Chemical Process Technology E-Book

Jacob A. Moulijn

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 871

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

With a focus on actual industrial processes, e.g. the production of light alkenes, synthesis gas, fine chemicals, polyethene, it encourages the reader to think “out of the box” and invent and develop novel unit operations and processes. Reflecting today’s emphasis on sustainability, this edition contains new coverage of biomass as an alternative to fossil fuels, and process intensification.

The second edition includes:

• New chapters on Process Intensification and Processes for the Conversion of Biomass
• Updated and expanded chapters throughout with 35% new material overall
• Text boxes containing case studies and examples from various different industries, e.g. synthesis loop designs, Sasol I Plant, Kaminsky catalysts, production of Ibuprofen, click chemistry, ammonia synthesis, fluid catalytic cracking
• Questions throughout to stimulate debate and keep students awake!
• Richly illustrated chapters with improved figures and flow diagrams

Chemical Process Technology, Second Edition is a comprehensive introduction, linking the fundamental theory and concepts to the applied nature of the subject. It will be invaluable to students of chemical engineering, biotechnology and industrial chemistry, as well as practising chemical engineers.

From reviews of the first edition:

“The authors have blended process technology, chemistry and thermodynamics in an elegant manner… Overall this is a welcome addition to books on chemical technology.” – The Chemist

“Impressively wide-ranging and comprehensive… an excellent textbook for students, with a combination of fundamental knowledge and technology.” – Chemistry in Britain (now Chemistry World)

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction

References

General Literature

Chapter 2: The Chemical Industry

2.1 A Brief History

2.2 Structure of the Chemical Industry

2.3 Raw Materials and Energy

2.4 Base Chemicals

2.5 Global Trends in the Chemical Industry

References

General Literature

Chapter 3: Processes in the Oil Refinery

3.1 The Oil Refinery − An Overview

3.2 Physical Processes

3.3 Thermal Processes

3.4 Catalytic Processes

3.5 Current and Future Trends in Oil Refining

References

Chapter 4: Production of Light Alkenes

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Cracking Reactions

4.3 The Industrial Process

4.4 Product Processing

4.5 Novel Developments

References

Chapter 5: Production of Synthesis Gas

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Synthesis Gas from Natural Gas

5.3 Coal Gasification

5.4 Cleaning and Conditioning of Synthesis Gas

References

Chapter 6: Bulk Chemicals and Synthetic Fuels Derived from Synthesis Gas

6.1 Ammonia

6.2 Methanol

6.3 Synthetic Fuels and Fuel Additives

References

Chapter 7: Processes for the Conversion of Biomass

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Production of Biofuels

7.3 Production of Bio-based Chemicals

7.4 The Biorefinery

7.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 8: Inorganic Bulk Chemicals

8.1 The Inorganic Chemicals Industry

8.2 Sulfuric Acid

8.3 Sulfur Production

8.4 Nitric Acid

8.5 Chlorine

References

Chapter 9: Homogeneous Transition Metal Catalysis in the Production of Bulk Chemicals

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Acetic Acid Production

9.3 Hydroformylation

9.4 Ethene Oligomerization and More

9.5 Oxidation of p-Xylene: Dimethyl Terephthalate and Terephthalic Acid Production

9.6 Review of Reactors Used in Homogeneous Catalysis

9.7 Approaches for Catalyst/Product Separation

References

Chapter 10: Heterogeneous Catalysis – Concepts and Examples

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Catalyst Design

10.3 Reactor Types and Their Characteristics

10.4 Shape Selectivity − Zeolites

10.5 Some Challenges and (Unconventional) Solutions

10.6 Monolith Reactors − Automotive Emission Control

References

General Literature

Chapter 11: Production of Polymers − Polyethene

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Polymerization Reactions

11.3 Polyethenes – Background Information

11.4 Processes for the Production of Polyethenes

References

Chapter 12: Production of Fine Chemicals

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Role of Catalysis

12.3 Solvents

12.4 Production Plants

12.5 Batch Reactor Selection

12.6 Batch Reactor Scale-up Effects3

12.7 Safety Aspects of Fine Chemicals

References

Chapter 13: Biotechnology

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Principles of Fermentation Technology

13.3 Cell Biomass − Bakers' Yeast Production

13.4 Metabolic Products − Biomass as Source of Renewable Energy

13.5 Environmental Application – Wastewater Treatment

13.6 Enzyme Technology – Biocatalysts for Transformations

References

General Literature

Chapter 14: Process Intensification

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Structured Catalytic Reactors

14.3 Multifunctional Reactors/Reactive Separation

References

Chapter 15: Process Development

15.1 Dependence of Strategy on Product Type and Raw Materials

15.2 The Course of Process Development

15.3 Development of Individual Steps

15.4 Scale-up

15.5 Safety and Loss Prevention

15.6 Process Evaluation

15.7 Current and Future Trends

References

General Literature

Magazines

Appendix A: Chemical Industry − Figures

Appendix B: Main Symbols Used in Flow Schemes

B.1 Reactors and Other Vessels

B.2 Columns

B.3 Heat Transfer Equipment

Index

This edition first published 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Preface

This book is largely the result of courses we have given. Its main purposes are to bring alive the concepts forming the basis of the Chemical Process Industry and to give a solid background for innovative process development. We do not treat Chemical Process Technology starting from unifying disciplines like chemical kinetics, physical transport phenomena, and reactor design. Rather, we discuss actual industrial processes that all present fascinating challenges chemical engineers had to face and deal with during the development of these processes. Often these processes still exhibit open challenges. Our goal is to help students and professionals in developing a vision on chemical processes taking into account the microscale ((bio)chemistry, physics), the mesoscale (reactor, separation units), and the macroscale (the process).

Chemical process technology is not exclusively the domain of chemical engineers; chemists, biologists, and physicists largely contribute to its development. We have attempted to provide students and professionals involved in chemical process technology with a fresh, innovative background, and to stimulate them to think “out of the box” and to be open to cooperation with scientists and engineers from other disciplines. Let us think in “conceptual process designs” and invent and develop novel unit operations and processes!

We have been pragmatic in the clustering of the selected processes. For instance, the production of syngas and processes in which syngas is the feedstock are treated in two sequential chapters. Processes based on homogeneous catalysis using transition metal complexes share similar concepts and are treated in their own chapter. Although in the first part of the book many solid-catalyzed processes are discussed, for the sake of “symmetry” a chapter is also devoted to heterogeneous catalysis. This gave us the opportunity to emphasize the concepts of this crucial topic that can be the inspiration for many new innovations. In practice, a large distance often exists between those chemical reaction engineers active in homogeneous catalysis and those in heterogeneous catalysis. For a scientist these sectors often are worlds apart, one dealing with coordination chemistry and the other with nanomaterials. However, for a chemical reaction engineer the kinetics is similar but the core difference is in the separation. When, by using a smart two-phase system or a membrane, the homogeneous catalyst (or the biocatalyst) is kept in one part of the plant without a separation step, the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis vanishes. Thus, the gap between scientists working in these two areas can be bridged by taking into account a higher level of aggregation.

From the wealth of chemical processes a selection had to be made. Knowledge of key processes is essential for the understanding of the culture of the chemical engineering discipline. The first chapters deal with processes related to the conversion of fossil fuels. Examples are the major processes in an oil refinery, the production of light alkenes, and the production of base chemicals from synthesis gas. In this second edition we have added biomass as an alternative to feedstocks based on fossil fuels. Analogously to the oil refinery, the (future) biorefinery is discussed. Biomass conversion processes nicely show the benefit of having insight into the chemistry, being so different from that for processes based on the conversion of the conventional feedstocks. It is fair to state that chemical engineers have been tremendously successful in the bulk chemicals industry. In the past, in some other important sectors, this was not the case, but today also in these fields chemical engineers are becoming more and more important. Major examples are the production of fine chemicals and biotechnological processes. These subjects are treated in separate chapters. Recently, the emphasis in chemical engineering has shifted to Sustainable Technology and, related to that, Process Intensification. In this edition we have added a chapter devoted to this topic.

In all chapters the processes treated are represented by simplified flow schemes. For clarity these generally do not include process control systems, and valves and pumps are only shown when essential for the understanding of the process concept.

This book can be used in different ways. We have written it as a consistent textbook, but in order to give flexibility we have not attempted to avoid repetition in all cases. Dependent on the local profile and the personal taste of the lecturer or reader, a selection can be made, as most chapters are structured in such a way that they can be read separately. At the Delft University of Technology, a set of selected chapters is the basis for a compulsory course for third-year students. Chapter 3 is the basis for an optional course “Petroleum Conversion”. In addition, this book forms a basis for a compulsory design project.

It is not trivial how much detail should be incorporated in the text of a book like the present one. In principle, the selected processes are not treated in much detail, except when this is useful to explain concepts. For instance, we decided to treat fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) in some detail because it is such a nice case of process development, where over time catalyst improvements enabled improvements in chemical engineering and vice versa. In addition, its concepts are used in several new processes that at first sight do not have any relationship with FCC. We also decided to treat ammonia synthesis in some detail with respect to reactors, separation, and energy integration. If desired this process can be the start of a course on Process Integration and Design. The production of polyethene was chosen in order to give an example of the tremendously important polymerization industry and this specific polymer was chosen because of the unusual process conditions and the remarkable development in novel processes. The production of fine chemicals and biotechnology are treated in more detail than analogous chapters in order to expose (bio)chemistry students to reactor selection coupled to practice they will be interested in.

To stimulate students in their conceptual thinking a lot of questions appear throughout the text. These questions are of very different levels. Many have as their major function to “keep the students awake”, others are meant to force them in sharpening their insights and to show them that inventing new processes is an option, even for processes generally considered to be “mature”. In chemical engineering practice often there is not just a single answer to a question. This also applies to most questions in this book. Therefore, we decided not to provide the answers: the journey is the reward, not the answer as such!

Most chapters in the book include a number of “boxes”, which are side paths from the main text. They contain case studies that illustrate the concepts discussed. Often they give details that are both “nice to know” and which add a deeper insight. While a box can be an eye opener, readers and lecturers can choose to skip it.

We are grateful for the many comments from chemists and chemical engineers working in the chemical industry. These comments have helped us in shaping the second edition. For instance, we added a section on the production of chlorine to the chapter on inorganic bulk chemicals. This gives insight in electrochemical processing and gives a basis for considering this technology for a chemical conversion process.

We hope that the text will help to give chemical engineers sufficient feeling for chemistry and chemists for chemical engineering. It is needless to say that we would again greatly appreciate any comments from the users of this book.

Jacob A. Moulijn Michiel Makkee Annelies E. van Diepen Delft, The Netherlands, October 2012

1

Introduction

Chemical process technology has had a long, branched road of development. Processes such as distillation, dyeing, and the manufacture of soap, wine, and glass have long been practiced in small-scale units. The development of these processes was based on chance discoveries and empiricism rather than thorough guidelines, theory, and chemical engineering principles. Therefore, it is not surprising that improvements were very slow. This situation persisted until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.1 Only then were mystical interpretations replaced by scientific theories.

It was not until the 1910s and 1920s, when continuous processes became more common, that disciplines such as thermodynamics, material and energy balances, heat transfer, and fluid dynamics, as well as chemical kinetics and catalysis became (and still are) the foundations on which process technology rests. Allied with these are the unit operations including distillation, extraction, and so on. In chemical process technology various disciplines are integrated. These can be divided according to their scale (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Chemical process technology disciplines

ScaleDisciplineScale independentChemistry, biology, physics, mathematicsThermodynamicsPhysical transport phenomenaMicro/nanolevelKineticsCatalysis on a molecular levelInterface chemistryMicrobiologyParticle technologyMesolevelReactor technologyUnit operationsMacrolevelProcess technology and process developmentProcess integration and designProcess control and operation

Of course, this scheme is not complete. Other disciplines, such as applied materials science, information science, process control, and cost engineering, also play a role. In addition, safety is such an important aspect that it may evolve as a separate discipline.

In the development stage of a process or product all necessary disciplines are integrated. The role and position of the various disciplines perhaps can be better understood from Figure 1.1, in which they are arranged according to their level of integration. In process development, in principle the x-axis also roughly represents the time progress in the development of a process. The initial phase depends on thermodynamics and other scale-independent principles. As time passes, other disciplines become important, for example, kinetics and catalysis on a micro/nanolevel, reactor technology, unit operations and scale-up on the mesolevel, and process technology, process control, and so on on the macrolevel.

FIGURE 1.1 Disciplines in process development organized according to level of integration.

Of course, there should be intense interaction between the various disciplines. To be able to quickly implement new insights and results, these disciplines are preferably applied more or less in parallel rather than in series, as can also be seen from Figure 1.1. Figure 1.2 represents the relationship between the different levels of development in another way. The plant is the macrolevel. When focusing on the chemical conversion, the reactor would be the level of interest. When the interest goes down to the molecules converted, the micro-and nanolevels are reached.

FIGURE 1.2 Relationship between different levels of development.

An enlightening way of placing the discipline Chemical Engineering in a broader framework has been put forward by Villermeaux [personal communication], who made a plot of length and time scales (Figure 1.3). From this figure it can be appreciated that chemical engineering is a broad integrating discipline. On the one hand, molecules, having dimensions in the nanometer range and a vibration time on the nanosecond scale, are considered. On the other hand, chemical plants may have a size of half a kilometer, while the life expectancy of a new plant is 10–20 years. Every division runs the danger of oversimplification. For instance, the atmosphere of our planet could be envisaged as a chemical reactor and chemical engineers can contribute to predictions about temperature changes and so on by modeling studies analogous to those concerning “normal” chemical reactors. The dimensions and the life expectancy of our planet are fortunately orders of magnitude larger than those of industrial plants.

FIGURE 1.3 Space and time scales [J. Villermaux, personal communication].

Rates of chemical reactions vary over several orders of magnitude. Processes in oil reservoirs might take place on a time scale of a million years, processes in nature are often slow (but not always), and reactions in the Chemical Process Industry usually proceed at a rate that reactor sizes are reasonable, say smaller than 100 m3. Figure 1.4 indicates the very different productivity of three important classes of processes.

FIGURE 1.4 Windows on reality for useful chemical reactivity [1].

It might seem surprising that despite the very large number of commercially attractive catalytic reactions, the commonly encountered reactivity is within a rather narrow range; reaction rates that are relevant in practice are rarely less than one and seldom more than ten mol mR3 s−1 for oil refinery processes and processes in the chemical industry. The lower limit is set by economic expectations: the reaction should take place in a reasonable amount of (space) time and in a reasonably sized reactor. What is reasonable is determined by physical (space) and economic constraints. At first sight it might be thought that rates exceeding the upper limit are something to be happy about. The rates of heat and mass transport become limiting, however, when the intrinsic reaction rate far exceeds the upper limit.

A relatively recent concept is that of Process Intensification, which aims at a drastic decrease of the sizes of chemical plants [2,3]. Not surprisingly, the first step often is the development of better catalysts, that is, catalysts exhibiting higher activity (reactor volume is reduced) and higher selectivity (separation section reduced in size). As a result, mass and heat transfer might become rate determining and equipment allowing higher heat and mass transfer rates is needed. For instance, a lot of attention is given to the development of compact heat exchangers that allow high heat transfer rates on a volume basis. Novel reactors are also promising in this respect, for instance monolithic reactors and microreactors. A good example of the former is the multiphase monolithic reactor, which allows unusually high rates and selectivities [4].

In the laboratory, transport limitations may lead to under- or overestimation of the local conditions (temperature, concentrations) in the catalyst particle, and hence to an incorrect estimation of the intrinsic reaction rate. When neglected, the practical consequence is an overdesigned, or worse, underdesigned reactor. Transport limitations also may interfere with the selectivity and, as a consequence, upstream and downstream processing units, such as the separation train, may be poorly designed.

QUESTIONS

What would have been the consequence of much lower and of much higher reactivity of petroleum geochemistry for humanity?

Which factors determine the lower and upper limits of the window for biochemical processes?

Given a production rate of between 104 and 106 t/a of large volume chemicals (bulk chemicals), estimate required reactor volumes. Do the same for the production of petroleum products (106 –108 t/a).

A → B → C kinetics in which B is the desired product is often encountered. Explain why the particle size of the catalyst influences the observed selectivity to B.

How would you define the “intrinsic” reaction rate?

Every industrial chemical process is designed to produce economically a desired product or range of products from a variety of raw materials (or feeds, feedstocks). Figure 1.5 shows a typical structure of a chemical process.

FIGURE 1.5 Typical chemical process structure.

The feed usually has to be pretreated. It may undergo a number of physical treatment steps, for example, coal has to be pulverized, liquid feedstocks may have to be vaporized, water is removed from benzene by distillation prior to its conversion to ethylbenzene, and so on. Often, impurities in the feed have to be removed by chemical reaction, for example, desulfurization of the naphtha feed to a catalytic reformer, making raw synthesis gas suitable for use in the ammonia converter, and so on. Following the actual chemical conversion, the reaction products need to be separated and purified. Distillation is still the most common separation method, but extraction, crystallization, membrane separation, and so on can also be used.

In this book, emphasis is placed on the reaction section, since the reactor is the heart of any process, but feed pretreatment and product separation will also be given attention. In the discussion of each process, typically the following questions will be answered:

Which reactions are involved?What are the thermodynamics of the reactions, and what operating temperature and pressure should be applied?What are the kinetics, and what are the optimal conditions in that sense?Is a catalyst used and, if so, is it heterogeneous or homogeneous? Is the catalyst stable? If not, what is the deactivation time scale? What are the consequences for process design? Are conditions feasible where deactivation is minimized? Is regeneration required?Apart from the catalyst, what are the phases involved? Are mass and heat transfer limitations important?Is a gas or liquid recycle necessary?Is feed purification necessary?How are the products separated?What are the environmental issues?

The answers to these questions determine the type of reactor and the process flow sheet. Of course, the list is not complete and specific questions may be raised for individual processes, for example, how to solve possible corrosion problems in the production of acetic acid. Other matters are also addressed, either for a specific process or in general terms:

What are the safety issues?Can different functions be integrated in one piece of equipment?What are the economics (comparison between processes)?Can the sustainability of the technology be improved?

References

1. Weisz, P.B. (1982) The science of the possible. CHEMTECH, 12, 424–425.

2. Stankiewicz, A. and Drinkenburg, A. (2003) Process intensification, in Re-Engineering the Chemical Processing Plant (eds. A. Stankiewicz and J.A. Moulijn), CRC Press, pp. 1–32.

3. Stankiewicz, A.I. and Moulijn, J.A. (2000) Process intensification: transforming chemical engineering. Chemical Engineering Progress, 96, 22–33.

4. Kapteijn, F., Heiszwolf, J., Nijhuis, T.A., and Moulijn, J.A. (1999) Monoliths in multiphase processes - aspects and prospects. CATTECH, 3, 24–40.

General Literature

Douglas, J.M. (1988) Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (1999–2011) Online edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken. doi: 10.1002/0471238961

Levenspiel, O. (1999) Chemical Reaction Engineering, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.

Seider, W.D., Seader, J.D. and Lewin, D.R. (2008) Product and Process Design Principles. Synthesis, Analysis, and Evaluation, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken.

Sinnot, R.K. (2005) Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering, vol. 6, 4th edn, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (1999–2011) Online edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken. doi: 10.1002/14356007

Westerterp, K.R., van Swaaij, W.P.M. and Beenackers, A.A.C.M (1984) Chemical Reactor Design and Operation, 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

1. This remark is not completely fair. Already in the sixteenth century Agricola published his book “De Re Metallica” containing impressive descriptions of theory and practice of mining and metallurgy, with relevance to chemical engineering.

2

The Chemical Industry

2.1 A Brief History

Chemical processes like dyeing, leather tanning, and brewing beer were already known in antiquity, but it was not until around 1800 that the modern chemical industry began in the United Kingdom. It was triggered by the industrial revolution, which began in Europe with the mechanization of the textile industry, the development of iron making techniques, and the increased use of refined coal, and rapidly spread all over the world. One of the central characteristics of the chemical industry is that it has experienced a continuous stream of process and product innovations, thereby acquiring a very diverse range of products. Table 2.1 shows a number of selected milestones in the history of the chemical industry.

Table 2.1 Selected events in the history of the chemical industry.

YearEvent1746John Roebuck starts producing moderately concentrated sulfuric acid in the lead chamber process on an industrial scale.1789Nicholas LeBlanc develops a process for converting sodium chloride into sodium carbonate. In many ways, this process began the modern chemical industry. From its adoption in 1810, it was continually improved over the next 80 years, until it was replaced by the Solvay process.1831Peregrine Phillips patents the contact process for manufacturing concentrated sulfuric acid, the first mention of heterogeneous catalysis for a large-scale process. For various reasons, the process only became a success at the end of the nineteenth century.1850The first oil refinery, consisting of a one-barrel still, is built in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, by Samuel Kier.1856Seeking to make quinine, William Henry Perkin, at the age of 18, synthesizes the first synthetic aniline dye, mauveine, from coal tar. This discovery is the foundation of the dye synthesis industry, one of the earliest successful chemical industries.1863Ernest Solvay perfects his method for producing sodium carbonate. This process started to replace Leblanc's process in 1873.1864The British government passes the “Alkali Works Act” in an effort to control environmental emissions; the first example of environmental regulation.1874Henry Deacon develops the Deacon process for converting hydrochloric acid into chlorine.~1900With the coming of large-scale electrical power generation, the chlor-alkali industry is born.1905Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process (sometimes referred to as the Haber–Bosch process) for producing ammonia from its elements, a milestone in industrial chemistry. The process was first commercialized in 1910.1907Wilhelm Normann introduces the hydrogenation of fats (fat hardening).1909Leo Baekeland patents Bakelite, the first commercially important plastic, which was commercialized shortly after.1920Standard Oil Company begins large-scale industrial production of isopropanol from oil, the first large-scale process using oil as feedstock.1923Matthias Pier of BASF develops a high-pressure process to produce methanol. This marks the emergence of the synthesis of large-volume organic chemicals.Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch develop the Fischer–Tropsch process, a method for producing synthetic liquid fuels from coal gas. The process was used widely by Germany during World War II for the production of aviation fuel.1926Fritz Winkler introduces a process for commercial fluidized-bed coal gasification at a BASF plant in Leuna, Germany.1930First commercial steam reforming plant is constructed by the Standard Oil Company.First commercial manufacture of polystyrene by IG Farben.Wallace Carrothers discovers nylon, the most famous synthetic fiber. Production by DuPont began in 1938; output was immediately diverted to parachutes for the duration of World War II.1931Development of ethene epoxidation process for the production of ethene oxide.1933Polyethene2 discovered by accident at ICI by applying extremely high pressure to a mixture of ethene and benzaldehyde.1934First American car tire produced from a synthetic rubber, neoprene.