Climate Adaptive Gardening E-Book

Kelvin Mason

• Herausgeber: The Crowood Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Serie: A Gardener's Guide to
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 277

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

This book covers a range of methods to create a sustainable garden with a low carbon footprint that will continue to thrive as the climate changes in the future. It includes ideas and suggestions on how to design and maintain a low-carbon garden that is still both colourful and productive.

Leseprobe

First published in 2023 byThe Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

[email protected]

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2023

© Kelvin Mason 2023

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7198 4270 2

Cover design by Blue Sunflower Creative

All photographs are the author’s, with the exception of pages 48 and 60, which are Wikimedia Commons.

CONTENTS

Introduction

1 Garden Design

2 Soils

3 Lawns and Wildflower Meadows

4 Water Use and Irrigation

5 Green Roofs, Living Walls and Rain Gardens

6 Permaculture

7 Choosing Plants

8 Plant Directory

Index

INTRODUCTION

To start, we should consider what climate change actually is and how likely it is to affect our gardens, landscapes and plants, as well as how we grow them. Climate change is not new; it has been gradually building up over the last century. It is now at the point where it is causing problems and we have enough knowledge to know that things are only going to get worse in the future unless we do something about it.

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?

Climate change is a very gradual change in our climate over many years, resulting in alterations to the weather patterns in various parts of the world. Although, at first, the changes do not look too untoward, many of them are detrimental to our way of living and are causing environmental problems such as drought, flooding, storms and heavy rainfall. These are problems that have occurred in recent years and are predicted to get worse in the future, leaving a generation with many large-scale issues to solve, including possible mass extinction of some species, increased damage to property and the environment, and larger weather extremes.

The effects of climate change are caused by the gradual rise in global temperature caused by increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, in the atmosphere. These gases accumulate in the upper atmosphere and trap heat from the sun within the earth’s atmosphere, slowly raising the temperature. At the time of writing, the world is approximately 1.2°C warmer than pre-industrial levels of the nineteenth century. In that time the CO2 levels have risen by approximately 50 per cent to nearly 400ppm.

These changes have been caused by mankind and most of them have happened in the last fifty years owing to the use of fossil fuels to provide energy for electricity, heating, manufacturing and transport. To prevent the worse consequences of climate change occurring, we need to limit the rise in global temperatures to 1.5°C by the end of this century. As things are at present, the temperature is predicted to rise to 2.4°C by 2100 – some scientists are even predicting a rise of at least 4°C, which would have massive consequences to the planet, its environment and its plants and animals.

The weather of the early 2000s and recent catastrophes will just be a forewarning of what is likely to come by the end of the century. Taking 2021 as an example, there was extensive flooding in parts of Europe and China, storms in the tropics (even in the UK), hurricanes and typhoons in the USA, as well as large wildfires in Australia, Greece, Canada and the US. Some farmland is turning into desert owing to droughts, heatwaves and soil erosion caused by poor or no soil care.

HOW CAN WE SLOW DOWN OR STOP CLIMATE CHANGE?

To try to prevent climate change from happening we all need to take some action, and the aim of this book is to offer guidance on what can be done in the garden to adapt to these changes and still grow good-quality plants and food. One single thing or person is not going to solve climate change – it will need many actions by many people – but we can all do our bit and make a difference. Many small actions, such as living a more sustainable life, growing more of your food, reducing your carbon footprint and encouraging others to do the same, will make a difference over time.

It is up to the politicians to lead and set strategies and targets, and we need to do what we can to meet these targets. It will take a bit of effort and we will need to change our lifestyles a little but the alternative for future generations does not bear thinking about. We owe it to them to leave a planet that is in a condition suitable for living on.

If a few people plant a tree it will make little difference, but if everyone in the UK (approximately 66 million at the last count) plants a tree, this starts to make a bigger difference. Over time, they will sequester carbon from the atmosphere, reduce pollution, provide shade and reduce windspeed. Sequestering carbon into trees will not solve climate change on its own, but it will help, and tree planting should be encouraged. There are trees suitable for every garden (even small ones), it is just a case of choosing the right plant for the right place. We can all do more than plant a tree, as I hope this book will show.

If we all do nothing, or very little, the likely effects on the UK will be wetter winters with heavier rainfall leading to flooding, soil erosion and waterlogged soil, which all affect plant growth. The amount of flooding has increased greatly over the last five years and will continue to get worse. Waterlogged soils can kill plants or at best restrict and stunt growth, resulting in poor flowering and fewer crops. Regular waterlogging considerably restricts the range of plants that can be grown and very few are plants that will produce a crop.

During the summer more droughts are predicted, again leading to poorer growth and lower yields as well as restricting the range of plant species that will grow and thrive. There are likely to be more storms causing damage to plants, especially if they are in full leaf. Damaged plants are more susceptible to be attacked by diseases, making plant care more difficult. Storms also result in damage to greenhouses, polytunnels, sheds and other garden buildings, as well as serious soil erosion if windy, and dry soil also reduces soil fertility. Although not predicted to be frequent, heatwaves cause damage to many plants, which tend to shut down when temperatures reach 30°C as this seriously affects enzyme processes within them.

To slow down and eventually stop climate change, many countries agreed at COP26 to be net zero CO2 producers by 2050. According to climate scientists this is achievable, although progress has been very slow so far. To achieve this target will require everyone to make changes to their lifestyle and needs leadership from governments, organisations, companies and individuals. As individuals we can make a number of changes, some of which are covered later in this book, but non-gardening ones include flying less, making fewer car journeys, using electric- or hydrogen-powered cars, reducing energy use in homes, increasing renewable energy and generally moving towards a more sustainable lifestyle.

We cannot continue with ‘business as usual’ and hope to thrive or even survive in the future. We need to adapt now to reduce our use of carbon and the amount of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane we are producing, which are key factors in the cause of climate change. We need to start living more sustainable lives now and make further changes into the future to take better care of the environment and develop more biodiversity.

If we are to live on this planet long term, we need to learn how to make changes and actually make them; we need to truly address the issue of climate change and not be overawed by or depressed by the situation. Action will make a difference. You can start in the garden and house by making small changes to reduce energy use, grow more food, recycle waste, compost green waste and more.

THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE GARDEN

Drought

The first effect of climate change on the garden is drought. This was driven home in the UK by the summer of 2022 – or for those that remember it, 1976! Although 2022 had some heavy showers, the overall amount of rain was well down on the normal UK average, resulting in long, dry periods, which were worsened by very hot weather in July and August. Many lawns went brown, young plants and bedding plants died (unless watered daily) and others failed to make the growth they usually did, giving smaller plants. Large numbers of vegetables failed to produce a crop, or if they did it was a much smaller crop than expected. It was dry for so long it was not possible to sow replacement crops unless irrigation was available.

Droughts are predicted to become more frequent and last longer. This will have an effect on the choice of plants that can be grown and yields of fruit and vegetables, which will affect food prices. Drought is not just caused by higher temperatures but also long periods without rain, lower total rainfall and increased winds, which both dry the soil by evaporation and increase plant transpiration as the wind or breeze draws moisture from the leaves.

Allium ‘Globemaster’.

Fabiana imbricata.

Hosta ‘Big Daddy’.

Wisteria floribunda ‘Macrobotrys.

Higher Temperatures

Higher temperatures are also predicted as a result of climate change. These were also witnessed in 2022 in the UK, with the highest temperature on record achieved in July and several days with very high temperatures.

High temperatures not only dry out the soil but they increase the plant transpiration rate, meaning the plants need more water, which often is not available. Some of the plants growing in the UK have not evolved or adapted to high sunlight and these can be sun scorched, resulting in dead patches on the leaves. In future, we need to choose plants that have adapted to the high levels of sunlight and temperatures – these will be plants from Mediterranean climates or even warmer areas of the world.

More Storms

Climate change has resulted in more storms, and these are of a greater severity than many in the past. Again, 2022 was a good example as the UK suffered storms Malik, Corrie, Dudley and Eunice; two of which were very severe in the south of England, causing a lot of damage to gardens.

If storms become more common, we will need to take action to reduce their effects on gardens. While it is not possible to stop storms and prevent all damage, it is possible to reduce the damage caused, which will be covered later (seeChapter 7).

Increasing Rain

More frequent and heavier rain is also expected – the complete opposite of drought! This is likely to occur in the winter and could build up in the soil to the point of causing waterlogging, soil erosion and flooding. Soil can absorb large amounts of water, which slowly percolates down to the water table, but if too much rain falls in a short period of time, it cannot percolate through the soil fast enough and runs off, causing soil erosion and then flooding. Flooding is devastating for homeowners and businesses and for that reason alone we should be doing everything possible to reduce it.

The flooding of gardens and allotments can result in them being contaminated by sewage, which means any vegetables in the area will be inedible. The garden will also need cleaning up before it is usable again. We need to help the soil hold more water, which will reduce flooding and also delay the effects of drought.

Milder Winters

Milder winters are another likely effect of climate change. At first glance, this may seem a plus point. However, there are some negative consequences for gardeners – the main one being that many fruits grown in the UK require a period of cold to help initiate flower buds and ensure a decent level of fruit. The amount of cold is measured in day degrees and each fruit has a set requirement of day degrees, which is made up of a period of time below a set temperature. If, owing to the mild winter, there are insufficient day degrees, fruit yields will be reduced. In the future, scientists will be able to breed fruit that needs a lower day degree level, but it will mean that some of the well-loved cultivars are no longer suitable, including many heritage varieties.

Another unwanted side effect of milder winters will be more pests overwintering, meaning we will need to be more vigilant and have good control methods ready. It is also possible that new pests and diseases will spread over from Europe or even other parts of the world; in earlier years they would have been killed by cold winters, but in the future this will not be the case.

The last few years have also seen drier springs, which has delayed sowing, making the plants more prone to drought damage in the summer.

Wildfires

One of the results of climate change has been more forest fires and wildfires throughout the world, including in the UK. Vast areas have been burnt, resulting in more carbon – as well as heat and other pollutants – going into the air, and the death of many creatures.

WHAT CAN WE DO?

We are leaving the planet in a mess for our children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren and we need to start to take action now to change our lifestyles, otherwise catastrophe will occur in the future. We need to live more sustainable lives and use more sustainable materials, especially those using low amounts of carbon to produce.

One simple action we can take is to grow more vegetation to cool the environment, especially trees and shrubs. More needs to be done to reduce flooding and the damage and misery it causes by making use of permeable paving, swales and other techniques to hold water on or in the soil.

Chapter 4 gives a number of techniques to encourage us to use water wisely, conserving and recycling where we can. In the future we should consider making greater and better use of sewerage, even if it is just to reduce the amount going into the rivers and coastal sea.

As well as adding insulating and installing solar panels to our buildings – whether homes, garages, sheds or outbuildings – consider whether they could support a roof garden, which reduces water loss from the roof and provides an area of biodiversity, as well as absorbing some CO2. Buildings also provide support and shelter for climbing plants and shrubs, especially tender plants, which will change in the future as the UK climate warms up. South-facing walls could be ideal sites for exotic fruits.

We can make sustainable changes by reducing our energy use when we garden, using hand equipment where possible rather than petrol; either electric or preferably battery-powered machines, especially if they are charged by their own solar panel.

Growing your own fruit and vegetables is something nearly everybody can do, even if it is just a few salad leaves or microgreens on the windowsill. This reduces the carbon footprint, food miles and the importing of vegetables from countries that need to use large valuable amounts of water to grow them. Growing your own is both physically and mentally good for you, giving you fresh food, saving you money and benefitting the climate and planet Earth. If you do not have a garden, have a go at foraging as it is surprising what food can be foraged from the land in the UK, even in cities.

Agriculture accounts for 14 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions and according to a UN survey the average British diet could be responsible for 8.8 kilos of CO2 equivalent emissions per person every day. To help reduce this, we need to reduce the amount of meat and dairy we eat and drink. Changing to a more plant-based diet, preferable home grown, and reducing meat consumption will improve our health and help the planet. We need to create more resilient food systems to reduce the likelihood of food shortages by growing more in the UK and, if possible, at home. This will make us less susceptible to likely food shortages in the future.

Hopefully reading this book will encourage you to take action, make changes to your own garden and live a more sustainable life.

CHAPTER 1

GARDEN DESIGN

When designing, constructing and maintaining a garden over many years, numerous choices can be made to reduce its carbon footprint. Choose sustainable materials and plants that do not require too much maintenance, especially by machinery using non-renewable energy. Consider what materials, artefacts (if any) and other non-plant additions to the garden you would like to include and ask yourself: are they really necessary and sustainable?

If we are to make any effect in reducing climate change, we need to make our lifestyles more sustainable. Importing stone from India is not sustainable or necessary as there is perfectly good attractive stone available in the UK – using this will reduce the carbon footprint of the garden construction, not to mention the balance of payments on importing and exporting! Try to keep inclusion of outside materials, other than plants, into the garden to a minimum and any hard landscaping should be sustainable and allow the drainage of water (SuDS compliant).

SITE SURVEY AND APPRAISAL

The first stages of garden design are the site survey and appraisal. These are carried out to ascertain what is on the site and the size, shape and levels of the site. All of these are important when designing a garden that is going to be resilient in the face of a changing climate.

Basic information about the site is collected and stored in a notebook or on a laptop or tablet. The type of information to gather includes:

•Existing buildings: houses, garages, sheds, greenhouse outbuildings

•Existing plants: trees, shrubs, hedges, herbaceous plants – are they worth retaining?

•Boundaries: position, form of boundary (hedge, fence, wall)

•Soil: types (sand, silt, clay, chalky), pH, depth, condition (seeChapter 2)

•Existing hard surface areas: drives, paths, parking areas, patios – can they be retained or reused?

•Other features: views from the site, water features, ornaments

Adjacent Land Use and Topography

Look at the surrounding area. Does it slope? If so, which way? If it slopes towards your garden, is it likely that water is going to enter it? Where will any water flow?

Note the surrounding land: how high or low is your ground and the ground surrounding it? If it looks likely that water could flow into your garden (and possibly your house), what can be done to prevent this? At the design stage it is easy to incorporate swales, berms, ditches, drains, ponds, wet areas and rain gardens, rather than adding them later. Consider the use of raised beds if the land is likely to be wet for long periods.

Whether your garden is a new or an existing site, survey it or have it professionally surveyed and designed. A new site is likely to be a blank canvas, possibly apart from retained trees, so it can be designed from scratch. If it is an existing garden or you are redeveloping your garden, try to retain any existing trees if they are healthy, and possibly some shrubs too. This gives the garden a mature feel and retains any carbon within the trees and shrubs.

Clearing the Area

Try not to carry out wholesale demolition without thinking through the consequences; one of which will be a lot of waste, unless the materials can be reused. Waste is both expensive to dispose of and wasteful in resources, so consider retaining buildings that are in good condition. Demolition waste like hardcore can be used as a base for drives, paths, patios and buildings, thus saving money and carbon footprint. Wood can be used as biomass for heating, if it is not suitable for other uses. Any plant waste can be composted or used in a hügelkultur (seeChapter 6). Your aim should be to clear the site with the lowest possible carbon footprint and zero waste.

Many plants, even semi-mature trees, can be moved if prepared properly. Small trees and medium-sized shrubs are reasonably easy to move and replant onsite or elsewhere. Most small shrubs and herbaceous plants are easy to lift and transplant – this should be done in the autumn or winter.

Any plants removed should be recycled by composting the soft green material; use any woody material for habitats for wildlife or as biomass. Perennial weed roots can be put into a bucket or an old paint tin, half-filled with water, where they will rot and can then be added to the compost heap. Where possible, retain any mature plants that will fit in with the design as they will help to give the garden instant maturity and – in the case of trees – will already be sequestering carbon.

Any topsoil should be retained onsite – it is too valuable a material to have carted away. Even removing subsoil is not sustainable and should be kept onsite for grading out to get the levels required before covering with topsoil. If wildflower areas are wanted, these are better sown on subsoil as it has low fertility and tends to produce better-flowering plants, whereas topsoil can be too fertile and produces lush leaf growth and many coarse weeds but fewer flowers.

Buildings other than sheds, greenhouses and polytunnels are not easy to move, but before demolishing them consider if they can be used or converted to another use. For example, an old barn could make a good garage or storage area. If the buildings have no use or are not required and are demolished, before carting the debris offsite consider if it could be used onsite, which will reduce transport costs and the carbon footprint. Metal can be recycled via scrap merchants and wood has many uses, from biomass through to uses in the garden.

Your aim should be to clear the area with the lowest possible carbon footprint and zero waste; unless the site has been contaminated in the past, nearly everything onsite should be reusable in some form. Try to make this point to any architects, builders and contractors involved – certainly builders are notorious for creating waste from materials that still have value. If you intend to have wildflower or natural areas, can some of the original plants be retained? There is no point in clearing grasses, scrub and trees if you wish to create a natural area – just retain the existing plants with possibly some selective thinning or removal of unwanted species.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Whether you design the garden yourself or engage a garden designer may depend on your budget, time available and skills. Either way, aim for as sustainable a design as possible using the minimum of hard landscape materials – not too large a formal lawn and an area for growing vegetables and possibly fruit. Choose the right plants for the right places, so they thrive and do not require expensive maintenance.

If building from scratch, is it worth incorporating a permanent irrigation system using low water-use systems and an underground storage tank? These keep water use to a minimum, yet lead to healthy plant growth. They have little or no maintenance, and once installed no costs (other than the water, which, if collected from the roof, is free). Aim to design a garden that requires the minimum use of water by including gravel, xeriscape (see later in this chapter) and dry gardens. If the garden is in a wet area, grow plants that are adapted to these conditions. This is more sustainable than constantly having to maintain them and/or installing a drainage scheme.

Features to include in the garden will depend on your personal choice, although some may be dictated by the site, soil or location. If the site is wet or prone to flooding then swales, raised beds, rain gardens, ponds and other similar features will be useful. If the garden is located in the drier eastern side of the UK, lack of water may be a bigger problem and water collection in large tanks, ponds, water butts, irrigation systems in the soil and other similar equipment will be useful.

We will look at some of the features to include in a new or renovated garden below:

Hard Landscaping

In the past, garden designers have used too much hard landscaping materials in their designs. This is not sustainable and should be reduced. In areas of high rainfall, like Wales and the western side of England and Scotland, hard landscaping should be kept to a minimum – this gives a greater area to grow plants, which is what gardening is really about. Ensure any water can either permeate through the hard landscaping or the surrounding areas can absorb it. Otherwise leave gaps in the hard landscaping area for water to penetrate and plant these with low-growing plants like thymes or some alpines. Try to break up larger areas of hard landscaping with planted areas or trees in pits. These will collect water and allow it to drain into the soil.

Leaving aside the question of how much energy is used in the making or quarrying and transporting of hard landscape materials, which all add to the effects of climate change, let us consider the use of hard landscaping in the garden. As mentioned above, the less used the better, as this gives a greater area for water percolation and planting, which gives the garden a more relaxed feel. Many front gardens have been covered in tarmac, concrete or block pavers, which forces any water out onto the highways, consequently causing flooding once the drainage system is full (they were not designed to take water from the gardens, only the highways). Any hard landscaped areas included in your garden should have sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). This will mean they will cope with rainwater locally (within the garden, if possible), rather than pushing the problem further downstream, causing flooding. Aim to mimic the natural drainage of soils and woodlands so the water infiltrates into the soil. Good examples of SuDS include: permeable paving, swales, rain gardens, wet gardens or bog gardens.

It is possible to have paved parking spaces that allows water to percolate and plants to grow, giving a more attractive area. The area that the car will actually drive over or park on can be paved, but the area between the wheels can be planted with low-growing plants and either side of the parking area can also be planted. An alternative is to use porous paving, grasscrete (either with concrete or plastic grids for support) that will hold the weight of a car or van, or block pavers with narrow gaps between for water to pass through. Porous paving is available, which allows water to pass through, drain into the sub-base and then down into the subsoil; there are types of porous asphalt and concrete that can be supplied and laid by contractors.

Attractive paths can be constructed from bricks set with a 6mm (¼in) gap between each one, allowing water to enter; the same can be done with setts or pavers. Ensure they are laid onto a free-draining but firm base of crushed stone and sand. Over time, moss may grow in the gaps but this can easily be brushed off – some people consider moss to be attractive, giving a feel of maturity while water can still percolate through.

The carbon footprint of the design can be reduced by using natural stone or, even better, recycled stone, rather than concrete or tarmac. Although natural stone may be more sustainable if quarried locally, it is still expensive and you should consider the damage it does to the countryside. Having said that, using a local stone or material is far better than importing stone from India or other Asian countries – this is not sustainable and has a massive carbon footprint, so should be avoided.

Aggregates and gravels are useful for drives, paths and larger areas, and they are permeable and cheaper than many of the other hard landscaping materials. They are easy to lay and require little maintenance other than the occasional weeding and raking to keep them loose. After a number of years, they may need topping up where they have worn thin. There are a range of materials that can be used including pea gravel, shingle, slate chippings, seashells, glass and rubber crumbs. Also there are the self-binding gravels like Bredon gravel, which are laid over a hardcore base. Self-binding gravels are a mixture of aggregate, sand and clay and are laid to a depth of 7.5–10cm (3–4in), levelled and compacted. They form an even, hard-wearing surface for paths, cycle tracks and even car parks. They can sometimes form puddles on low-lying areas, but these will drain in a day or so.

Decking, usually made of wood, has become common in many gardens over the last twenty or thirty years. I have to admit to never being keen on it as I feel there are better uses for wood, especially if imported from halfway around the world. Even the best timber has a limited life span and is often slippery after rain or heavy dew. Underneath the decking also offers the perfect home for the local rat population! Having said that, timber is a sustainable and renewable material and can be reasonably priced, as well as locking up carbon in the wood. Decking can be an attractive feature and may blend into the garden well. It will need treating with preservative at intervals to prevent rotting – avoid using toxic chemicals but choose a natural preservative. Ensure any wood is FSC certified and not from illegal logging.

An alternative to wooden decking is the recycled plastic type of timber made from recycled plastic bottles. This is commonly available in black and dark brown and looks reasonably wood-like. It makes use of recycled plastic and is long-lasting as well as rot proof.

Moving away from the surface or horizontal hard landscaping, vertical hard landscaping includes features such as fences, walls (both boundary and internal), trellises, pergolas, arches and other structures. Again, try to use sustainable and/or recycled materials. Although, at first glance, wooden fences may seem a more sustainable option than walls, they need annual treatment to prevent rotting, often using chemicals, and will eventually rot and need replacing. Brick, stone or block walls may have a high carbon footprint but they will last a lifetime without any maintenance, other than repointing once every twenty years.

If using timber, choose either FSC-approved timber or natural timber from local woodlands or coppices that will last a few years and then be replaced with similar wood – this will be a choice made at the design stage.

Trees

We all need to plant more trees. The British government set a target to plant 30 million trees by 2030, but is well behind target at present. There are charities such as The Woodland Trust, National Trust, Trees for Cities and others who are planting many trees on their land – and if you do not have space for a tree, they will be happy for you to help plant some for them!

Trees are very important as they are the largest plants so will absorb the most carbon dioxide and produce the most oxygen. They are also excellent in reducing air pollution, as the particulates from the air land on the leaves and are either washed off by rain onto the ground or stay on the leaf until it drops onto the ground, thus leaving the air cleaner. Trees can reduce the air temperature by 2–8°C, which during hot periods like the summer of 2022 can make a big difference to people who are struggling. In urban areas, this reduces the heat island effect where the heat builds up during the day and remains high overnight, making the atmosphere unpleasant and sleep difficult.

During rain, especially heavy rain, trees can intercept up to 30 per cent of the water. In the summer, much will be evaporated back into the atmosphere, reducing the risk of flooding. Trees also slow the speed of rain, which slows soil erosion and delays the water reaching the drains, again reducing the risk of flooding. Trees provide shade and reduce the amount of heat entering buildings, keeping homes or buildings pleasant while reducing the need to use energy for air conditioning.

Small Trees Suitable for Domestic Gardens

•Acer davidii

•Acer griseum

•Acer japonicum

•Acer palmatum

•Amelanchier lamarckii

•Cornus kousa

•Cornus ‘Porlock’

•Crataegus laevigata ‘Pauls Scarlet’

•Crataegus prunifolia

•Cydonia oblonga ‘Vranja’

•Ilex × altaclerensis

•Juniperus communis ‘Hibernica’

•Laburnum × watereri ‘Vossii’

•Magnolia × soulangeana

•Magnolia stellata

•Malus ‘Evereste’

•Malus ‘Golden Hornet’

•Malus ‘John Downie’

•Pinus mugo

•Prunus ‘Cheal’s Weeping’

•Prunus ‘Pandora’

•Prunus