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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The newest edition of the gold standard in corrosion reference resources
In the newly revised fifth edition of Corrosion and Corrosion Control, distinguished scientist and program manager R. Winston Revie delivers a uniquely up-to-date resource reflecting the current knowledge of corrosion science and engineering. This book offers updated explanations of the essential aspects of corrosion science and engineering that underpin the tools and technologies used for managing and controlling corrosion.
“Relying heavily on a quantitative approach – along with basic equations that are explained and derived, as well as illustrative problems with solutions – the basic thermodynamic and electrochemical principles that drive corrosion are discussed.” The book also includes practical corrosion control measures, like cathodic protection, coatings, inhibitors, and the use of plastics as a substitute for metals.
Readers will also find:
- A thorough introduction to new materials, including multi-principal element alloys, and calculations of corrosion rates of alloys
- Comprehensive explorations of corrosion-resistant materials
- Practical discussions of texture as related to stress-corrosion cracking
- Complete treatments of materials reliability and risk in a variety of industries, including biomedical, energy, and transportation
Perfect for advanced undergraduate and graduate students studying corrosion in engineering, materials science, and chemistry programs, Corrosion and Corrosion Control will also benefit engineers, scientists, and technologists, as well as lawyers engaged in litigation involving materials exposed to the environment.
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Seitenzahl: 918
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
COVER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
PREFACE
NOTE
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
1 DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION
1.1 DEFINITION OF CORROSION
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION
1.3 RISK MANAGEMENT
1.4 CAUSES OF CORROSION
1.5 PREVENTING CORROSION FAILURES
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
NOTE
2 ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISMS
2.1 THE DRY‐CELL ANALOGY AND FARADAY'S LAW
2.2 DEFINITION OF ANODE AND CATHODE
2.3 TYPES OF CELLS
2.4 TYPES OF CORROSION DAMAGE
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
3 THERMODYNAMICS: CORROSION TENDENCY AND ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
3.1 CHANGE OF GIBBS FREE ENERGY
3.2 MEASURING THE EMF OF A CELL
3.3 CALCULATING THE HALF‐CELL POTENTIAL – THE NERNST EQUATION
3.4 THE HYDROGEN ELECTRODE AND THE STANDARD HYDROGEN SCALE
3.5 CONVENTION OF SIGNS AND CALCULATION OF EMF
3.6 MEASUREMENT OF pH
3.7 THE OXYGEN ELECTRODE AND DIFFERENTIAL AERATION CELL
3.8 THE EMF AND GALVANIC SERIES
3.9 LIQUID JUNCTION POTENTIALS
3.10 REFERENCE ELECTRODES
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTE
4 THERMODYNAMICS: POURBAIX DIAGRAMS
4.1 BASIS OF POURBAIX DIAGRAMS
4.2 POURBAIX DIAGRAM FOR WATER
4.3 POURBAIX DIAGRAM FOR IRON
4.4 POURBAIX DIAGRAM OF ALUMINUM
4.5 POURBAIX DIAGRAM OF MAGNESIUM
4.6 LIMITATIONS OF POURBAIX DIAGRAMS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
5 KINETICS: POLARIZATION AND CORROSION RATES
5.1 POLARIZATION
5.2 THE POLARIZED CELL
5.3 HOW POLARIZATION IS MEASURED
5.4 CAUSES OF POLARIZATION
5.5 HYDROGEN OVERPOTENTIAL
5.6 POLARIZATION DIAGRAMS OF CORRODING METALS
5.7 INFLUENCE OF POLARIZATION ON CORROSION RATE
5.8 CALCULATION OF CORROSION RATES FROM POLARIZATION DATA
5.9 ANODE–CATHODE AREA RATIO
5.10 ELECTROCHEMICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY
5.11 THEORY OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
6 PASSIVITY
6.1 DEFINITION
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSIVATION AND THE FLADE POTENTIAL
6.3 PASSIVATORS
*
6.4 ANODIC PROTECTION AND TRANSPASSIVITY
6.5 THEORIES OF PASSIVITY
*
6.6 More Stable Passive Films with Time
6.7 Action of Chloride Ions and Passive–Active Cells
6.8 Critical Pitting Potential (CPP)
6.9 CRITICAL PITTING TEMPERATURE
6.10 PASSIVITY OF ALLOYS
6.11 EFFECT OF CATHODIC POLARIZATION AND CATALYSIS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
7 IRON AND STEEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENTS
7.3 METALLURGICAL FACTORS
7.4 STEEL REINFORCEMENTS IN CONCRETE
7.5 CORROSION OF STEEL UNDER INSULATION
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
8 EFFECT OF STRESS
8.1 COLD WORK
8.2 STRESS‐CORROSION CRACKING
8.3 MECHANISMS OF STRESS‐CORROSION CRACKING OF STEEL AND OTHER METALS
8.4 HYDROGEN DAMAGE
8.5 RADIATION DAMAGE
8.6 CORROSION FATIGUE
8.7 FRETTING CORROSION
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTE
9 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 TYPES OF ATMOSPHERES
9.3 CORROSION‐PRODUCT FILMS
9.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING CORROSIVITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
9.5 REMEDIAL MEASURES
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
10 CORROSION IN SOILS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSIVITY OF SOILS
10.3 BUREAU OF STANDARDS TESTS
10.4 STRESS‐CORROSION CRACKING
10.5 REMEDIAL MEASURES
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
11 OXIDATION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 INITIAL STAGES
11.3 THERMODYNAMICS OF OXIDATION: ELLINGHAM DIAGRAMS—FREE ENERGY VERSUS TEMPERATURE GRAPHS
11.4 PROTECTIVE AND NONPROTECTIVE SCALES
11.5 WAGNER THEORY OF OXIDATION
11.6 OXIDE PROPERTIES AND OXIDATION
11.7 GALVANIC EFFECTS AND ELECTROLYSIS OF OXIDES
11.8 HOT ASH CORROSION
11.9 HOT CORROSION
11.10 OXIDATION OF COPPER
11.11 OXIDATION OF IRON AND IRON ALLOYS
11.12 LIFE TEST FOR OXIDATION‐RESISTANT WIRES
11.13 OXIDATION‐RESISTANT ALLOYS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTE
12 STRAY‐CURRENT CORROSION
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 SOURCES
12.3 QUANTITATIVE DAMAGE
12.4 DETECTION
12.5 SOIL‐RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT
12.6 REDUCING STRAY‐CURRENT CORROSION
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
13 CATHODIC PROTECTION
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 BRIEF HISTORY
13.3 HOW APPLIED
13.4 COMBINED USE WITH COATINGS
13.5 CURRENT REQUIRED
13.6 ANODE MATERIALS AND BACKFILL
13.7 CRITERIA OF PROTECTION
13.8 ECONOMICS OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
13.9 ANODIC PROTECTION
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
14 COATINGS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 METALLIC COATINGS
14.3 ORGANIC COATINGS
14.4 INORGANIC COATINGS
14.5 NEW‐GENERATION COATINGS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
NOTES
15 INHIBITORS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 PASSIVATORS
15.3 PICKLING INHIBITORS
15.4 SLUSHING COMPOUNDS
15.5 VAPOR‐PHASE INHIBITORS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
NOTE
16 TREATMENT OF WATER AND STEAM SYSTEMS
16.1 DEAERATION AND DEACTIVATION
16.2 HOT‐ AND COLD‐WATER TREATMENT
16.3 BOILER‐WATER TREATMENT
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEM
17 ALLOYING FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE; STAINLESS STEELS; MULTI‐PRINCIPAL ELEMENT ALLOYS
17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 STAINLESS STEELS
17.3 MULTI‐PRINCIPAL ELEMENT ALLOYS
17.4 CALCULATING CORROSION RATES OF ALLOYS FROM ELECTROCHEMICAL DATA
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTES
18 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
18.1 INTRODUCTION
18.2 COPPER ALLOYS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
NOTE
19 ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 ALUMINUM ALLOYS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
NOTE
20 MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 MAGNESIUM
20.3 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
20.4 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
21 NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 NICKEL
21.3 NICKEL ALLOYS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
22 COBALT AND COBALT ALLOYS
22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 COBALT ALLOYS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
NOTE
23 TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
23.1 TITANIUM
23.2 TITANIUM ALLOYS
23.3 PITTING AND CREVICE CORROSION
23.4 INTERGRANULAR CORROSION AND STRESS‐CORROSION CRACKING
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
PROBLEM
NOTE
24 ZIRCONIUM
24.1 INTRODUCTION
24.2 ZIRCONIUM ALLOYS
24.3 CHARACTERISTICS IN HOT WATER AND STEAM
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
25 TANTALUM
25.1 INTRODUCTION
25.2 CORROSION CHARACTERISTICS
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCE
26 LEAD
26.1 INTRODUCTION
26.2 CORROSION CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAD AND LEAD ALLOYS
26.3 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
27 PLASTICS AS CORROSION‐RESISTANT MATERIALS
27.1 INTRODUCTION
27.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLASTICS
27.3 PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
27.4 APPLICATIONS OF PLASTICS AS CORROSION‐RESISTANT MATERIALS
27.5 FAILURES
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
NOTE
28 APPENDIX
28.1 ACTIVITY AND ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF STRONG ELECTROLYTES
28.2 DERIVATION OF STERN–GEARY EQUATION FOR CALCULATING CORROSION RATES FROM POLARIZATION DATA OBTAINED AT LOW CURRENT DENSITIES
28.3 DERIVATION OF EQUATION EXPRESSING THE SATURATION INDEX OF A NATURAL WATER
28.4 DERIVATION OF POTENTIAL CHANGE ALONG A CATHODICALLY PROTECTED PIPELINE
28.5 DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION FOR POTENTIAL DROP ALONG THE SOIL SURFACE CREATED BY CURRENT ENTERING OR LEAVING A BURIED PIPE
28.6 DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION FOR DETERMINING RESISTIVITY OF SOIL BY FOUR‐ELECTRODE METHOD
28.7 DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION EXPRESSING WEIGHT LOSS BY FRETTING CORROSION
28.8 CONVERSION FACTORS
28.9 STANDARD POTENTIALS
28.10 NOTATION AND ABBREVIATIONS
REFERENCES
NOTE
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 3
TABLE 3.1 Ionization Constant
K
W
and pH of Pure Water at Various Temperature...
TABLE 3.2 Electromotive Force (Emf) Series
TABLE 3.3 Characteristic Liquid Junction Potentials of Salt Solutions
a
TABLE 3.4 Potentials of Calomel Reference Electrodes
Chapter 5
TABLE 5.1 Overpotential Values
a
TABLE 5.2 Comparison of Calculated and Observed Corrosion Currents for Pure ...
Chapter 6
TABLE 6.1 Critical Pitting Potentials in 0.1
N
NaCl at 25 °C
Chapter 7
TABLE 7.1 Corrosion Rates of Various Steels when Oxygen Diffusion Is Control...
TABLE 7.2 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen on Corrosion of Mild Steel in Acids
TABLE 7.3 Data for Calculating the Langelier Saturation Index [34, 35]
TABLE 7.4 Alkalinity‐pH Limits for Uniform Scale Deposition at Various Tempe...
TABLE 7.5 Corrosion Rates of Iron Alloys in Deaerated Citric Acid and in 4% ...
Chapter 8
TABLE 8.1 Some Alloy–Environment SCC Systems
TABLE 8.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking Control Measures
a
TABLE 8.3 Susceptibility
a
of Solid Metals to Embrittlement by Liquid Metals...
TABLE 8.4 Some Critical Potentials for Initiation of SCC
TABLE 8.5 Fatigue Limit and Corrosion Fatigue Strength of Various Metals
TABLE 8.6 Critical Minimum Corrosion Rates, 25 °C, 30 Cycles/s
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1 Atmospheric Corrosive Gases in Outdoor Urban Environments
TABLE 9.2 Average Atmospheric Corrosion Rates of Various Metals for 10‐ and ...
TABLE 9.3 Comparison of Atmospheric Corrosion Rates with Average Rates in Se...
TABLE 9.4 Variation of SO
2
Content of Air with Distance from Center of City...
TABLE 9.5 Effect of Low‐Alloy Components on Atmospheric Corrosion of Commerc...
Chapter 10
TABLE 10.1 Corrosion of Steels, Copper, Lead, and Zinc in Soils
Chapter 11
TABLE 11.1 Pilling–Bedworth Ratios
a
TABLE 11.2 Oxidation of Nickel Alloyed with Chromium, 1000 °C, 1 atm O
2
TABLE 11.3 Oxidation of Zinc, 390 °C, 1 atm O
2
TABLE 11.4 Approximate Upper‐Temperature Limits for Exposure of Cr–Fe Alloys...
Chapter 12
TABLE 12.1 Weight Loss of Metals by Stray‐Current Corrosion
Chapter 13
TABLE 13.1 Orders of Magnitude of Current Density Required for Cathodic Prot...
TABLE 13.2 Calculated Minimum Potential for Cathodic Protection
Chapter 14
TABLE 14.1 Atmospheric Corrosion Rates of Zinc
TABLE 14.2 Effect of Surface Preparation of Steel on Life of Paint Coatings ...
Chapter 15
TABLE 15.1 Effect of Chromate Concentration, Chlorides, and Temperature on C...
TABLE 15.2 Corrosion Rates of Mild Steel in Sodium Nitrite Solutions Contain...
TABLE 15.3 Critical Concentrations of NaCl or Na
2
SO
4
above which Pitting of ...
Chapter 16
TABLE 16.1 Approximate Allowable Oxygen Concentration in Deaerated Water for...
Chapter 17
TABLE 17.1 Reaction Limits [1]
TABLE 17.2 Types and Compositions of Stainless Steels
Chapter 19
TABLE 19.1 Composition Limits for Some Wrought Aluminum Alloys
a
Chapter 20
TABLE 20.1 Nominal Compositions of Some Magnesium Alloys
a
Chapter 21
TABLE 21.1 Alloying Elements and Their Major Effects in Alloys for Aqueous C...
TABLE 21.2 Alloying Elements and Their Major Effects in High‐Temperature All...
TABLE 21.3 Typical Compositions (%) of Commercial Nickel‐Base Alloys
Chapter 22
TABLE 22.1 Nominal compositions (%) of Cobalt Alloys
Chapter 23
TABLE 23.1 Corrosion Rates of Commercial Titanium in Alkaline‐Peroxide Solut...
TABLE 23.2 Some Commonly Used Titanium Alloys
Chapter 27
TABLE 27.1 Examples of Polymeric Materials Used as Liners and Coatings
a
TABLE 27.2 Visual Evidence of Failure and Possible Causes
a
Chapter 28
TABLE 28.1 Activity Coefficients of Strong Electrolytes (
M
= molality)
TABLE 28.2 Values of as a Function of pH
s
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 A simplified approach to risk management, indicating qualitativel...
Figure 1.2 Tetrahedron of 4 approaches to prevent corrosion failures.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Dry cell.
Figure 2.2 Metal surface enlarged, showing schematic arrangement of local‐ac...
Figure 2.3 Salt concentration cell.
Figure 2.4 Differential aeration cell.
Figure 2.5 Differential aeration cell formed by rust on iron.
Figure 2.6 Water‐line corrosion, showing differential aeration cell.
Figure 2.7 Sketch of deepest pit in relation to average metal penetration an...
Figure 2.8 Anodic areas, sites where crevice corrosion develops.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Hydrogen electrode.
Figure 3.2 Copper–zinc cell.
Figure 3.3 Galvanic series in seawater.
Figure 3.4 A type of calomel reference electrode.
Figure 3.5 Schematic of a silver–silver chloride reference electrode.
Figure 3.6 Copper–saturated copper sulfate reference electrode.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Pourbaix diagram for water at 25 °C, showing the oxygen line,
b
, ...
Figure 4.2 Pourbaix diagram for the iron–water system at 25 °C, considering ...
Figure 4.3 Pourbaix diagram for the aluminum–water system at 25 °C.
Figure 4.4 Pourbaix diagram for the magnesium–water system at 25 °C.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Polarized copper–zinc cell.
Figure 5.2 Polarization diagram for copper–zinc cell.
Figure 5.3 (
a
) Cell for measuring polarization. (
b
) Schematic diagram of com...
Figure 5.4 Dependence of concentration polarization at a cathode on applied ...
Figure 5.5 Hydrogen overpotential as a function of current density.
Figure 5.6 Polarization diagram.
Figure 5.7 Types of corrosion control.
Figure 5.8 Polarization diagram for corroding metal when anode area equals o...
Figure 5.9 Polarization diagram for zinc amalgam in deaerated HCl.
Figure 5.10 Relation between polarization slope at low applied current densi...
Figure 5.11 (
a
) Electrical equivalent circuit model used to represent an ele...
Figure 5.12 Electrochemical impedance data for cast 99.9% magnesium in pH 9....
Figure 5.13 Bode magnitude and phase angle plots showing the frequency depen...
Figure 5.14 Cathodic protection by impressed current.
Figure 5.15 Polarization diagram illustrating principle of cathodic protecti...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Potentiostatic anodic polarization curve for iron in 1
N
H
2
SO
4
[6]...
Figure 6.2 Galvanostatic anodic polarization curve for iron in 1N H
2
SO
4
.
Figure 6.3 Decay of passivity of iron in 1
N
H
2
SO
4
showing Flade potential,
φ
...
Figure 6.4 Standard Flade potentials for chromium–iron alloys and chromium [...
Figure 6.5 Polarization diagram for metal that is either active or passive, ...
Figure 6.6 Corrosion rates in sulfuric acid of 18–8 stainless steel alloyed ...
Figure 6.7 Schematic illustration of the place exchange mechanism for passiv...
Figure 6.8 Schematic illustration of the duplex model for the passive film o...
Figure 6.9 Schematic structure of initial passive films containing less or m...
Figure 6.10 Potentiostatic polarization curves for 18–8 stainless steel in 0...
Figure 6.11 Corrosion rates of chromium–iron alloys in intermittent water sp...
Figure 6.12 Potentials of chromium–iron alloys in 4% NaCl.
Figure 6.13 Critical current densities for passivation of chromium–iron allo...
Figure 6.14 Corrosion rates of copper–nickel alloys in aerated 3% NaCl, 80 °...
Figure 6.15 Behavior of copper–nickel alloys in seawater.
Figure 6.16 Values of critical and passive current densities obtained from p...
Figure 6.17 Potential decay curves for nickel–copper and nickel–copper–zinc ...
Figure 6.18 Plot of excess electrons or d‐electron vacancies in nickel–coppe...
Figure 6.19 Catalytic efficiency of nickel–copper alloys for 2H→H
2
as a func...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Effect of oxygen concentration on corrosion of mild steel in slow...
Figure 7.2 Effect of temperature on corrosion of iron in water containing di...
Figure 7.3 Effect of pH on corrosion of iron in aerated soft water, room tem...
Figure 7.4 Corrosion of 9.2% Co–Fe alloy in 1
N
H
2
SO
4
, showing an inhibiting ...
Figure 7.5 Effect of velocity on corrosion of mild steel (0.12% C) in 0.33
N
...
Figure 7.6 Effect of hydrogen overpotential of cathode on galvanic corrosion...
Figure 7.7 Effect of anode–cathode area ratio on corrosion of galvanic coupl...
Figure 7.8 Effect of velocity on corrosion of mild steel tubes containing Ca...
Figure 7.9 Effect of velocity on corrosion of steel in seawater.
Figure 7.10 Cavitation‐erosion damage to cylinder liner of a diesel engine....
Figure 7.11 Effect of sodium chloride concentration on corrosion of iron in ...
Figure 7.12 Relationship between the Langelier index and the corrosion rates...
Figure 7.13 Effect of alloyed phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon in iron on cor...
Figure 7.14 Polarization diagram showing effect of coupling of a low‐alloy s...
Figure 7.15 Corrosion process for steel in concrete.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Effect of heat treatment of cold‐worked 0.076% C steel (85% reduc...
Figure 8.2 Effect of carbon in steels cold‐rolled 50%, or subsequently annea...
Figure 8.3 Effect of heat treatment of mild steel after quenching or cold ro...
Figure 8.4 Effect of applied potential on time to failure of stressed modera...
Figure 8.5 Effect of applied potential on time to failure of stressed modera...
Figure 8.6 Effect of applied potential on stress‐corrosion cracking of mild ...
Figure 8.7 Effect of applied potential on failure times of 0.09% C mild stee...
Figure 8.8 Relation of applied stress to time to fracture of 66% Cu, 34% Zn ...
Figure 8.9 Mode 1 type of crack opening.
Figure 8.10 Effect of stress intensity at a crack tip on stress‐corrosion cr...
Figure 8.11 Dependence of crack velocity of 7075 Al alloy on stress intensit...
Figure 8.12 Delayed fracture times and minimum stress for cracking of 0.4% C...
Figure 8.13 Effect of applied potential on time to failure of 4140 low‐alloy...
Figure 8.14 (
a
) Hydrogen‐induced cracking (HIC); (
b
) Stress‐oriented hydroge...
Figure 8.15
S
–
N
curve for steels subjected to cyclic stress.
Figure 8.16 Corrosion‐fatigue crack through mild steel sheet, resulting from...
Figure 8.17 Tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit in dry air, and ...
Figure 8.18 Effect of dissolved oxygen concentration in 3% NaCl, 25 °C, on f...
Figure 8.19 Extrusions and intrusions in copper after 6 × 10
5
cycles in air....
Figure 8.20 Weight loss of mild steel versus mild steel by fretting corrosio...
Figure 8.21 Idealized model of fretting action at a metallic surface.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Atmospheric corrosion of steels as a function of time in an indus...
Figure 9.2 Variation of average sulfur dioxide content of New York City air ...
Figure 9.3 Corrosion of iron in air containing 0.01% SO
2
, 55 days' exposure,...
Figure 9.4 General arrangement of electrochemical device for measurement of ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Nuclei of Cu
2
O formed on copper surface at 10
−1
mm Hg oxyg...
Figure 11.2 Standard Gibbs free energy of formation of oxides as a function ...
Figure 11.3 Equations expressing growth of film thickness,
y
, as a function ...
Figure 11.4 Formation of silver sulfide from silver and liquid sulfur, 1‐h t...
Figure 11.5 Lattice defects.
Figure 11.6 Effect of coupling tantalum to silver on reaction of iodine vapo...
Figure 11.7 Galvanic cellPt; O
2
, borate melt; Niillustrating accelerated o...
Figure 11.8 Effect of alloyed chromium on oxidation of steels containing 0.5...
Figure 11.9 Life of heat‐resistant alloy wires in ASTM life test as a functi...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Stray‐current corrosion of buried pipe.
Figure 12.2 Stray‐current damage to ship by welding generator.
Figure 12.3 Effect of current flowing along a buried pipeline on corrosion n...
Figure 12.4 Four‐electrode method for measuring soil resistivity.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Sketch of cathodically protected pipe, auxiliary anode, and rect...
Figure 13.2 Cathodically protected pipe with sacrificial anode.
Figure 13.3 Cathodically protected hot‐water tank with magnesium anode.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Sketch of current flow at defects in noble and sacrificial coati...
Figure 14.2 Undermining of nickel electrodeposit on steel by galvanic corros...
Figure 14.3 Effect of pH on corrosion of zinc, aerated solutions, 30 °C.
Figure 14.4 Filiform corrosion. (
a
) Lacquered tin can. 1×. (
b
) Clear varnish...
Figure 14.5 Schematic views of filiform filament on iron showing details of ...
Figure 14.6 Scanning electron photomicrograph of phosphated type 1010 mild s...
Figure 14.7 Schematic showing steel with self‐healing coating containing cap...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Polarization curves that show effect of passivator concentration...
Figure 15.2 Effect of oxygen concentration on sodium polyphosphate as a corr...
Figure 15.3 Polarization diagram for steel corroding in pickling acid with a...
Figure 15.4 Effect of inhibitor concentration on corrosion of 0.1% C steel i...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Effect of cobalt and copper salts on reaction rate of Na
2
SO
3
wit...
Figure 16.2 Sketch of one type of steam deaerator.
Figure 16.3 Embrittlement detector which, when attached to an operating boil...
Figure 16.4 Corrosion of iron by water at 310 °C (590 °F) at various values ...
Figure 16.5 Structural formulas for three neutralizing‐type amines.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Typical microstructure of a duplex stainless steel. The grains a...
Figure 17.2 Effect of time and temperature on sensitization of 18.2% Cr, 11....
Figure 17.3 Example of weld decay (2×). After sensitization, specimen was ex...
Figure 17.4 Intergranular corrosion measured by change in electrical resista...
Figure 17.5 Passive–active cell responsible for pit growth in stainless stee...
Figure 17.6 (
a
) Elongated pit in 18–8 stainless steel specimen 75 × 125 mm (...
Figure 17.7 Stress‐corrosion cracking of 18–8, type 304 stainless steel; exp...
Figure 17.8 Relation between chloride and oxygen content of boiler water on ...
Figure 17.9 Stress‐corrosion cracking of 15–26% Cr–Fe–Ni alloy wires in 42% ...
Figure 17.10 Stress‐corrosion cracking of cold‐rolled 19% Cr, 20% Ni austeni...
Figure 17.11 Schematic diagram showing relationship between MPEAs, CCAs, and...
Figure 17.12 Potentiodynamic polarization curve for a high‐entropy alloy, Al
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of corrosion, immunity, and pas...
Figure 18.2 Longitudinal cross‐section of undercut pits associated with impi...
Figure 18.3 Trends of dezincification, stress‐corrosion cracking, and imping...
Figure 18.4 Plug‐type dezincification in brass pipe (actual size).
Figure 18.5 Layer‐type dezincification in brass bolts (actual size).
Figure 18.6 Intergranular stress‐corrosion cracking of brass (75 ×) (specime...
Figure 18.7 Effect of applied potential on time to failure of 37% Zn–Cu bras...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Effect of pH on corrosion of commercially pure aluminum (1100), ...
Figure 19.2 Weight loss as a function of time for 99.99% Al in boiling, dist...
Figure 19.3 Effect of water on corrosion rate of 99.99% Al in boiling CCl
4
....
Figure 19.4 Corrosion rates of commercially pure aluminum (1100) in nitric a...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Corrosion of magnesium in 3% NaCl, alternate immersion, 16 weeks...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of corrosion, immunity, and pas...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of corrosion, immunity, and pas...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of corrosion, immunity, and pas...
Figure 23.2 Corrosion of titanium in boiling 10% HCl as a function of Fe
3+
...
Figure 23.3 Critical pitting potentials of commercial titanium and 1% Mo–Ti ...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Theoretical conditions of corrosion, immunity, and passivation o...
Figure 24.2 Corrosion of Zircaloy‐2 in high‐temperature water and steam, sho...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of immunity and passivation for...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Theoretical potential–pH domains of corrosion, immunity, and pas...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Polarization diagram for corroding metal polarized anodically fr...
Figure 28.2 Polarization diagram for metal corroding under control by oxygen...
Figure 28.3 Relative errors in corrosion currents calculated by use of Eqs. ...
Figure 28.4 Chart for calculating saturation index. (“Ca” and “alkalinity” e...
Figure 28.5 Values of pH of water at elevated temperatures. (
a
) For water at...
Figure 28.6 Sketch of buried pipe cathodically protected by anodes distance
Figure 28.7 Sketch of buried pipe at which current enters or leaves, causing...
Figure 28.8 Sketch of four‐electrode arrangement for determining soil resist...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Preface to the Fourth Edition
About the Companion Website
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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CORROSION AND CORROSION CONTROL
FIFTH EDITION
R. Winston RevieOttawa, Ontario, Canada
Herbert H. UhligFormer Professor EmeritusDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, Massachusetts
Copyright © 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies.
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PREFACE
The great metallurgical achievements of the twentieth century must include the development (and subsequent commercialization) of alloys, such as stainless steels, nickel‐base alloys, and others, to resist corrosion in specific environments. When the achievements of the twenty‐first century are eventually assessed, the new approach to alloy development that has already resulted in multi-principal element alloys (MPEAs) will be a metallurgical highlight of this century. The development of these alloys, still in the early stages, has opened a universe of opportunity for meeting the challenges of materials performance and reliability in the most aggressive and corrosive environments, many of which are in the energy industry. These developments of materials science will be critical in achieving the transition to low‐carbon energy and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining energy security, enhancing industrial prosperity, and advancing public safety.
More than ever, the role of corrosion specialist is essential as the lifetime of critical infrastructure depends on materials reliability—achieved by a combination of materials selection, equipment design, periodic inspection during the many years of operation, and maintenance, with elements of corrosion control at every stage. Indeed, given the challenges that industry will face during the energy transition and the many demands of society at large, there has never been a greater need or a greater role for the corrosion specialist in helping to ensure materials reliability, energy security, environmental protection, and public safety.
Nor has there ever been a better time for all those who use and rely on materials to understand and appreciate the limitations that corrosion imposes as well as the opportunities that are possible through judicious application of basic corrosion knowledge and principles. Indeed, now is an opportune time for all those responsible for the use of materials to seize the body of corrosion knowledge that has been developed and use it to help reduce the global cost of corrosion, estimated to be about US$2.5 trillion annually*.
In this book, readers are able to explore the fundamentals of corrosion science and engineering, updated for the fifth edition. Following are revisions included in this new edition:
Theories of passivity—
Chapter 6
Corrosion under insulation (CUI)—
Chapter 7
Texture as a variable to be considered in corrosion studies—
Chapter 8
Quantitative calculations of corrosion rates of alloys—
Chapter 17
Multi‐principal element alloys—
Chapter 17
Benefits of copper surfaces to enhance public health by destroying bacterial, viral (including human coronavirus), and fungal species—
Chapter 18
Plastics as corrosion‐resistant materials—
Chapter 27
More problems, presented together at the ends of chapters
Several problems included within the text and solved as examples to assist students with quantitative calculations
In addition, throughout the book, there are revisions to improve clarity or add new information.
I thank Michael Leventhal at the Wiley headquarters in Hoboken, NJ, as well as the staff throughout the global Wiley organization for their encouragement and support during the development of this new edition.
Lastly, I thank my wife, Viviane, for her understanding and encouragement of this initiative.
R. WINSTON REVIE
Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaSeptember 2024
NOTE
*
NACE IMPACT Study, NACE International, Houston, TX, 2016.
http://impact.nace.org/documents/Nace-International-Report.pdf
.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The three main global challenges for the twenty‐first century are energy, water, and air; that is, sufficient energy to ensure a reasonable standard of living, clean water to drink, and clean air to breathe. The ability to manage corrosion is a central part of using materials effectively and efficiently to meet these challenges. For example, oil and natural gas are transmitted across continents using high‐pressure steel pipelines that must operate for decades without failure, so that neither the ground water nor the air is unnecessarily polluted. In design, operation, and maintenance of nuclear power plants, management of corrosion is critical. The reliability of materials used in nuclear waste disposal must be sufficient so that the safety of future generations is not compromised.
Materials reliability is becoming ever more important in our society, particularly in view of the liability issues that arise when reliability is not assured, safety is compromised, and failures occur. Notwithstanding the many years over which university, college, and continuing education courses in corrosion have been available, high‐profile corrosion failures continue to take place. Although the teaching of corrosion should not be regarded as a dismal failure, it has certainly not been a stellar success providing all engineers and technologists a basic minimum “literacy level” in corrosion that would be sufficient to ensure reliability and prevent failures.
Senior management of some organizations has adopted a policy of “zero failures” or “no failures.” In translating this management policy into reality, so that “zero” really does mean “zero” and “no” means “no,” engineers and others manage corrosion using a combination of well‐established strategies, innovative approaches, and, when necessary, experimental trials.
One objective of preparing the fourth edition of this book is to present to students an updated overview of the essential aspects of corrosion science and engineering that underpin the tools that are available and the technologies that are used for managing corrosion and preventing failures. A second objective is to engage students, so that they are active participants in understanding corrosion and solving problems, rather than passively observing the smorgasbord of information presented. The main emphasis is on the quantitative presentation, explanation, and analysis wherever possible; for example, in this new edition, the galvanic series in seawater is presented with the potential range of each material, rather than only as a qualitative list. Considering the potential ranges that can be involved, the student can see how anodic/cathodic effects can develop, not only when different materials form a couple but also when materials that are nominally the same are coupled. In this edition, some new numerical problems have been added, and the problems are integrated into the book by presenting them at the ends of the chapters.
Since the third edition of this book was published, there have been many advances in corrosion, including advances in knowledge, advances in alloys for application in aggressive environments, and advances of industry in response to public demand. For example, consumer demand for corrosion protection of automobiles has led to a revolution of materials usage in the automotive industry. For this reason, and also because many students have a fascination with cars, numerous examples throughout this book illustrate advances that have been made in corrosion engineering of automobiles. Advances in protecting cars and trucks from corrosion must also be viewed in the context of reducing vehicle weight by using magnesium, aluminum, and other light‐weight materials to decrease energy usage (increase the miles per gallon, or kilometers per liter, of gasoline) and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Although the basic organization of the book is unchanged from the previous edition, in this edition there is a separate chapter on Pourbaix diagrams, very useful tools that indicate the thermodynamic potential–pH domains of corrosion, passivity, and immunity to corrosion. A consideration of the relevant Pourbaix diagrams can be a useful starting point in many corrosion studies and investigations. As always in corrosion, and in this book, there is the dual importance of thermodynamics (In which direction does the reaction go?) and kinetics (How fast does it go?).
There are separate chapters on aluminum (Chapter 21), magnesium (Chapter 22), and titanium (Chapter 25) to provide more information on these metals and their alloys than in the previous editions. Throughout this book, environmental concerns and regulations are presented in the context of their impact on corrosion and its control; for example, the EPA Lead and Copper rule enacted in the United States in 1991. The industrial developments in response to the Clean Air Act, enacted in 1970, have had a major effect on reducing air pollution (Chapter 9) in the United States, so that air quality meets the requirements of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
This is primarily a textbook for students and others who need a basic understanding of corrosion. The book is also a useful reference and starting point for engineers, researchers, and technologists requiring specific information. The book includes discussion of the main materials that are available, including alloys both old and new. For consistency with current practice in metallurgical and engineering literature, alloys are identified with their UNS numbers as well as with their commonly used identifiers. To answer the question from students about why so many alloys have been developed and are commercially available, the contributions of individual elements to endow alloys with unique properties that are valuable for specific applications are discussed. Throughout the book, there are numerous references to further sources of information, including handbooks, other books, reviews, and papers in journals. At the end of each chapter, there is a list of currently available “General References” pertinent to that chapter, and most of these were published in 2000 and later.
This edition includes introductory discussions of risk (Chapter 1), AC impedance measurements (Chapter 5), Ellingham diagrams (Chapter 11), and, throughout the book, discussions of new alloys that have been developed to meet demands for increasing reliability notwithstanding the increased structural lifetimes that are being required in corrosive environments of ever‐increasing severity. Perhaps nowhere are the demands for reliability more challenging than in nuclear reactors, discussed in Chapters 8 and 26. In the discussion of stainless steels (Chapter 19), the concept of critical pitting temperature (CPT) is introduced, and some CPT data are presented, as well as the information on critical pitting potential (CPP). The important problem of corrosion of rebar (reinforced steel in concrete) is discussed in Chapter 7 on iron and steel.
In addition to new technologies and new materials for managing corrosion, new tools for presenting books have become available; hence, this book is being published as an electronic book, as well as in the traditional print format. An instructor's manual is also being prepared.
Experience has been invaluable in using the book in a corrosion course in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Carleton University in Ottawa, which Glenn McRae and I developed along with other members of the Canadian National Capital Section of NACE International.
It would be a delight for me to hear from readers of this book with their suggestions and ideas for future editions.
I acknowledge my friends and colleagues at the CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory, where it has been my privilege to work in the corrosion area for the past nearly 30 years. I also thank many organizations and individuals who have granted permission to use copyright material; acknowledgments for specific photographs and data are provided throughout the book. In addition, I thank Bob Esposito and his staff at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. for their encouragement with this book and with the Wiley Series in Corrosion.
I thank the Uhlig family for their generosity and hospitality during five decades, beginning when I was a student in the MIT Corrosion Laboratory in the 1960s and 1970s. In particular, I acknowledge Mrs. Greta Uhlig, who continues to encourage initiatives in corrosion education in memory of the late Professor Herbert H. Uhlig (1907–1993).
Lastly, I quote from the Preface of the first edition of this book:
“If this book stimulates young minds to accept the challenge of continuing corrosion problems, and to help reduce the huge economic losses and dismaying wastage of natural resources caused by metal deterioration, it will have fulfilled the author's major objective.”
Indeed, this remains the main objective today.
R. WINSTON REVIE
Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaSeptember 2007
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/Revie/corrosioncontrol
The website includes:
Solutions Manual for Instructors
Guide for Instructors: PowerPoint Slides
1DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION
1.1 DEFINITION OF CORROSION
Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. Deterioration by physical causes is not called corrosion, but is described as erosion, galling, or wear. In some instances, chemical attack accompanies physical deterioration, as described by the following terms: corrosion‐erosion, corrosive wear, or fretting corrosion. Nonmetals are not included in this definition of corrosion. Plastics may swell or crack, wood may split or decay, granite may erode, and Portland cement may leach away, but the term corrosion, in this book, is restricted to chemical attack of metals.*
“Rusting” applies to the corrosion of iron or iron‐base alloys with formation of corrosion products consisting largely of hydrous ferric oxides. Nonferrous metals, therefore, corrode, but do not rust.
1.1.1 Corrosion Science and Corrosion Engineering
Since corrosion involves chemical change, the student must be familiar with principles of chemistry in order to understand corrosion reactions. Because corrosion processes are mostly electrochemical, an understanding of electrochemistry is also important. Furthermore, since structure and composition of a metal often determine corrosion behavior, the student should be familiar with the fundamentals of physical metallurgy as well.
The corrosion scientist studies corrosion mechanisms to improve the understanding of the causes of corrosion and the ways to prevent or at least minimized damage caused by corrosion. The corrosion engineer, on the other hand, applies scientific knowledge to control corrosion. For example, the corrosion engineer uses cathodic protection on a large scale to prevent corrosion of buried pipelines, tests and develops new and better paints, prescribes proper dosage of corrosion inhibitors, or recommends the correct coating. The corrosion scientist, in turn, develops better criteria of cathodic protection, outlines the molecular structure of chemical compounds that behave best as inhibitors, synthesizes corrosion‐resistant alloys, and recommends heat treatment and compositional variations of alloys that will improve their performance. Both the scientific and engineering viewpoints supplement each other in the diagnosis of corrosion damage and in the prescription of remedies.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION
The three main reasons for the importance of corrosion are: economics, safety, and conservation. To reduce the economic impact of corrosion, corrosion engineers, with the support of corrosion scientists, aim to reduce material losses, and the accompanying economic losses, that result from the corrosion of piping, tanks, metal components of machines, ships, bridges, marine structures, etc. Corrosion can compromise the safety of operating equipment by causing failure, with catastrophic consequences, of, for example, pressure vessels, boilers, metallic containers for toxic chemicals, turbine blades and rotors, bridges, airplane components, and automotive steering mechanisms. Safety is a critical consideration in the design of equipment for nuclear power plants and for disposal of nuclear wastes. Loss of metal by corrosion is a waste not only of the metal, but also of the energy, the water, and the human effort that was used to produce and fabricate the metal structures in the first place. In addition, rebuilding corroded equipment requires further investment of all these resources—metal, energy, water, and human.
Economic losses are divided into (1) direct losses and (2) indirect losses. Direct losses include the costs of replacing corroded structures and machinery or their components, such as condenser tubes, mufflers, pipelines, and metal roofing, including necessary labor. Other examples are repainting structures where prevention of rusting is the prime objective, and the capital costs plus maintenance of cathodic protection systems for underground pipelines. Sizable direct losses are illustrated by the necessity to replace several million domestic hot‐water tanks each year because of failure by corrosion and the need for replacement of millions of corroded automobile mufflers. Direct losses include the extra cost of using corrosion‐resistant metals and alloys instead of carbon steel where the latter has adequate mechanical properties but not sufficient corrosion resistance; there are also the costs of galvanizing or nickel plating of steel, of adding corrosion inhibitors to water, and of dehumidifying storage rooms for metal equipment.
The economic factor is a very important motivation for much of the current research in corrosion. Losses sustained by industry and by governments amount to many billions of dollars annually, approximately $276 billion in the United States, or 3.1% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), according to a study reported in 2002 [2]. In a more recent global study, the global cost of corrosion was estimated to be US$2.5 trillion, approximately 3.4% of the global GDP [3]. It has been estimated that between 15% and 35% of this total could be avoided if currently available corrosion technology were effectively applied [3].
Studies of the cost of corrosion to Australia, Great Britain, Japan, and other countries have also been carried out. In each country studied, the cost of corrosion is approximately 3–4% of the Gross National Product [3, 4].
Indirect losses are more difficult to assess, but a brief survey of typical losses of this kind compels the conclusion that they add several billion dollars to the direct losses already outlined. Examples of indirect losses are as follows:
Shutdown
. The replacement of a corroded tube in an oil refinery may cost a few hundred dollars, but shutdown of the unit while repairs are underway may cost, in most parts of the world, $50,000 or more per hour in lost production. Similarly, replacement of corroded boiler or condenser tubes in a large power plant may require $1,000,000 or more per day for power purchased from interconnected electric systems to supply customers while the boiler is down. Losses of this kind cost the electrical utilities in the United States tens of millions of dollars annually.
Loss of Product
. Losses of oil, gas, or water occur through a corroded‐pipe system until repairs are made. Antifreeze may be lost through a corroded auto radiator, or gas leaking from a corroded pipe may enter the basement of a building causing an explosion.
Loss of Efficiency
. Loss of efficiency may occur because of diminished heat transfer through accumulated corrosion products, or because of the clogging of pipes with rust necessitating increased pumping capacity. It has been estimated that, in the United States, increased pumping capacity, made necessary by partial clogging of water mains with rust, costs many millions of dollars per year. A further example is provided by internal‐combustion engines of automobiles where piston rings and cylinder walls are continuously corroded by combustion gases and condensates. Loss of critical dimensions leading to excess gasoline and oil consumption can be caused by corrosion to an extent equal to or greater than that caused by wear. Corrosion processes can impose limits on the efficiencies of energy conversion systems, representing losses that may amount to billions of dollars.
Contamination of Product
. A small amount of copper picked up by slight corrosion of copper piping or of brass equipment that is otherwise durable may damage an entire batch of soap. Copper salts accelerate rancidity of soaps and shorten the time that they can be stored before use. Traces of metals may similarly alter the color of dyes. Lead equipment, otherwise durable, is not permitted in the preparation of foods and beverages, because of the toxic properties imparted by very small quantities of lead salts. In the U.S., improvements in the Lead and Copper Rule have been proposed to reduce the level of lead from 15 to 10 μg/L
[5]
.
Similarly, soft waters that pass through lead piping are not safe for drinking purposes. The poisonous effects of small amounts of lead have been known for a long time. In a letter to Benjamin Vaughn dated July 31, 1786, Benjamin Franklin [6] warned against possible ill effects of drinking rain water collected from lead roofs or consuming alcoholic beverages exposed to lead. The symptoms were called in his time “dry bellyache” and were accompanied by paralysis of the limbs. The disease originated because New England rum distillers used lead coil condensers. On recognizing the cause, the Massachusetts Legislature passed an act outlawing use of lead for this purpose.
Another form of contamination is spoilage of food in corroded metal containers. A cannery of fruits and vegetables once lost more than $1 million in one year before the metallurgical factors causing localized corrosion were analyzed and remedied. Another company, using metal caps on glass food jars, lost $0.5 million in one year because the caps perforated by a pitting type of corrosion, thereby allowing bacterial contamination of the contents.
Overdesign
. Overdesign is common in the design of reaction vessels, boilers, condenser tubes, oil‐well sucker rods, pipelines transporting oil and gas at high pressure, water tanks, and marine structures. Equipment is often designed many times heavier than normal operating pressures or applied stresses would require in order to ensure reasonable life. With adequate knowledge of corrosion, more reliable estimates of equipment life can be made, and design can be simplified in terms of materials and labor. For example, oil‐well sucker rods are normally overdesigned to increase service life before failure occurs by corrosion fatigue. Were the corrosion factor eliminated, losses would be cut at least in half. There would be further savings because less power would be required to operate a lightweight rod, and the expense of recovering a lightweight rod after breakage would be lower.
Indirect losses are a substantial part of the economic tax imposed by corrosion, although it is difficult to arrive at a reasonable estimate of total losses. In the event of loss of health or life through explosion, unpredictable failure of chemical equipment, or wreckage of airplanes, trains, or automobiles through sudden failure by corrosion of critical parts, the indirect losses are still more difficult to assess and are beyond interpretation in terms of dollars.
1.3 RISK MANAGEMENT
In general, risk, R, is defined as the probability, P, of an occurrence multiplied by the consequence, C, of the occurrence; i.e.,
Hence, the risk of a corrosion‐related failure equals the probability that such a failure will take place multiplied by the consequence of that failure. Consequence is typically measured in financial terms, i.e., the total cost of a corrosion failure, including the cost of replacement, clean‐up, repair, downtime, etc.
Any type of failure that occurs with high consequence must be one that seldom occurs. On the other hand, failures with low consequence may be tolerated more frequently. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified approach to risk management.
Figure 1.1 A simplified approach to risk management, indicating qualitatively the areas of high risk, where both consequence and probability are high.
Managing risk is an important part of many engineering undertakings today. Managing corrosion is an essential aspect of managing risk. Firstly, risk management must be included in the design stage, and then, after operation starts, maintenance must be carried out so that risk continues to be managed. Engineering design must include corrosion control equipment, such as cathodic protection systems and coatings. Maintenance must be carried out so that corrosion is monitored and significant defects are repaired, so that risk is managed during the operational lifetime.
1.4 CAUSES OF CORROSION
The many causes of corrosion will be explored in detail in the subsequent chapters of this book. In this introductory chapter, two parameters are mentioned—the change in Gibbs free energy (a thermodynamic parameter) and the Pilling–Bedworth ratio (a physical parameter) [7].
1.4.1 Change in Gibbs Free Energy
The change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG, for any chemical reaction indicates the tendency of that reaction to go. Reactions occur in the direction that lowers the Gibbs free energy. The more negative the value of ΔG, the greater is the tendency for the reaction to go. The role of the change in Gibbs Free Energy is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
1.4.2 Pilling–Bedworth Ratio
Although many factors control the oxidation rate of a metal, the Pilling–Bedworth ratio is a parameter that can be used to predict the extent to which oxidation may occur. The Pilling–Bedworth ratio is Md/nmD, where M and D are the molecular weight and density, respectively, of the corrosion product scale that forms on the metal surface during oxidation; m and d are the atomic weight and density, respectively, of the metal, and n is the number of metal atoms in a molecular formula of scale; e.g., for Al2O3, n = 2.
The Pilling–Bedworth ratio indicates whether the volume of the corrosion product is greater or less than the volume of the metal from which the corrosion product formed. If Md/nmD < 1, the volume of the corrosion product is less than the volume of the metal from which the product formed. A film of such a corrosion product would be expected to contain cracks and pores and be relatively nonprotective. On the other hand, if Md/nmD > 1, the volume of the corrosion product scale is greater than the volume of the metal from which the scale formed, so that the scale is in compression, protective of the underlying metal. A Pilling–Bedworth ratio greater than 1 is not sufficient to predict corrosion resistance. If Md/nmD ≫ 1, the scale that forms may buckle and detach from the surface because of the higher stresses that develop. For aluminum, which forms a protective oxide and corrodes very slowly in most environments, the Pilling–Bedworth ratio is 1.3, whereas for magnesium, which tends to form a nonprotective oxide, the ratio is 0.8. Nevertheless, there are exceptions and limitations to the predictions of the Pilling–Bedworth ratio, and these are discussed in Chapter 11.
1.5 PREVENTING CORROSION FAILURES
Preventing corrosion failures leads to additional benefits that include increased reliability, improved public safety, and enhanced environmental protection. Four approaches to prevent corrosion failures, illustrated in (Fig. 1.2), the corrosion failure prevention tetrahedron [8], are:
Design. There is the opportunity to design corrosion out, by
Materials selection
Equipment design to, for example, avoid spaces where stagnant liquids accumulate
Process design, to regulate temperature, pressure, environmental composition
Corrosion mitigation, using electrochemical protection (cathodic or anodic, depending on the application) coatings, chemical inhibition.
Inspection, to assess the rate and location of corrosion during operation.
Prediction of lifetime, which can be based on experience with similar systems, laboratory data, and models for corrosion.
Figure 1.2 Tetrahedron of 4 approaches to prevent corrosion failures.
Source: Adapted from Ramirez and Taylor [8].
REFERENCES
1. M. G. Fontana and N. D. Greene,
Corrosion Engineering
, 2nd edition, New York, McGraw‐Hill, 1978, p. 2.
2. Gerhardus H. Koch, Michiel P. H. Brongers, Neil G. Thompson, Y. Paul Virmani, and J. H. Payer, Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States, Supplement to
Materials Performance
, July 2002, Report No. FHWA‐RD‐01‐156, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA, 2002.
http://impact.nace.org/documents/ccsupp.pdf
(accessed August 26, 2024).
3. NACE International,
International Measures of Prevention, Application and Economics of Corrosion Technology (IMPACT)
, Houston, TX, NACE International, 2016
http://impact.nace.org/documents/Nace-International-Report.pdf
(accessed September 5, 2024).
4. J. Kruger, Cost of metallic corrosion, in
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