in this For Dummies book! The retina of your eye is actually an extension of your CNS and consists of specialized photoreceptor cells that turn light into electrical messages that the brain interprets. The messages travel as electrical signals along the optic nerve via the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. This pathway enables you to perceive shapes, colors, and movements, forming the images we see.
LISTENING IN TO HEARING
The ears and the auditory system decipher sound waves from the environment (including the annoying fly buzzing in the background and the sound of your baby crying). Specialized hearing receptors in your inner ear’s cochlea turn sound waves into electrical signals that the auditory nerve sends to the auditory cortex (via the thalamus) in the temporal lobe, enabling sound perception. Other sensory receptors inside your semicircular canals — three interconnected tubes adjacent to your cochlear — detect and transmit information about balance and spatial orientation.
GETTING A FEEL FOR TOUCH, SMELL, AND TASTE
Smell and taste are closely linked, with olfactory receptors in your nose detecting airborne chemicals, and taste buds on your tongue responding to dissolved substances, contributing to flavor, and warning you about environmental hazards (or the smell of roses!). Your somatosensory system mediates touch — a division of the PNS — where receptors in the skin respond to various stimuli such as pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain. These receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals transmitted via the PNS to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes.
Similar receptors for pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain also transmit signals from your internal organs signaling to your brain that you’re hungry, have a full bladder, or your heart is beating fast. The sense of “feelings” inside your body is known as interception.
Exploring the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is an extensive network that connects the CNS to the rest of the body. It acts as a messenger service, relaying sensory information from the body back to the brain for processing, and delivering motor control commands from the brain to various body parts. This system ensures that the body responds appropriately to internal and external environmental changes.
Sensory and motor control
Within the PNS, motor control is managed by motor neurons, which send signals from the brain to muscles, instructing them to contract or relax to move. Sensory input is handled by sensory neurons, which carry data from sensory receptors that detect stimuli, such as touch, temperature, pain, and body position, to the brain. Sensory receptors are found throughout your body, skin, internal organs, joints, and muscles.
Counting the cranial nerves
The cranial nerves are a set of twelve nerves that originate directly from the brain and provide motor and sensory innervation mainly to the structures within the head and neck. Even though the cranial nerves originate in CNS, their main function is to connect the brain to various parts of the body, including the head, neck, and visceral organs, which qualifies them as PNS components. Each cranial nerve is numbered and named for its main function, ranging from transmitting visual information from the eyes (optic nerve) to controlling facial muscles (facial nerve) and regulating internal organs (the very famous) vagus nerve.
Deciphering the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The ANS is the division of the PNS that regulates those body functions you don’t need to think about, including your heart rate, breathing, digestion, hormone release, blood vessel constriction, and so on. The ANS consists of two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which work in partnership dialing up and down to maintain your body’s homeostasis (see Figure 2-5).
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS),
known for its “fight or flight” response, is not exclusively triggered by imminent danger. Instead, it prepares the body for action. Actions range from ordinary tasks to thrilling events such as anticipating a Taylor Swift concert, preparing for a gold medal Olympic race, or just raising your blood pressure so you don’t faint when you stand up! By increasing your heart rate, releasing stores of energy, and directing blood to the muscles, your sympathetic nervous system prepares you for a wide range of challenges and opportunities, not just threats. This division also has a strong link to the endocrine system, notably via inputs to the adrenal glands, which secrete adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol when needed.
The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS)
is called the “rest and digest” system. It conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract. This division helps to promote a state of calmness, facilitating digestion and recovery.
The relationship between the SNS and PSNS is often likened to a seesaw, where an increase in activity by one system is balanced by a decrease from the other.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FIGURE 2-5: Divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline are known in the United States as epinephrine and norepinephrine, respectively. This difference is largely due to historical preferences and the influence of early 20th-century pharmacology.
Connecting Neurons and Synapses
I’d now like to take you on a new adventure. Beyond the visible landscape of the brain’s anatomy, into the microscopic world of neurons and glial cells, the intricate building blocks of neural architecture. In this section, you read about neurons and the precise connections — synapses — between them that give rise to your brain’s remarkable abilities.
Knowing about neurons
Neurons, just like other cells in your body, have a nucleus that holds their genetic blueprint and a cell body equipped with the necessary tools to synthesize proteins and molecules. (Figure 2-6 shows different types of neurons.) However, neurons are utterly distinct from other cells. They efficiently process and transmit information, gathering inputs from the surrounding environment, as well as from other cells and neurons, through a combination of electrical and chemical signals.
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FIGURE 2-6: Different types of neurons.
Here’s what an individual neuron typically consists of when viewed under a microscope:
Cell body:
The soma of a neuron contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and machinery for synthesizing neurotransmitters.
Dendrites:
Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.
Axons:
Long, slender vine-like projections that send electrical impulses from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.
Axon bulb or terminal:
The terminal or ending of an axon, where signals are sent to other neurons via the synapse.
Synapse:
The small gap, known as the synaptic cleft, between two neurons where the exchange of information occurs through neurotransmitters.
Communicating with electrical impulses: The action potential
Neurons converse in two languages: electrical and chemical. The electrical language of neurons is swift and precise and is achieved by the generation of action potentials, often called nerve impulses or spikes. Neurons generate action potentials by integrating inputs from other neurons or sensory receptors, such as light receptors in the retina. Neurons receive both excitatory (“on”) and inhibitory (“off”) inputs through their dendrites, which add and subtract in a computational-like process called synaptic integration. The sum of “ons” and “offs” determines whether a neuron will generate action potentials and modify its own baseline firing rate.
If an action potential is triggered, it travels in one direction from the soma down the length of the axon. This process can be compared to the way electricity flows through a cable. After it reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the neighboring neuron, transforming the signal into either an “on” or “off” state in the post-synaptic neuron.
Synapses: Miniature zones of communication
In their tens of billions, neurons interlink to construct your brain’s intricate architecture, allowing for all the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that define your everyday human experience. But interlinked neurons do not make direct contact with each other. Instead, there’s a minuscule gap between two neurons known as a synapse, which is shown in Figure 2-7.
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FIGURE 2-7: Neuron and synapse.
A synapse’s job is to change an electrical signal into a chemical signal. The chemical signal sends the message across the narrow synaptic split to the receiving neuron, turning it back into an electrical signal.
Here are the main components of a synapse:
Presynaptic terminal or axon bulb:
The terminal end of the
pre-synaptic neuron
that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse
Synaptic vesicles:
Tiny membrane bound packages within the presynaptic terminal that contain neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters:
Chemical substances that transmit signals across the synaptic cleft
Synaptic cleft:
The narrow gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
Postsynaptic membrane:
The part of the neuron that receives neurotransmitters
Receptors:
Protein structures on the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters
Various psychoactive substances, from the caffeine in your morning coffee to therapeutic antidepressants, interact with synapses. For example, caffeine blocks receptors for a neurotransmitter that makes you feel tired, keeping you alert, while antidepressants often increase the availability of mood-regulating neurotransmitters, thereby enhancing communication between neurons.
Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
The two major players are the neurotransmitters glutamate, which stimulates (turns “on”) neural activity, and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), which suppresses (turns “off”) neural activity. Here are some of the more well-known neurotransmitters and neuro-modulators:
Glutamate
is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter found throughout the brain, involved in almost all processing from sensation to perception to cognition. Despite being integral to about 90 percent of all neural synapses, its fame hasn’t quite caught up to its importance — making it perhaps the most crucial brain molecule you’ve never heard of!
GABA
is the brain’s main inhibitory (“off”) neurotransmitter, helping reduce neuronal excitability. It has an important role in brain development, especially during critical periods of learning.
Dopamine
is produced in several areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area. It plays key roles in learning, reward, motivation, and motor control. Dysregulation of dopamine levels is associated with Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
is found throughout the brain and body, including the nerve to muscle synapse (neuromuscular junction). Acetylcholine is involved in memory, attention, and muscle activation.
Noradrenaline,
a neuromodulator mainly synthesized in the locus coeruleus of the brainstem, regulates attention and arousal. It’s also made and released into the bloodstream to meet the demands of a threat or challenge.
Serotonin
is produced in the raphe nuclei located along the brainstem. It is crucial for mood regulation, appetite, and sleep.
Neuromodulators are less precise and fast-acting compared to neurotransmitters. Think about them like the volume, treble, and bass knobs on a radio, fine-tuning the intensity, depth, and quality of the sound. In this analogy, neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA represent the main sound or signal being broadcast — the essential music or voice. The neuromodulators adjust how loudly or softly the brain “hears” that signal, and with what clarity and nuance, shaping the overall experience.
Receptors: Receiving the signals
Receptors in the synapse are specialized proteins embedded in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that bind to neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron.
Think of the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors like a key fitting into a lock. Some keys open a door. For others it’s doing much more than just opening a gate — it’s like initiating a sequence of operations in a sophisticated device. Likewise, when a neuromodulator binds to a metabotropic receptor, it can be compared to a key that powers up a machine, setting off a cascade of actions.
Gluing neurons together with glia
Glia comprise half the brain’s cells and come in three main subtypes: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia, which you can see in Figure 2-8. The word glia is Greek for “glue,” because it was once assumed glia existed solely to “glue” neurons in place.
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FIGURE 2-8: Types of glia.
Astrocytes,
resembling tiny stars with numerous extensions. They form the blood-brain-barrier, delivering nutrients, managing waste, and keeping neurons healthy.
Microglia
are the brain’s dedicated immune surveillance guards. They roam the brain tissue, searching for signs of infection or damage.
Oligodendrocytes
are the brain’s electricians, wrapping around axons to insulate them with a substance called myelin.
Honing in on Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s remarkable ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. The term encompasses a range of changes at different levels within the brain, including (but not limited to):
Fluctuations in action potential tempo or frequency
Variations in synapse efficiency, adjustments in the number or type of post-synaptic receptors, and alterations in synapse structure or shape, and the formation and removal (pruning and tuning) of synapses
The birth of new neurons (neurogenesis) and the programmed death of neurons (neuronal apoptosis)
Growth and retraction of axons and dendrites
Changes in the volume of grey matter (neuron cell bodies and connections) and white matter (myelinated axon tracts)
Reorganization of cortical maps representing sensory or motor functions
Changes in network strength and connectivity between brain regions
Synapse plasticity
The real magic of neuroplasticity lies in the ability of synapses to undergo modifications — synaptic plasticity — which is key for your brain’s ability to learn and change by experience.
Imagine two neurons having a conversation. The loudness of their interaction represents synaptic efficacy — how well they communicate. This “volume” can vary; some neuronal messages are like whispers, and others are like shouts. Importantly, these communication levels are not fixed. They can change, increasing or decreasing in response to activity, which is the essence of synaptic plasticity.
Strengthening the connection over time is known as long-term potentiation (LTP), while weakening it is long-term depression (LTD). Both processes are crucial for encoding new information and adapting, making synaptic plasticity the foundation of learning and memory.
Stanford professor Carla Shatz coined the famous phrase to cleverly describe how synapses between neurons strengthen or “wire together” and prune away or “fail to link” depending on how much neural activity is present or absent. As she said, “Neurons that fire together, wire together. Neurons that are out of sync, fail to link.”
Synthesizing Knowledge: How It All Works Together
Because neuroscience is so complicated, it often takes a reductionist view, looking closely at its smallest parts, such as neurons and synapses, because trying to understand everything at once is too hard. It’s like doing a 1000-piece puzzle — you start with one piece and find where it fits before trying to combine the whole thing. Your brain’s real powers come from how your neurons form networks, how robustly they connect, and how efficiently they work. When it comes to complex brain functions such as “thinking,” researchers usually discuss three main brain networks:
The Executive Network
is your command center for high-level thinking, decision-making, and goal-oriented tasks. It’s like the CEO of the brain, directing attention, planning, and coordinating actions.
The Default Mode Network (DMN)
becomes active when you daydream, reflect on the past, or imagine the future. It’s involved in thinking about yourself, such as who you are, remembering your past, planning what you’ll do in the future, and imagining what other people might be thinking or feeling.
The Salience Network
scans for and flags important information. It decides what you should focus on and works closely with the executive network to direct your attention to the most important details in your environment.
Other networks that you may encounter as you explore brain science include:
The Attention Networks
two “streams” responsible for voluntary (dorsal stream) and involuntary (ventral stream) attention. They help you focus on tasks and respond to unexpected environmental stimuli.
The Emotional Network
processes emotions, forms memories, and helps you learn.
The Social Cognition Network
is engaged in understanding and navigating relationships and interactions with other people. How you understand social cues, empathize with other people’s emotions, and maintain social relationships.
Modern brain imaging and analysis technologies mean researchers can watch networks in action, track how they change over development or in response to specific experiences. As you embrace the complexity of these networks, you move a small step closer to understanding the brain. From the microscale changes in synapses to the macroscale reorganization of cortical maps and network connectivity, every alteration plays a critical role in shaping your unique human experience. The trick is keeping it healthy!
Chapter 3
Measuring and Monitoring Brain Health
IN THIS CHAPTER
Exploring and understanding brain science research methods
Meeting brain health professionals
Discovering tests for assessing brain health
Tracking your brain health
Knowing who and when to ask for help
This chapter throws open the doors to the marvels of neuroscience and medical technology and the brilliant minds dedicated to preserving the health of your most important organ. You peek inside the laboratories where research is done to discover the powerful tools scientists use, from brain scans to artificial intelligence. And you meet the people involved in every step from the precision of genetic testing to the insights of epidemiologists.
How Scientists Study the Brain
I’m a neuroscientist who met and fell in love with the brain in the early 1990s when my Psychology 101 professor recommended we read Oliver Sacks’ extraordinary book The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. In the book, neurologist Sacks told “inconceivably strange” tales, each one a case study of patients grappling with bewildering neurological disorders. People who navigated a world where everyday objects became unrecognizable — some even mistaking their wife for a hat (!) — while others lost parts of their memory or visual field, or possessed extraordinary talent in math or art. I was hooked. And I wasn’t alone; a whole generation of students cite this book as their career inspiration.
Fields of Brain Science and Brain Health
Scientists and healthcare professionals who work in brain health draw from diverse backgrounds and specialties. You may meet a PhD student who spends their time peering at neurons in a petri dish, a neurologist working with elderly stroke patients, a psychologist who helps children with anxiety or a data scientist using machine learning to crunch information gathered from thousands of brain scans.
This list shows the wide range of disciplines and professions with a vested interest in brain science and brain health:
Neuroscience
encompasses subfields such as behavioral, molecular, sensory and developmental neuroscience, which study how the brain affects behavior, the role of genes and proteins in the brain, and how the brain perceives the outside world, and develops and matures over time.
Neuroimaging and neurophysiology professionals
use MRI, CT scans, and EEG to map brain structure and activity, while neurophysiologists focus on the electrical and chemical messaging within the brain.
Cognitive neuroscientists and specialists
explore how mental processes such as thinking and memory are represented in the brain. They perform cognitive testing in settings such as memory clinics to diagnose and monitor conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease or ADHD.
Clinical neurology and psychiatry:
Neurologists diagnose and treat neurological disorders, whereas psychiatrists focus on mental health disorders. Both work on the interplay between physical brain changes and mental health symptoms.
Neurosurgeons
perform surgical procedures on the brain, spine, and nerves to treat a variety of conditions ranging from traumatic injuries to congenital anomalies and tumors. They are integral to managing conditions that require anatomical correction or intervention, playing a pivotal role in treating neurological disorders.
Psychologists
address mental health with various specialties, including clinical psychology for therapy, and pediatric psychology for childhood conditions such as ADHD, using cognitive tests and interventions to improve mental well-being.
Public health specialists and epidemiologists
examine the incidence and distribution of brain health issues in populations to inform prevention and control strategies at a community or population level.
Neuropharmacologists
study how medications affect the nervous system and behavior, contributing to developing new treatments for neurological and psychiatric conditions.
Computational neuroscience
is a field that creates mathematical models and simulations of brain function to analyze and interpret complex brain data. This field includes AI, machine learning, and brain imaging analysis.
Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology
These scientists study how the endocrine and immune systems interact with the brain, affecting overall health and behavior.
Rehabilitation professionals
work to restore lost brain functions and help patients recover from brain injuries or illnesses through targeted therapies.
Developmental and educational neuroscience specialists
