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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Your updated and revised guide to British politics So, you want to be knowledgeable about British politics but don't know where to start? You've come to the right place! British Politics For Dummies is your essential guide to understanding even the trickiest questions surrounding politics in the UK. In no time, you'll have the confidence to discuss the ins and outs of past and present elections, political leaders, parties and ideologies. Packed with understandable information on the origins, history and structure of the UK parliamentary system, British Politics For Dummies offers a fascinating glimpse into the rollercoaster world of politics. Explaining everything from key political ideologies and the spread of democracy to the current election process and the differences between political parties, this hands-on, friendly guide is an ideal companion to British politics and elections. * Includes expanded coverage of coalition governments, devolution and independence efforts * Provides updated information on UKIP and Britain's place in Europe * Serves as a helpful guide to elections and British political parties--electoral systems, voting behaviour and trends and the role of pressure groups and the media * Offers a fascinating examination of British politics on the world stage Whether you want to get to grips with British politics and government or build your knowledge beyond the basics, this updated edition of British Politics For Dummies is the place to start.
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British Politics For Dummies®, 2nd Edition
Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, www.wiley.com
This edition first published 2015
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British Politics For Dummies®, 2nd Edition
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Table of Contents
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond the book
Where to Go from Here
Part I: Getting Started with British Politics
Chapter 1: Taking in the Political Universe
Understanding the Difference between Local and National Politics
Splitting the Difference: The Devolved Parliament and Assemblies
Evolving to Democracy: A Very British Story
Assessing the Health of British Democracy
Paying Homage to the ‘Mother of Parliaments’
Introducing the Players in the British Political System
Gazing at the political summit: The central role of the prime minister
Declining importance of the MP
Checking the power of the politicians: The judiciary
Mixing in the monarch
Coming under Greater Scrutiny: Politics in the Media
Britain: Making Its Way in the European Union
Looking Further Afield: The UK and the Wider World
Chapter 2: Understanding Why Politics and Politicians are Impotant
Looking at Different Types of Authority
Deciphering the Ultimate Purpose of Politics
Gauging the Role of Politicians
Making the law
Changing the constitution and the way government works
Ensuring a more stable state
Galvanising the country in times of crisis
Listening to constituents
Working for the good of the country
Tackling the Big Issues: Current Challenges Facing Politicians
Keeping up living standards – it’s the economy, stupid!
Saving the planet
Bringing an end to world poverty
Fighting terrorism
Reckoning with the decline of Western dominance
Becoming Active in Politics
Playing your part
Taking up the paint brush: Political social action
Chapter 3: Looking at Participatory Democracy
Understanding What Qualifies as a Democracy
Starting with Athenian direct democracy
Getting into representative democracy
Homing in on British Democracy
Putting the monarchy in its place
Expanding the franchise
Throwing digital democracy into the mix
Understanding the Rights that Come with British Citizenship
Evaluating the Pros and Cons of UK Democracy
Looking at the strengths
Recognising the weaknesses
Being a Citizen
Getting involved
Gauging voter apathy
Chapter 4: Examining Political Ideologies
Understanding What an Ideology Is
Moderating ideologies: The British way
Liberalising the world: The march of the Western democratic model
Focusing on Freedom with Liberalism
Joining Together for the Greater Good: Socialism in the UK
Focusing on the successes of socialism
Rebranding socialism: New Labour
Stirring things up: Revolutionary socialism
Looking far left: Marxism and communism
Keeping with Tradition: Conservatism
Uniting under one nation conservatism
Reforming with a small ‘r’
Changing conservatism: The Thatcher revolution
Modernising the Conservatives
Examining Alternative Politics
Focusing on the far right: Fascism
Looking into the darkness: Totalitarian regimes
Looking to the heavens: Theocracy
Pulling everything apart: Anarchism
Releasing the bonds: Feminism
Saving the planet: Environmentalism
Understanding Why the UK Doesn’t Do Extremism
Chapter 5: Forming the British Political State
Getting to Grips with the Normans: From Conquest to Magna Carta
Doing the Splits: Church and State Clash
Gearing Up for Revolution: Parliament Takes on the King and Wins
Working hand in hand
Chafing under Charles I and enduring Cromwell
Reaping the benefits of the Glorious Revolution
Throwing Political Parties into the Mix
Ending the Power of the Lords
Expanding the Franchise: Democracy Arrives in Britain
Earning a stake
Recognising the rights of women
Switching Parties: The Ebb and Flow of Party Influence
Making a play for power: The Labour Party is born and thrives
Playing musical chairs: Labour and the Tories swap power
Leaving out the Lib Dems
Concentrating Power in the Hands of the Prime Minister
Breaking Up the Union: Scotland and Wales to Go It Alone?
Encroaching on Britain’s Turf: The European Union
Part II: Elections and Britain’s Parties
Chapter 6: Counting the Votes: Differing Electoral Systems
Listing the Big UK Elections
Coming Up On the Rails: The First-Past-the-Post System
Looking at the advantages
Taking in the disadvantages
Securing Over 50 Per Cent of the Vote: Majority Electoral Systems
Laying bare the two-ballot system
Playing the alternative vote system card
Throwing in the supplementary vote system
Perusing Proportional Representation
Refining PR: Single transferable vote
Varying PR: Candidate list system
Dividing in the D’Hondt method
Looking North and West to the Additional Member System
Chapter 7: Voting Behaviour and Trends
Looking at Who Can and Can’t Vote
Understanding Voter Turnout
Counting declining voter turnout
Observing the reduction in local democracy
Reversing the decline in voter turnout
Considering What Sways Voters
Taking in the big issues
Throwing personality into the mix: The leadership wild card
Looking at the voters themselves
Enticing Voters to Vote: Party Strategies
Appealing to the core vote
Broadening party appeal
Gazing at Election Campaigning
Glancing at the Effects of Media Bias
Chapter 8: Homing in on Political Parties
Understanding Political Parties and How They Operate
Recognising the role of the major UK parties
Forming party policy: The approach of the Conservatives, Labour and the Lib Dems
Choosing and following the leader – and other senior party figures
Whipping up discipline: Keeping party members on the same page
Looking at the role of the whips
Living it up at party conferences
Forgoing party to form a national government
Looking at the Benefits of the Party System
Exploring the Tories
Re-inventing the Tories: Cameron’s conservatism
Tapping natural Tory supporters
Looking at the Labour Party
Forming the Labour Party
Gauging Labour’s followers
Breaking with the unions: Hard to do
Taking in the Lib Dems
Understanding the balance of power
Supporting proportional representation
Looking at Lib Dem supporters
Tearing up the Establishment: The Rise of UKIP
Focusing on the Minor Parties
Taking a Look at the Nationalists: SNP and Plaid Cymru
Dipping into Northern Irish Politics
Chapter 9: Piling on the Pressure Groups
Taking in the Universe of Pressure Groups
Sorting out sectional pressure groups
Seeing to cause-related groups
Going Inside, Outside, Up and Down with Pressure Groups
Differentiating between inside and outside
Watching the political ups and downs of pressure groups
Looking at How Pressure Groups Exert Influence
Getting the ear of ministers and civil servants
Focusing on backbench MPs
Courting public opinion
Joining the throng at party conferences
Taking it to the streets: Direct action
Appealing over the heads of politicians
Placing Pressure Groups in the System
Looking at the downsides of pressure groups
Taking in the plus points of pressure groups
Identifying the UK’s Big Pressure Groups
Bossing for business
Charting the influence of charities
Advocating human rights
Pulling for the planet
Promoting professions
Working for the workers
Working on a Bigger Stage: Pressure Groups and the EU
Pushing the Intellectual Envelope: Think Tanks
Chapter 10: Scrutinising Politics and the Media
Exposing an Uneasy Relationship: Politics and the Media
Wheeling out the sound bite
Being media savvy: Special advisers
Reading the UK’s Newspapers
Detecting a waning influence
–
or not?
Taking in the qualities
Meeting the mid-markets
Checking out the red-tops
Digging into the grass roots: Regional newspapers
Balancing Politics at the BBC
Offering News around the Clock
Looking at the Media in an Election Campaign
Testing the Temperature: Opinion Polling
Chapter 11: Taking Politics to the Masses: Social Media
Understanding that Politics Is Now Mobile
Climbing aboard the social media express
Reaching out: How politicians can bypass mainstream media
Treading carefully: the political gaffe
Putting Your Thoughts in Writing: Political Blogging
Talking ’bout a Revolution: Twitter and Street Protest
Part III: The Ins and Outs of Parliament
Chapter 12: Examining Britain’s Constitution
Focusing on Why Countries Need a Constitution
Exploring Differing Types of Constitution
Recording the differences between written and unwritten constitutions
Taking in unitary and federal constitutions
Changing the rules: Rigid and flexible constitutions
Celebrating Britain’s Constitution
Granting parliamentary sovereignty
Limiting parliamentary sovereignty
Quantifying the success of the UK’s constitution
Moving towards a written constitution
Crowning the Constitution: The Monarchy
Stirring Things Up: Republicanism
Chapter 13: Britain’s Parliamentary Democracy
Honouring the Mother of Parliaments
Taking It to the Top: The House of Commons
Aiming for a seat in parliament
Looking at the job of MPs
Recognising that the House of Commons holds the power
Lording It Up: The Job of Peers
Inherited power: Hereditary peers
Nominating peers for life
Introducing Bills
Explaining government bills
Introducing private members’ bills
Getting Bills Passed: The Process
Detailing the passage of bills
Talking it over: Debating
Icing the legislative cake: Receiving royal assent
Poring Over the Detail: Parliamentary Committees
Looking at standing committees
Examining select committees
Keeping Order: The Role of the Speaker
Tying Up the Loose Ends: The Other Parliamentary Players
Climbing the Greasy Pole to the Top Jobs in Government
Chapter 14: Gazing at the Summit: The PM and Cabinet
Going Straight to the Top: The Prime Minister
Getting to be the PM
Gauging whether the PM is really ‘first among equals’
Limiting the power of the PM
Concentrating on the Cabinet
Taking in the great offices of state
Observing the big beasts of the cabinet jungle
Looking down the political food chain to other ministerial posts
Assuming Cabinet Responsibilities
Explaining collective cabinet responsibility
Taking in individual responsibility
Working Behind the Scenes: Cabinet Committees
Shaking Up the Cabinet
Falling on their sword: Ministerial resignations
Shifting the seats: Cabinet reshuffles
Whispering in the PM’s Ear: Special Advisers
Turning to the Opposition: The Shadow Cabinet
Chapter 15: Assessing Ministers and Civil Servants
Examining What Government Departments Do
Ranking the Departmental Hierarchy
Oiling the Wheels of Government: The Civil Service
Becoming a civil servant and doing the job
Behaving as a civil servant
Climbing the Ranks to the Senior Civil Service
Running the day-to-day: The permanent under-secretary of state
Serving as a link: The cabinet secretary
Evaluating the Good and Bad Points of the UK Civil Service
Reforming the Civil Service
Ignoring the Ibbs Report
Reducing head count: The Gershon Review
Calling the civil service to account
Chapter 16: Taking in the Courts and Judiciary
Explaining the UK’s Three Legal Systems
Recognising the Difference between Civil and Criminal Law
Committing crimes against the state
Suing your neighbours in civil court
Examining the Basic Rights of the British Citizen
Focusing on the Criminal Courts of England and Wales
Starting off in a magistrates’ court
Advancing to a crown court
Making your way to the Court of Appeal
Hearing Civil Cases in England and Wales
Gazing at the civil law process
Appealing civil cases
Taking in the Scottish Court System
Considering the Courts in Northern Ireland
Introducing the UK Supreme Court
Looking at the Role of the Judge
Glancing at Courts and the Constitution
Throwing the European Union into the Mix
Fighting the Good Fight: Courts and Civil Liberties
Chapter 17: Laying Bare Local Government and Devolution
Understanding that All Politics Is Local
Looking at what local government does
Funding local government
Taking in the structure of local government in England
Heading north: Scottish local government
Heading west: Wales and Northern Ireland
Re-energising local government
Policing the police: The advent of police and crime commissioners
Granting Power from the Centre – Devolution
Chapter 18: Focusing on Devolution and the Independence Debate
Looking at the United Kingdom
Considering each member of the union
Forming the United Kingdom
Understanding the success of the union
Breaking down of the union?
Devolution Defined: Granting Power from the Centre
Deciding to devolve
Focusing on the Scottish parliament
Welcoming in the Welsh Assembly
Priming the peace process: The Northern Ireland Assembly
Paying for it all: The Barnett Formula
Treading the Path to Scottish Independence
Deciding to hold a referendum
Voting for ‘Better Together’ rather than ‘Yes’
Part IV: Politics Worldwide
Chapter 19: Understanding Britain’s Place in the World
Declining Fortunes: From Empire to the Middle Ranks
Forging a New Role in Europe
Assessing the Special Relationship with the United States
Looking Further Afield to the Rise of China
Leading the Commonwealth of Nations
Ruling the Waves: British Overseas Territories
Playing the Role of World Police Officer
Sitting at the Top Table: The UN Security Council
Chapter 20: Taking In the International Stage
Starting at the Top: The United Nations
Delving into how the UN works
Taking in UN agencies
Bringing Out the Big Guns: The Role of the G8 and the G20
Starting small with the G8
Changing times: G8 morphing into G20
Looking at the Regional Trading Blocs
Factoring in the World Trade Organisation
Playing the Power Game: China Taking Over from the United States
Providing the Military Might: NATO
Chapter 21: Expanding Horizons: Europe and the EU
Understanding the EU and How It Works
Checking the goals of the EU
Examining EU institutions
Looking at law-making and the legal system
Forming Relationships Within and Outside the EU
Looming giant: Russia on the doorstep
Testing question: Is Turkey really part of Europe?
Bringing peace to the Balkans
Pigging out: Financial crisis causes fault lines in EU
Understanding Britain’s thorny relationship with the EU
Putting Pen to Paper: Major European Treaties
Holding the Purse Strings: EU Budgets
Accounting for the Common Agricultural Policy
Getting a rebate
Chapter 22: Leading the Free World: US Politics
Understanding US Influence in the Wider World and in the UK
Being buddies: The US–UK special relationship
Growing apart? Recent problems with the special relationship
Looking at the US System of Government
Building the houses of Congress
Establishing the presidency
Judging disputes: The US Supreme Court
Passing a Bill into Law
Throwing Political Parties into the Mix
Voting with the Democrats
Siding with the Republicans
Rallying the religious right
Linking up: UK and US political parties
Part V: The Part of Tens
Chapter 23: Ten Great Prime Ministers
Our Finest Hour: Winston Churchill (1940–45 and 1951–55)
The Welsh Wizard: David Lloyd George (1916–22)
The Iron Lady: Margaret Thatcher (1979–90)
The Trailblazer: Robert Walpole (1721–42)
The Great Reformer: Clement Attlee (1945–51)
The First Spin Doctor: Benjamin Disraeli (1868 and 1874–80)
The Grand Old Man: William Gladstone (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886 and 1892–94)
Shaking Things Up: Robert Peel (1834–35 and 1841–46)
The Second Master of Spin: Tony Blair (1997–2007)
Wiser than His Years: William Pitt the Younger (1783–1801 and 1804–06)
Chapter 24: Ten Major Political Scandals
A Very British Sex Scandal: John Profumo
From Moats to Maltesers: The MPs’ Expenses Scandal
Running Out of Control: The Westland Affair
Scandal of Mass Destruction: The David Kelly Affair
Roll Up, Roll Up: How Much for This Knighthood?
How the Mighty Fall: Jonathan Aitken and Jeffrey Archer
Murder Plot? The Jeremy Thorpe Affair
The Fall of a President: Watergate
More Sordid Scandal Stateside: The Monica Lewinsky Affair
Murder in the Orient: The Neil Heywood Affair
Chapter 25: Ten Political Events That Shaped the Modern World
Hell on Earth: The Second World War
Breaking Down the Barriers: Nixon and China
Ending Communism in Europe: The Fall of the Berlin Wall
Coming Together: The March of the European Union
Pulling Aside the Bamboo Curtain: China’s March to Superpower Status
Long Wait for Freedom: The Release of Nelson Mandela
Terror from the Skies: 9/11
Bringing Down a Dictator: War in Iraq
Gazing Over the Brink: The Great Credit Crunch
Crazy for You: Obama-Mania
Chapter 26: Ten Political Trends for the Future
Broadening Democracy: Internet Voting
Rising Power: Indian Modernisation
Loosening the Shackles: Chinese Democracy
Securing Natural Resources: Chinese Control of Africa
Out with the Old: Replacing the Dollar
Constructing a Super-State: Expanding the European Union
World Going Dry: Shortages of Water
Black Gold: Scrambling for Oil
Risking Our Future: Climate Change
Upping Sticks: Global Population Moves
About the Author
Cheat Sheet
More Dummies Products
Guide
Table of Contents
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Introduction
Welcome to the fascinating world of British politics. Whether you’re a student wanting to boost your chances of getting that A grade or just want the inside track on the big issues that face not just the UK but also the wider world, this is the book for you.
I wrote this book for newcomers and students alike so that you can have a one-stop shop to get to know everything you need to know without feeling overwhelmed or intimidated. I explain how Britain became the modern liberal democracy it is today. Thanks to this book, the next time you hear someone say at a dinner table, on the bus or down the pub that ‘politics is all the same’, you’ll be able to tell them why they’re wrong, and why politics and politicians make a fundamental difference to our lives.
About This Book
To make your reading experience a little easier, British Politics For Dummies follows certain rules. For example, every time I use a new term or important phrase, I italicise and explain it. The key word or term in a bulleted list is in bold so that it stands out. Occasionally, you see text in grey boxes. These sidebars are full of what I consider interesting information, but they’re not essential to understanding the topic at hand, so you can read them or not as you choose. I explain everything very clearly and try to avoid political gobbledygook.
When reading a discussion of a particular aspect of politics in one chapter, I refer to another chapter when the information there ties into the issue I’m discussing. You can turn immediately to that chapter or just tuck the number away in your memory and decide to read it next.
Foolish Assumptions
Don’t feel intimidated if you know nothing about politics. This book will bring you up to speed, fast. Politics can be complex, and even some seasoned commentators have difficulty grasping some aspects. But before long – after reading this book – you’re going to be transformed into a nailed-on political expert.
Icons Used in This Book
To help you navigate through this book, keep an eye out for the icons – the little pictures that sit in the margin. They guide you to particular types of information. The icons in this book mean the following things:
This icon is unique to this book. Every so often I look in depth at a great politician or quirky character from past or present. Politics is full of interesting people!
Politics is chock-full of jargon. Fortunately, this book’s mission is to bust it. Whenever you see this icon, you find an explanation of political terms that help you understand just what’s going on in the game.
This icon is also unique to this book and you won’t see it often. It draws your attention to some of the behind-the-scenes stuff that goes on in the cut and thrust of daily politics. Here’s the info the media managers in the big political parties don’t want you to know!
Paragraphs with this icon attached contain information that’s especially useful to remember.
This icon indicates a technical discussion is underway. You can skip this stuff if you want to, because it isn’t necessary for an understanding of the basics. If you read it, though, you can boost your political know-how.
Beyond the book
Your dummies reading experience doesn’t stop here – between the covers of this book or when it flashes up 100 per cent on your digital e-reader. There is a whole extra layer of free online content to entertain and educate you, just a click of the mouse or a touch of a tablet away. Here is a brief description of this treasure trove of free digital content and crucially where it’s hidden, just for you to discover.
Cheat sheet This is bite size text which lets you know some of the key points contained in British Politics For Dummies but in an ultra-condensed form. Want to impress your friends in the run-up to an election with your political knowhow or simply want to grasp one or two key facts? This cheat sheet is there to give you the basics. All dummies books have a cheat sheet and they allow readers to quickly refer to a fact without having to carry the book around with you or power up the e-reader. Cheat Sheets are fast, fun and full of useful info and you can find them at www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/britishpolitics.Dummies.com online articles. There is information that I think it is really useful for you to have but is not contained in this book. I may be looking to expand on a particular point or explain something in ever more detail. Perhaps something has happened very recently in British politics and I want to let you know more. If you go to www.dummies.com/extras/britishpolitics) you will find several articles penned by me which I hope will add to your knowhow and enjoyment. For instance, you will find an extra Part of Tens just for you. In it I turn the ten great British Prime Minister theme on its head and name and shame those who I think are the ten worst British PMs in history – and believe me there were some real stinkers. In addition, there is a special article on the rise of the UK Independence party (UKIP) and what it means for the present and future of British politics. I have also reflected on the result of the momentous Scottish independence referendum and I let you know why I think the result went the way it did. Finally, I look at the Presidency of Barack Obama, who assumed office riding a tide of international goodwill. I ask whether or not the first US black president has been a success or failure? So there’s plenty of bonus content to be getting along with – check it out!Where to Go from Here
Don’t be restricted by the order in which the contents of this book appear. This book is designed to be read in several ways. It’s a reference book, so you don’t have to read the chapters in chronological order, from front to back. Of course, if you want to, you can read it from cover to cover like a novel – and there are quite a few heroes and heroines in politics. Alternatively, you can pick a topic that you’re doing at school or university or you just want to know much more about and read up on it. Or you can just flip through this book, and read whatever catches your interest.
But my favourite way of reading this book – and my editor has made sure I’ve read it a few times now – is to go to Part I outlining the basics of how politics works and then to the sections which interest you or are relevant to your studies. Whatever draws you to politics, British Politics For Dummies has something for you.
What does all the jargon mean? What on earth is a spin doctor? (Chapter 7 explains.)Why is Britain a democracy and not a dictatorship? (Check out Chapter 5.)Who is Black Rod and what on earth does he do? (Turn to Chapter 13.)What does all the jargon mean? What on earth is a spin doctor? (Chapter 10 explains.)What’s so important about the United Nations Security Council? (Head to Chapter 20.)In short, it’s up to you how you get to know the world of politics!
Part I
Getting Started with British Politics
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In this part …
Find out all the things you always wanted to know about British Politics.Discover what is so special about democracy and why politicians are considered to be so important.Chapter 1
Taking in the Political Universe
In This Chapter
Differentiating between local and national politics
Building a very British democracy
Legislating within the parliament
Gauging the strength of the democracy
Scrutinising politicians and the media
Defining Britain’s place in the world
Those who are too smart to engage in politics are punished by being governed by those who are dumber.
– Plato, Greek philosopher
Plato’s quote highlights one – very cynical – way of looking at the wacky (and not so wacky) world of politics. But whatever your view of politics (or, for that matter, politicians), one thing’s for sure: the laws made by politicians have a direct impact on your life.
In this chapter I take a speed-of-light trip around the political universe, through the town hall, the newspaper rooms, Buckingham Palace and the UK Houses of Parliament, to the outer reaches of big international bodies such as the European Union and United Nations.
Time to set out on a political journey of discovery!
Understanding the Difference between Local and National Politics
How many politicians do you think you can name? Five, ten, twenty? Well, there are literally thousands of politicians in the UK and many times that number around the globe. The fact that you and I may only be able to name a handful isn’t because we’re not very bright; it’s because most of the politicians out there have a very low profile in the public eye. They may be big figures in their local community but they don’t make any sort of splash on the national stage.
You can divide politicians into local and national ones. Local politicians get to decide what goes on in a particular village, town or city, whereas national politicians have a say in the laws that govern all our lives. Politicians who’re elected to the House of Commons and the European Parliament are national ones because they make laws that apply to the whole country, not just to a particular village, town or city.
Here are some of the other key differences between local and national politicians:
National politicians receive a salary from the state, whereas local politicians are volunteers with normal lives and everyday jobs.The national media, such as national newspapers and television/radio networks, covers the actions of national politicians, whereas local politicians gain coverage in local newspapers and on local radio and regional television news.The UK is a highly centralised state, which means that the national politicians have lots of power, including the main tax-raising powers, whereas local politicians have to do roughly what the central government says and have much smaller tax-raising powers.The overwhelming majority of politicians in the UK are local councillors and parish councillors, often elected by a few hundred or thousand voters.
An election for membership of the House of Commons is called a general election, a European parliamentary election is called an election to the European Parliament and a local council election is called – guess what? – a local election.
Usually, voter turnout (the percentage of eligible voters actually going to the polls to vote) is much higher for general elections than for local or European elections. General elections tend to get much greater media coverage and voters are more interested in who wins. (Chapter 7 talks about the other factors influencing voter turnout.)
Splitting the Difference: The Devolved Parliament and Assemblies
The British are noted around the globe for a few things: producing great rock music, drinking too much (but let’s not put that one on the tourist brochures!), writing great literature, creating great art and providing a world centre for financial services. But ask any foreigner to name a word that sums up Britain and the British, and ‘tradition’ would come fairly high up the list. Put simply, we’re not supposed to do change.
But over the past decade we’ve gone in for political change in a big way. The Labour government of Tony Blair in 1999 set up the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies.
The big idea was to move some power away from the government in Westminster and hand it to the peoples – through an elected parliament or assembly – in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This process was called devolution and some say it’s the biggest constitutional change in the UK for 100 years.
Why introduce devolution? Well, the Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish have different identities and traditions, and many in these parts of the UK felt that these had been swamped over many hundreds of years by the more populous English.
Every four years the people of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland get to elect who they want to sit in their own parliament or assembly. These representatives then make the laws in the policy areas that have been devolved from the UK parliament; for example, health care, education or the environment. Plans are afoot to increase the number of powers devolved to the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies. (For a full rundown of which parliament or assembly does what, check out Chapter 17.)
Why do the Scottish have a parliament, while the Welsh and Northern Irish have an assembly? Well, this situation reflects the number of devolved powers that each institution has. A parliament is considered a more important and august body than an assembly. So the Scottish, who have more devolved powers than the Welsh and Northern Irish, thus have a parliament rather than an assembly.
In Wales and Scotland, nationalist movements want either greater autonomy from the UK or full-blown independence. This nationalism is most developed in Scotland. The Scottish National Party became the governing party and used that position to call a referendum on whether Scotland should be independent. The referendum was held in September 2014, with the Scottish people voting to stay within the UK. The result was very close, with 45% of votes cast in favour of full independence. In the final few days of the campaign the leaders of the UK’s three main political parties – Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat – promised the Scottish people even greater devolution (in other words more power for the Scottish parliament) should they choose to remain in the UK. This promise won the day and now politicians in Westminster are looking at ways of delivering it. See Chapter 18 for full details on the great independence debate.
Evolving to Democracy: A Very British Story
Each democratic nation has trodden its very own path to the political system it has today. The US democracy was born when rebels beat the British in the American Revolution, and the French democracy can trace its roots back to the deposition and execution of Louis XVI in 1793 and the revolution that followed.
The UK too has had its fair share of strife – the odd bloody civil war – and has even chopped one king’s head off (the singularly useless Charles I). But instead of one cataclysmic event, such as a war or revolution, leading to democracy, the UK has progressed more gradually to the modern liberal democratic society we have today. In fact, the UK is one of only a handful of countries to get rid of its monarch (between 1649 and 1660) and then decide to reinstate it.
Put simply, the British prefer political evolution to revolution, and the web of government is built up through a combination of laws, traditions and customs. For example, in legal terms the monarchy is hugely important in the British state; in fact, the government itself is there to serve the monarch. However, through custom and tradition the monarch actually plays a very minor role in the government of the country. Much of the power is vested in the hands of the prime minister (PM) and the cabinet.
The UK – unlike the US, for instance – doesn’t have a written constitution. Instead, the government works through laws, traditions and customs. This situation is referred to as the UK’s unwritten constitution, which I discuss in Chapter 5.
An unwritten constitution may sound weak and impracticable, but the UK system has stood the test of time. In fact, the UK was one of the few major European countries not to have seen its democracy suppressed by a dictatorship during the 20th century.
Assessing the Health of British Democracy
Some experts suggest that Britons are becoming less interested in politics and the following evidence does seem to bear that analysis out:
Falling voter turnout: At election time fewer and fewer people are turning out to exercise their democratic right to vote.Falling party membership: The three nationwide major political parties – Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat (and by major I mean these parties always have Members of Parliament elected) – have seen their membership numbers plummet over the past decade. Politicians who stand as party candidates rely on help from party members but fewer members exist to offer help.However, evidence suggests that people aren’t bored with politics in itself; just with politicians and the main political parties. Some say that media training and the whips’ control over what MPs say in public have made politicians increasingly bland. Smaller political parties like the Green Party and the UK Independence Party (UKIP) have done much better at election time in recent years, however, while pressure groups and trade unions continue to enjoy high levels of membership.
The expenses scandal of 2009 was a key factor in undermining public confidence in politics and politicians. A host of MPs had claimed for expenses they shouldn’t have and worked the system for all they could possibly get. An enormous public furore resulted, which led to scores of MPs deciding to stand down as candidates for the next general election. (Chapter 24 covers this major political scandal and others to boot.)
Some academics suggest that the way to reverse low voter turnout is to make it easier to vote. They probably have a point. At present, electors usually have to attend a polling station in person in order to cast their ballot, and elections are generally held on a work day. Allowing more postal or online ballots would make voting easier and hopefully encourage more people to do so. Making not voting illegal is another possible solution to low turnout. In Australia, for instance, people who don’t vote are fined. (Chapter 7 has more on reversing falling voter turnout.)
Glancing at the alternatives to democracy
Sitting in a strong democratic country like the UK, it’s easy to think that democracy is a given around the globe. Surely, everyone must see how well it works and can’t live without the freedom of speech and personal liberty, the two hallmarks of democracy.
But much of the population of the world doesn’t live in a democratic state. In fact, a large number live under regimes where to be an opponent of the government is to risk liberty and even life and limb.
China, for example, is the world’s most populous nation – roughly one in four people on the planet are Chinese – yet its people live in a one-party state. All the politicians are drawn from just one party, so people can only vote for the candidates representing it. Ostensibly, the party in government in China is communist, which means it’s supposed to adhere to communist ideals such as common ownership of property and a society free of class or social divides. However, in reality the Chinese Communist Party promotes individual property ownership and individual wealth creation (two very Western and democratic ideals) as means to improve the national economy. In effect, China now practises communism-lite.
This situation hints at a fundamental truth of political systems around the globe: that nearly all of them, to a greater or lesser degree, have some measure of what we recognise as Western democratic ideals, such as free speech and the right to make and spend money without huge interference from the state.
A truly democratic society has to guarantee freedom of the press and the right to protest, as well as hold regular contested elections for government office. The UK, fortunately, ticks all of these boxes and so can be classed as a fully fledged democracy.
Many different forms of government operate around the globe, from communist regimes to Western democracies. Religious leaders even run the show in some countries, such as Iran – a system called theocracy. Check out Chapter 4 for more on different types of government.
Paying Homage to the ‘Mother of Parliaments’
Standing at the very centre of British democracy is the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London. This great gothic masterpiece, along with the many government ministries within a short walk, is the fulcrum of British political life. Many of the big government policy decisions and laws that affect all Britons’ lives are made in Westminster by the politicians who work there.
The Houses of Parliament are divided into two distinct parts – the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Although they sit in chambers only a few hundred yards apart and have both been in existence for centuries, the houses are quite different in terms of who gets to sit in them and the powers and responsibilities of those who do so. Table 1-1 is a quick guide to some of the main differences between the two chambers.
The biggest party – in terms of number of seats – in the Commons forms the government, with that party’s leader as prime minister.
Within the UK’s unwritten constitution, the House of Commons is considered far more important than the House of Lords because most laws start their life there and the government is drawn from members of the biggest party in the Commons. What’s more, under the Parliament Act of 1911, the House of Lords can only halt a law that has passed through the Commons for one year, whereas the Commons can kill laws that have passed through the Lords stone dead. Check out Chapter 13 for more on the House of Commons’ supremacy in Britain’s parliamentary democracy.
Table 1-1 Comparing the Houses of the UK Parliament
House of Commons
House of Lords
Members are elected by public vote, called a general election.
Members are either appointed by the monarch (on the advice of the prime minister) or have the right to sit as a result of an inherited title.
Laws are proposed, amended and voted down by a majority of members.
A majority of members can vote to amend or oppose legislation but ultimately they can’t go against the wishes of the Commons.
Most of the members belong to a particular political party.
Members stay in place for life and tend to be more independent-minded.
When many people in the UK and around the world think of the Houses of Parliament they don’t picture great debates and dramatic votes on whether or not a law should be passed. They probably think about some of the traditions of the place, such as splendid set-piece occasions like the monarch’s official opening of parliament, the archaic language used by Members of the Lords and Commons when addressing one another, and even the tights-wearing and sword-carrying of some of the staff! Chapter 13 lifts the lid on some of the strange goings on and traditions followed in the UK parliament.
Both members of the House of Commons, called MPs (short for Members of Parliament), and members of the House of Lords (called peers) can introduce new legislation. However, without the support of MPs, peers have zero chance of seeing their legislative proposals become law. MPs have a better chance of getting their policy proposals made into law, but only if they belong to the biggest party in the Commons. (See Chapter 13 for more on how the UK’s complex legislation process actually works.)
Politicians need civil servants to carry out their policies and the UK has one of the most extensive and highly trained civil services in the world. The civil service has a long history, with members following a well-defined code of ethics that’s supposed to guarantee impartiality, integrity and honesty. Check out Chapter 15 for more on the inner workings of the civil service.
Westminster may be the beating heart of UK politics, but thanks to devolution and membership of the European Union E), it’s no longer quite as important as it once was to the making of laws that actually affect your daily life.
Introducing the Players in the British Political System
Britain’s long-standing democracy relies on the nation’s politicians, judges and the monarch. Each of these key figures has jobs to do – big and small – in drawing up the laws of the land, running the government of the country, and preserving the freedoms of British citizens and the integrity of our democracy. The effective working of the British political system is based on co-operation between the politicians (elected by you and me), the judges and the monarch.
Here’s a rundown of the big hitters in the British political system and what role they play in delivering effective democratic government to some 60 million Britons.
Gazing at the political summit: The central role of the prime minister
One of the major changes in the UK’s political landscape over the past couple of centuries has been the concentration of a great deal of power in the hands of one person – the prime minister.
After a general election the monarch asks the leader of the political party with the most members elected to the House of Commons to form the government of the country. That party leader becomes prime minister, and it’s up to him to ensure that the party governs the country and follows the policies his party told the electors they’d carry out during the general election campaign.
In the run-up to a general election every party publishes a manifesto – a collection of policy pledges that the leadership of the political party says it will carry out, if elected.
In order to be able to govern, the PM has at his disposal lots of powers, such as to
Select politicians to be in charge of government departments. I cover these ministers and their powers in depth in Chapters 14 and 15.Draw up a list of potential people for appointment by the monarch to the House of Lords.Chair meetings of the cabinet, which comprises the heads of government departments. The cabinet has the say over which legislation is introduced into parliament with the aim of making it into law.Decide whether the country goes to war and, during wartime, tell commanders what to do.The PM’s power derives not only from the office but also from his role as the leader of the biggest party in the House of Commons. Party leaders have the power to throw badly behaving politicians out of the party and even to say who should or shouldn’t stand for election as a party candidate.
The PM is far and away the most important politician in the country, which means that media attention centres on what he gets up to. Often the PM represents Britain at international conferences and gets to meet up with other world leaders. In fact, some say that the PM has transformed into a president in recent years and many see the PM as effectively the head of state rather than the monarch.
Declining importance of the MP
In politics, when one individual becomes more important it usually means that another has become less so. This state of affairs is certainly true when considering the relative importance of the PM and MPs. As more and more power is concentrated in the hands of the PM, the humble MP finds she has less and less influence over what’s going on. This change in the balance of power has occurred for a number of reasons, including:
Whipping: Although it sounds very rude, a whip is actually someone appointed by the party leader to ensure that the party’s MPs vote the way the leader wants. Over the past few decades whips have become more important, keeping a tight grip on how individuals vote and even their public utterances.Public apathy: In the past, individual MP’s speeches were widely reported and even backbench MPs were household names. This is no longer the case, with the press reporting far more of what the PM says or does than individual MPs.Legislative squeeze: The UK government is a big old institution and the PM and the cabinet take up the overwhelming majority of parliamentary time for debates and votes on new laws they want to see introduced. As a result, individual MPs are finding it harder than ever to get their own bills made into law.An MP who isn’t also a minister or a member of the opposition shadow cabinet team – in effect, opposition party leaders whose specific job is to confront an individual minister – is referred to as a backbench MP.
Some 650 MPs sit in the House of Commons. A vote held in an individual parliamentary constituency decides each MP. The first-past-the-post system decides who wins the seat, which simply means that the candidate who polls the most votes wins and takes her seat in parliament. (Chapter 6 has more on first-past-the-post and the myriad other voting methods used in elections across the UK.)
Some people call for electoral reform because they feel that the current system is unfair. Often those elected as MPs haven’t actually polled a majority of votes cast – all they’ve done is attract the most votes. It’s possible under first past the post to win a seat in the House of Commons by getting just one more vote than the candidate finishing second.
Checking the power of the politicians: The judiciary
The UK judiciary is independent. Judges are servants of the monarch and their job is to uphold and interpret the law of the land. The judiciary, through the new UK Supreme Court, provides an important check on the power of government, particularly in the area of civil liberties.
Parliament sets the laws of the land, but they don’t cover every eventuality, and the judiciary has its powers in interpreting particular laws. The web of hundreds of years of judgements in different cases – called legal precedent – in effect sets out what’s legal and what isn’t. However, a new law passed by parliament can wash away legal precedent set by the courts.
Laws made by the UK parliament are called statute law, and form the premier law of the land. However, laws passed by the European Parliament have equal standing with statute law.
The UK doesn’t have one or two legal systems; it actually has three. England and Wales share the same legal system, and Scotland and Northern Ireland each have their own. The patchwork of laws and courts in the UK is highly complex, but if you want the inside track, check out Chapter 16.
The UK’s three legal systems all operate according to a hierarchical system. This system means that the decision reached by the highest court in the land – now the UK Supreme Court in most cases – is binding on all lower courts and also sets a future legal precedent.
The European Convention on Human Rights was adopted in UK law in the 1998 Human Rights Act. As a result, if someone feels their human rights have been violated they can go to a UK court and have it decide on the matter, rather than go to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. If that court decides that the individual’s human rights have been violated, that violation has to stop!
Mixing in the monarch
The monarchy has been of crucial importance in British history. The first kings of England came to the throne over a thousand years ago, and although their descendants have found their powers reduced, modern monarchs still have their role to play in British life and politics. As head of state, the monarch isn’t just a tourist attraction! In the UK’s unwritten constitution, the monarch’s powers include opening and dissolving parliament, appointing the prime minister, giving consent to bills passed by parliament (without this consent a bill can’t become law) and appointing bishops and members of the House of Lords.
The monarch appears to have a lot of power, but in reality it’s largely ceremonial. For example, the power to appoint the prime minister sounds great, but it’s a constitutional convention that the monarch must appoint the leader of the biggest party in the House of Commons. Likewise, the power to appoint members of the House of Lords is curtailed by the fact that the monarch only does so in accordance with the advice of the prime minister.
Under a convention of the UK’s unwritten constitution, the monarch must always take the advice of her ministers – that is, the elected government.
Most Britons, when asked, support the idea of the monarchy but a substantial minority (usually around a quarter) would prefer it to be abolished. They argue that the monarchy is outdated, elitist and costs too much. However, the UK shows no signs of becoming a republic (a state that doesn’t have a monarch) anytime soon; all the main political parties – even the Scottish Nationalists – support the idea of a monarchy.
Coming under Greater Scrutiny: Politics in the Media
You wouldn’t guess that widespread apathy towards politics existed in the UK if you turned on the TV, radio or opened up a newspaper. Politics is a major talking point on the airwaves and in the columns of most of the newspapers. In fact, as voter turnout has fallen, the actual coverage of politics has increased, thanks in particular to the advent of 24-hour TV news stations. With so much time to fill, the media pores over even the slightest piece of political gossip or smallest policy proposal. Likewise, the private lives of many politicians have been held up to the bright lights of media scrutiny and, as far as some of the general public are concerned, when it comes to politicians, familiarity breeds contempt. (See Chapter 10 for more on politics and the media.)
Despite the march of blogs and the Internet, the newspaper industry is still hugely important in the UK media. What’s written in the papers can have quite an influence on the behaviour of politicians. For example, in October 2009 the UK’s best-selling daily newspaper, The Sun, came out in support of the Conservative party and its leader David Cameron – abandoning in the process the Labour government and PM Gordon Brown – and caused quite a stir.
In the UK, each of the national newspapers supports one of the main political parties. For example, the Daily Mail and Daily Telegraph support the Conservative Party, and the Daily Mirror and Guardian support the Labour Party. Sometimes, a paper switches its allegiance; for example, prior to the 1997 general election the Financial Times declared its support for Labour but in 2005 it switched back to the Conservatives.
As with everything else in life, the Internet is playing a more important role in politics, particularly in the US but in the UK too. Politicians are increasingly using social networking sites, Twitter and blogs to get their message across to large numbers of eager readers. Political pundits and the average citizen can bypass the main media outlets and counteract what they see as biased reporting or just say what they want without journalistic scrutiny! (Chapter 11 talks about the burgeoning role of the Internet in politics.)
