Counseling With Immigrants, Refugees, and Their Families From Social Justice Perspectives E-Book
Patricia Arredondo
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Immigrants and refugees continue to make enormous contributions to the economic, educational, and cultural richness of the U.S. They plan for and manage multiple changes to achieve goals for themselves and their families, and in the process, give back to the U.S. This book provides insight for counselors working with immigrants and refugees and their families across the lifespan.
Social justice and multicultural counseling competency frameworks ground this text, which is intended for counselors working in academic settings, conducting research, and practicing in different contexts. Because immigrants and refugees have various cultural heritages, immigration journeys, reasons for migrating, and presenting situations, counselors must be prepared to engage with individuals and families as unique clients. Descriptions of these contextual factors, including data and legislation, are included.
This book will guide counselors in recognizing the additional steps they may need to take to account for culture, language, health status, relationships in place, and of course the priority issues (i.e., child’s illness and/or school bullying) to be dealt with. Additionally, counselors will learn about the rationale for migration as well as the concentration camps that may be “home” to refugees for an indeterminate time. Counselors will read about losses that affect immigrant and refugee clients and how these “naturally” contribute to sadness, depression, anger, and self-isolation.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Chapter Overview
How Will This Book Help You?
References
About the Authors
PART I: Context, Competencies, and Data to Ground Counseling Practices
Chapter 1: Social Justice and Cultural Competency Frameworks for Counseling With Immigrants and Refugees
Learning Objectives
Social Justice Movements and Civil Rights
MSJCC
ACA Code of Ethics
Decolonization of Counseling
Defining Terms Associated With Immigrants
Summary
References
Chapter 2: Historical Context, Legislation, and Trends in the Migration Process
Learning Objectives
History of U.S. Migration and Immigration Legislation
Legislation Affecting Refugees
Racial Requirements for Birthright and Naturalized Citizenship
Evolving Immigration Policies to Control the Flow of Imported Labor
Summary
References
Chapter 3: Stages of Immigration, Acculturation, and Identity Challenges
Learning Objectives
The Multidimensional Immigrant Experience
Three Phases of Migration
Considerations in the Postmigration Phase
Endurance, Strengths, and Protective Factors
Summary
References
Chapter 4: Immigrant and Refugee Identity and Experiences Across the Life Span
Learning Objectives
Theoretical Perspectives on Life Span Development
Culture-Specific Development Over the Life Span
Immigrant and Refugee Biographies
Summary
References
Appendix 4A
Chapter 5: Disputing Biases and Assumptions Regarding Immigrants and Refugees
Learning Objectives
Contextualizing Immigration Statistics
Immigrant Movement and Jobs
Advocacy For and With Immigrants
Immigrants and Crime Rates
Immigrants and Education
Summary
References
Chapter 6: Mental Health Needs of Immigrants and Refugees
Learning Objectives
A Comprehensive Approach to Address Immigrants’ and Refugees’ Mental Health Needs
Predictors of Emotional, Physical, and Sociocultural Stress
Refugee-Specific Circumstances
Variables Among Immigrants and Refugees
Theories to Reference in Mental Health Treatment
Summary
References
Part II: Counseling With Immigrants, Refugees, and Their Families From Generational and Developmental Perspectives
Chapter 7: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Children
Learning Objectives
Developmental Considerations for Immigrant Children
Differences Associated With Childhood Experiences of Immigrants and Refugees
The Effects of Detention Centers on Children
Implications for Counselors
Summary
References
Chapter 8: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Adolescents
Learning Objectives
Who Are IRY?
Developmental Needs of IRY
Acculturation
Summary
References
Chapter 9: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Adults
Learning Objectives
Immigrant and Refugee Adult Development
College Student Mental Health Counseling
Job and Career
Sexual Identity and Marriage
LGBTQ+ Identity and Discrimination
Cross-Cultural Relationships
Health and Wellness
Older Adult Immigrant and Refugee Mental Health
Summary
References
APPENDIX 9A List of Immigration Resources
Chapter 10: Counseling With Immigrant and Refugee Families
Learning Objectives
Clinical Mental Health Counseling With Families
Creative Interventions With Refugees and Immigrants
Family Counseling
Summary
References
EPILOGUE
References
GLOSSARY
INDEX
Technical Support
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1. Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies
FIGURE 1.2. Dimensions of Personal Identity Model (Arredondo & Glauner, 1992)...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Process of Person in Migration Journey Over Time
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.1. The Biopsychosocial Model
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Immigrant and Refugee Terms
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Motivating Factors, Hopes, and Obstacles in Phases of Migration
Table 3.2 Push and Pull Factors in Migration (Alchin, 2018)
Guide
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
EPILOGUE
GLOSSARY
Index
Technical Support
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Patricia Arredondo
Mary L. Fawcett
Dawnette L. Cigrand
Sandra Bertram Grant
Rieko Miyakuni
Dariyan Adams
Counseling With Immigrants, Refugees, and Their Families From Social Justice Perspectives
2461 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite 300Alexandria, VA 22314www.counseling.org
Copyright © 2024 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.
American Counseling Association2461 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite 300Alexandria, VA 22314counseling.org
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Arredondo, Patricia, author. | Fawcett, Mary L., author. | Cigrand, Dawnette L., author. | Bertram Grant, Sandra, author. | Miyakuni, Rieko, author. | Adams, Dariyan, author.
Title: Counseling with immigrants, refugees, and their families from social justice perspectives /Patricia Arredondo, Mary L. Fawcett, Dawnette L. Cigrand, Sandra Bertram Grant, Rieko Miyakuni, and Dariyan Adams.
Description: Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023038045 (print) | LCCN 2023038046 (ebook) | ISBN 9781556204180 (paperback) | ISBN 9781394222957 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394222964 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Immigrants—Counseling of—United States. | Children of immigrants— Counseling of—United States. | Immigrants—Family relationships—United States. | Social work with immigrants—United States.
Classification: LCC HV4010 .A76 2024 (print) | LCC HV4010 (ebook) | DDC 362.89/912830973—dc23/eng/20230921
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023038045
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023038046
Dedication
With appreciation to the immigrant agricultural workers who toil daily to put food on our table.—Patricia Arredondo
I dedicate this work to my mother Ann Fawcett Pearce.—Mary L. Fawcett
To my sons, Dillon and Cody, and my grandson, Brantley, who have brought me much joy and inspiration.—Dawnette L. Cigrand
To my loving parents, José and Sandra. Thank you for always looking forward and for your sacrifice stepping into the unknown. I couldn’t have done it without you.—Sandra Bertram Grant
To my loved ones, comrades in struggle and solidarity, and mentors who have gifted me with the visions for truth and continue to hold me accountable to use my privilege to do the job while teaching me to practice self-compassion.—Rieko Miyakuni
To my devoted parents, Todd and Tracye, with all my love and appreciation, thank you for believing in me and encouraging me to always pursue my dreams.—Dariyan Adams
Preface
Immigrants, refugees, and their families have been a part of the history of the United States for more than 5 centuries. For many Americans, the arrival of immigrants at Ellis Island is the embodiment of the U.S. immigration experience. Nevertheless, this version is in stark contrast to the experience of African people brought as slaves to America. In the 20th and 21st centuries, millions of people have sought freedom and goals for a better life for themselves and their families. Unaccompanied minors, parents separated from their children at the U.S.-Mexico border, refugees fleeing warfare and other forms of violence and natural disasters, and individuals who arrive with documented status are all part of the immigrant and refugee diaspora of the United States and its territories. From Alaska to Florida, in rural and urban areas, in schools, workplaces, mental health agencies, and other settings, counselors are likely to cross paths with immigrants and refugees of different heritages and generations.
The U.S. immigrant population in 2020 was 44.9 million, a downturn because of the drop-off in arrivals from Mexico, the COVID-19 pandemic, and legislation that limited the number of documented entrants during the Trump administration. The refugee population is smaller and based on annual admissions from specific countries. Between 2020 and 2022, roughly 48,794 refugees were settled in the United States. In 2020, the majority came from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Myanmar, and Ukraine. In 2021, the primary countries of origin of refugees were the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Syria, and Afghanistan (Baugh, 2022). There are other categories of new arrivals during this period who also settled in the United States. Up to 30,000 individuals monthly were granted temporary protective status. They were from Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Venezuela. Refugees from Afghanistan and Ukraine were granted humanitarian parole (Ward & Batalova, 2023).
This book is motivated by our long-term interest in and experiences with immigrants, refugees, and families of different ages and generations located in different parts of the country, including northern Minneapolis, northern Ohio, Boston, Phoenix, Milwaukee, Chicago, and Winona, Minnesota. In our encounters through community-based research, counseling, and educational settings, we have been inspired by the resilience, goal orientation, and inner fortitude of migrants. At the same time, the hardships of migration demonstrate the mental and physical stressors individuals have suffered and may continue to suffer in the postmigration period in the United States. Managing change is an ongoing process for immigrants and refugees, and these changes are often unpredictable, leading to risks, difficult decisions, and impromptu adaptations to keep moving forward.
A second reason for writing this book is the paucity of literature (e.g., books, research articles, book chapters) on counseling with immigrants. More recent research addresses the postmigration mental health symptoms for specific cultural groups such as unaccompanied minors, identity issues for adolescents, family disharmony because of different rates of acculturation between parents and children, economic stressors, and challenges for Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, or DACA, students. However, specific attention to the mental health needs of immigrants and affirmative counseling approaches is minimal at best.
In this book, our goal is to provide a balanced presentation contextualized in the systems that impinge on immigrants, refugees, and their families from the premigration to the postmigration periods, describing how individuals and families persist to meet their goals. The primary theoretical frameworks for this book are cultural competence development (Ratts et al., 2015; Sue et al., 1992), the biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1980), and Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model.
All chapters have learning objectives, a reader self-assessment, and a minimum of one case scenario that is a composite of clients and individuals in research studies. The three elements provide structure and focus to various concepts, principles, literature, research, and applications of culturally responsive counseling. Quotes from immigrant participants and examples from our research experiences in different community settings are included as applicable. The glossary provides a compilation of terms most relevant for counselors when working with immigrants and refugees.
Chapter Overview
In Part I: Context, Competencies, and Data to Ground Counseling Practices, we describe an integrated framework, which is then referenced throughout the book chapters. This framework is informed by interdisciplinary research, historical events, and knowledge about contemporary immigrants and refugees.
Chapter 1: Social Justice and Cultural Competency Frameworks for Counseling With Immigrants and Refugees
Frameworks to ground our work as educators, researchers, and clinicians in an increasingly diverse society include the Multicultural Counseling Competencies documents (Arredondo et al., 1996; Sue et al., 1992) and the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC; Ratts, et al., 2015) developed by members of the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. These frameworks continue to be used as anchors by professionals and students alike working in different contexts, domestically and internationally. In Chapter 1, we discuss the application of social justice principles from different global contexts, including South Africa and Guatemala, and practices in the decolonization of counseling theories and practices that support culturally responsive counseling. ACA ethical principles will be referenced as they also provide guiding principles for culturally responsive practices.
Chapter 2: Historical Context, Legislation, and Trends in the Migration Process
Forced and voluntary migration is historical, beginning in the “Americas” in the 15th century. To contribute to the building of counselor knowledge, in Chapter 2, we describe the history and evolution of U.S. immigration and the laws that have been used to support or block entry to this country. We discuss the settler colonialism framework given that it has affected the goals of migrants, particularly those perceived as inferior. Concepts such as xenophobia and their effects are explained historically. This chapter will also help counselors recognize language and terms that marginalize and oppress immigrants and refugees and how such terminology may emerge in the counseling process. Because many counselors have an immigrant history, an opportunity to examine one’s personal family migration history is provided.
Chapter 3: Stages of Migration, Acculturation, and Identity Challenges
Research has contributed to our understanding about the different phases and conditions of the migration process and the lifelong effects of acculturation processes. The three-stage model of premigration, migration-specific, and postmigration is introduced and referenced in later discussions about counseling applications. Particular topics reviewed include the push and pull factors for migration and how they may be different for immigrants and refugees. In Chapter 3, we discuss the challenges faced by migrants and their families as well as strengths-based perspectives that need to be considered by counseling professionals. For example, migrants have a planning and risk-taking mindset that fortifies how they negotiate a myriad of challenges during their migration journey and once in their new country of residence. They are planners. Other invisible strengths are protective factors, such as their faith and collectivistic mindset and behavior—what they are doing is for others. Research points to immigrants’ optimism, hope, and resilience. It is in the postmigration phase that the acculturation process evolves, introducing multiple stressors and changes to the lives of immigrants, refugees, and their families. The adjustments and cultural adaptations are many. Immigrants and refugees must also negotiate xenophobia, racism, and other forms of discrimination and microaggressions because of their color, language differences, country of origin, and immigrant identity status. In this chapter, readers will gain a comprehensive view of different migration journeys and migrants’ persistence to arrive in the United States.
Chapter 4: Immigrant and Refugee Identity and Experiences Across the Life Span
Chapter 4 contains a discussion of different developmental task expectations informed by cultural socialization processes and intersecting identities. Immigrants and refugees of different ages, genders, countries of origin, languages, disability, LGBTQ+ status, socioeconomic backgrounds, educational attainment, and skill sets represent a diverse constellation of individuals with intersecting identities who arrive in the United States. Because most immigrants and refugees arrive as adolescents and adults, their sense of identity has been shaped in their country of origin and informed by their cultural values, gender role expectations, and developmental milestones. Examples of socialization experiences from different countries are introduced. From this contextual discussion, identity and role expectation challenges in the host country are described. For counselors, there is a continuing need to be culturally aware and knowledgeable in order to be culturally responsive.
Chapter 5: Disputing Biases and Assumptions Regarding Immigrants and Refugees
Chapter 5 focuses on employment patterns of immigrant and refugee women and men and the types of employment they typically assume. Historically, immigrants have been a source of cheap labor. In effect, wages of most immigrants are low because of their employment in industries such as agriculture, dairy, meatpacking, fisheries, and the service industry, among others. For example, many Latinx men are found in back-of-the-house restaurant work while others work in landscaping and construction. Women of all nationalities may be found in childcare, hospital service jobs, and hotel cleaning, and, typically, these jobs do not pay benefits, Social Security, or retirement, leaving long-term employees at a deficit when they retire or require disability services.
The prevailing perception is that immigrants are unskilled and therefore cannot do more than manual labor. Another misperception about immigrants is that they are criminals and that they all belong to gangs or drug cartels. Color was the defining factor in limiting access to individuals from Muslim and African countries from 2016 to 2020. Finally, there has always been rhetoric that migrants take away jobs from U.S. citizens although Americans who are White typically do not work in agriculture or in landscaping and other backbreaking jobs. Knowledge about the mischaracterizations of immigrants and refugees in the workforce is necessary in order for counselors to challenge media misinformation and mischaracterizations when they engage with immigrants and refugees working two or more jobs or 16-hour days.
Chapter 6: Mental Health Needs of Immigrants and Refugees
In the previous chapters, the discussion centered on life circumstances, contexts, and the endurance that propels immigrants to seek uncharted territory for a better life. The premigration and migration-specific phases in their journeys leave imprints that do not readily disappear. Thus, it is in the postmigration years that mental and physical health issues will likely emerge for individuals across the life span. In Chapter 6, a biopsychosocial model is referenced to understand symptoms and presenting issues. Emphasized is the identification of strengths, challenges, and resilience that contribute to immigrants’ and refugees’ abilities to navigate multiple stressors. For the purposes of counselor cultural responsiveness, mental, physical, and spiritual health are described from non-Western perspectives, and relevant theories and models that do not serve as forms of colonization are discussed.
In Part II: Counseling With Immigrants, Refugees, and Their Families From Generational and Developmental Perspectives, we provide multiple case examples of counseling with immigrants and refugees across the life span. The case examples are also examined through the integrated framework introduced in Part I.
Chapter 7: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Children
In this chapter, we address different developmental needs of immigrant and refugee children from birth to age 12. According to demographic data, the children of immigrants born in the United States are called “birthright” children because, by birth, they have the rights of every person born in the United States and its territories. Technically, they are second generation in the country, and their parents, the immigrants, are first generation; the same can be said of refugees. Birthright and third-generation children and the children of refugees have different mental health needs. There are also children who are born in another country and who are brought or sent by their parents to the United States. These children may have come with their parents but may have been separated at the border as was the practice since 2016–2020, or they may have arrived as unaccompanied minors. However, the majority likely came as adolescents. As discussed in Chapter 6, these children present with different biopsychosocial needs. Birthright children and immigrant and refugee children go to schools, playgrounds, and other settings where children may be taken to or convene. According to the Adverse Childhood Experiences Test (PsychCentral, n.d.), early life stressors leave imprints on children that can then manifest in more concerning ways in relationships at home and school, and through other unpredictable ways—self-harm, isolation, and so forth. Thus, counselors need to recognize the differences among these children and how federal and state immigration policies may also affect their well-being.
Chapter 8: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Adolescents
Chapter 8 focuses on the developmental needs of immigrant, refugee, and birthright children ages 13–18. Age-group differences between those who are children of immigrants and refugees (birthright children) and those who are immigrants are discussed. For counselors, knowledge about cultural socialization practices is essential to understand adolescents’ issues to determine the appropriate intervention strategies. Erikson (1967) described identity development as the primary task of adolescence. However, for immigrant and refugee adolescents, identity development is just one of several challenges to be negotiated. For immigrant and birthright adolescents, there are likely different factors affecting how they see themselves. Questions about appearance, particularly color and other physical features, family responsibilities, and demands at school may heighten mental health distress and a sense of belonging. Among the issues that emerge is family discord, particularly if an adolescent is held responsible for younger children or if the adolescent is in a family in which members hold different documentation status.
Chapter 9: Counseling With Immigrant, Refugee, and Birthright Adults
The age of immigrant, refugee, and birthright individuals will present a range of issues and priorities in a counseling setting. A 38-year-old woman born in the United States to immigrant parents may now be a parent herself. Her children are third-generation children. The latter may seek services in college counseling centers as they grapple with issues related to identity, particularly intersecting identities. Birthright young adults have only known the United States as their home, but because of a visible difference of color and other physical features, they may be viewed as foreigners and experience harassment and other alienating behaviors. Adult immigrants and refugees are generally the ones who have had to plan and carry out the migratory processes for themselves and their families. Chapter 3 covers the various stages of the migration process, pointing out that all along, individuals are planful, decisive, and goal-oriented but carry enormous responsibilities on behalf of others. The risk and stress levels are enormous and, understandably, strain the mind, body, and spirit. Refugees may have a different means of entry into the United States; however, extended periods in refugee camps and the loss of family and friends during those confinements are also exhausting. Adults generally do not have time to mourn or reflect on the risks and losses, but this does not mean those events evaporate. Chapter 9 explores these factors, and counselors are encouraged to be mindful of the unspoken issues, as illustrated in the case examples provided.
Chapter 10: Counseling With Immigrant and Refugee Families
Immigrants and refugees are in all sectors of society, and it is in these varied settings where counselors will be called upon to deliver culturally responsive and ethical care. In the acculturation process, many unforeseen situations will emerge for families, and these may contribute to spiritual, physical, and mental health stressors. In our chapters on different developmental periods, we introduce how mental health distress may affect individuals differently within the same cultural group and even the same family. The focus of Chapter 10 is on immigrant and refugee families. Family counseling can be a primary approach in addition to the relational-cultural model because of the collectivistic orientation of many immigrant and refugee families. Students with DACA and undocumented status have additional emotional and pragmatic dilemmas depending on their college and their state of residence. More often, career counseling becomes important to high school youth, college-age young adults, and adults. The MSJCC (Ratts et al., 2015) are a valuable reference for counseling with immigrant and refugee families because the competencies elevate social justice concerns in different environments where discrimination and hostility may be occurring. Counselors can inquire about situations that immigrant and refugee adults feel powerless to control and simultaneously affirm that they are taking on the responsibilities needed as parents, employees, and individuals supporting family members back home.
How Will This Book Help You?
Individuals become counselors because of their desire to help others, to make a difference in their lives. With immigrants and refugees, there are many opportunities for counselors to facilitate their processes of change and to be part of their journeys in the country where they want to be. The United States is a country built by immigrants, refugees, enslaved Africans brought involuntarily, and Indigenous peoples, the original dwellers and owners of the land. The migrations trends to the United States over the centuries have not abated and will continue into the foreseeable future. Rather than perceive immigrants and refugees as a monolithic group composed of non-English-speaking individuals, counselors will learn about the foresight, persistence, and resilience of these brave people. Curiosity will be heightened as counselors hear narratives of fear, bravery, and faith to achieve one’s goals. Counseling often focuses on individual issues; this is not the case with immigrants and refugees. In this book, we will illustrate the interdependence, collectivism, and care demonstrated by immigrants and refugees as they persevere to make the lives of their families back home and in the United States much better. We will also describe the risk-taking of adolescents and adults as they seek to establish better lives in this country. Many counseling practices such as reflection, restatements, and speaking with confidence may not be relevant when working with immigrants and refugees who are more action oriented for the present and the future. Counselors may experience these clients as shy and reticent, but they seek guidance as they try to solve problems.
This book will be an invaluable resource to counselors who encounter immigrants and refugees of different ages, countries of origin, and multiple identities in their practice. At the same time, counselors will be challenged to adapt their thinking and skills so that they can meet the immigrant and refugee clients “where they are.” The case scenarios in the book will provide excellent opportunities for counselors to compare the hypothetical situations with their own experiences. Counseling with immigrants and refugees will also provide opportunities for counselors to examine their family immigration history, opening the door to personal revelations that may suggest counselors are more similar to their clients than they first thought. Counseling with immigrants and refugees is inspirational as one learns about how these individuals continue to contribute to the economic well-being of our country, the country they also claim as theirs.
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About the Authors
Patricia Arredondo, EdD, has dedicated her career to social justice and multicultural counseling. She served as president of the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development and is a founding member of Counselors for Social Justice. Her scholarship interests and publications address immigrant and Latinx mental health; cultural competencies in research, education, and practice; women’s leadership; and diversity in the workplace. A daughter of an immigrant father and maternal immigrant grandparents from Mexico, she has had a long-term interest in advancing positive findings about immigrant resiliency. A higher education administrator for 15 years, since 2016 she has been president of the Arredondo Advisory Group, collaborating with organizations to embed diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging practices.
Mary L. Fawcett, PhD, is a professor of counselor education at Winona State University. She has been engaged in teaching for 24 years, has practiced counseling for 15 years, and has published a variety of articles and a book on multicultural counseling competencies. Dr. Fawcett is past president of the Minnesota Counseling Association and has been an active member of ACA and the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision for 35 years. She has a special interest in multicultural counseling competencies and has conducted research with immigrants and refugees in Minnesota. She received her doctorate at the University of South Carolina. Dr. Fawcett has served as director of counseling services and has provided clinical mental health counseling in a variety of clinical settings and via telehealth.
Dawnette L. Cigrand, PhD, is a professor and department chair of counselor education at Winona State University. She is a licensed school counselor and past president of the Minnesota School Counselor Association. Her volunteerism involves advocating for and supporting the work of school counselors in the state of Minnesota to help K–12 students develop academic, career, and social-emotional competencies. She has conducted research with immigrants and refugees in Minnesota and is a staunch social justice advocate. Her PhD is from the University of Iowa.
Sandra Bertram Grant earned her BA as a double major in psychology and sociology from the University of Kansas. She then completed her MEd in counseling psychology at the University of Missouri before pursuing her PhD in counseling psychology at the University of Denver. She specializes in Latine psychology, reducing inequities in mental health care through clinical practice and advocacy, increasing access to quality services, and growing representation in the field.
Rieko Miyakuni, PhD, is an Okinawan native and has been teaching in the Counselor Education Department at Winona State University since 2019. Her research interests include critical consciousness and consciousness-raising among students of color, counselors-intraining, and counselor educators. She completed her master’s degree in counseling from Marshall University and an EdD in counselor education and supervision at Governors State University. She specializes in working with youth and families and supervised intensive outpatient programs in both urban and rural areas of West Virginia. She is a twice F-1 student and H-1B worker who experienced a glimpse of the U.S. immigration complexity.
Dariyan Adams holds a BA in psychology with a minor in family consumer science from Minnesota State University, Mankato. Currently, she is pursuing a master’s degree with a dual focus in school counseling and clinical mental health counseling at Winona State University. Her interests include multicultural counseling competencies, racial and ethnic identity development, and the developing of effective school counseling interventions for students of color. She is passionate about advocating for equitable resources and programs for individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, placing special emphasis on social justice and advocacy.
PART IContext, Competencies, and Data to Ground Counseling Practices
Chapter 1Social Justice and Cultural Competency Frameworks for Counseling With Immigrants and Refugees
The mindset for counseling with immigrants and refugees in the United States must be informed by the historical and contemporary inequities and marginalization they experience as individuals and families (Bemak & Chung, 2021). The counseling profession has advanced frameworks to ground our work to address inequities as educators, researchers, and clinicians in an increasingly diverse society. Social justice movements in the United States and in other countries, as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, were pivotal to identifying gaps in the preparation and practice of counselors. Concerns about the monocultural nature of counseling and changing demographics in the United States motivated the actions of culture-centered educators (Sue et al., 1992). The Multicultural Counseling Competencies documents of 1992 (Sue et al., 1992) and 1996 (Arredondo et al., 1996) and the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (MSJCC; Ratts et al., 2015) produced by professionals of the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) and the American Counseling Association (ACA) continue to be used by professionals and students alike working in different contexts, domestically and internationally.
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of social justice principles and practices and the Multicultural Counseling Competencies framework as they apply broadly to the work of mental health practitioners serving immigrants and refugees. ACA ethical principles will be referenced as they also provide guiding principles for culturally responsive practices. The grounding social justice frameworks and theories for the conceptualization of affirmative counseling practices presented in this chapter will inform applications for culturally responsive practices in Part II of the book.
Learning Objectives
Identify social justice movements as motivators to address inequities for marginalized individuals and communities such as immigrants and refugees.
Recognize the rationale of the MSJCC to address the limitations of White, Eurocentric models and theories advanced in counselor training.
Consider how colonizing approaches that take place in counseling practice further oppress immigrants and refugees.
Identify key aspects of a culturally responsive counseling foundation to support immigrants as clients, including ethical practice.
Examine the MSJCC framework to self-assess areas of counseling competence, including self-awareness and knowledge of immigrant experiences within sociopolitical contexts.
Become familiar with social justice practices from South Africa, Latin America, and the United States that inform opportunities for advocacy.
Recognize key terms associated with immigration, used legally or colloquially, and consider the effects of their use with immigrants, students, the counseling profession, and society at large.
Review theoretical frameworks that could be applied in counseling with immigrant populations, namely, relational-cultural theory (RCT), the community cultural wealth (CCW) model, critical race theory (CRT), and acculturation theory.
Discuss the case study of Amelia.
The following section introduces a self-assessment to gauge your existing knowledge of culturally responsive counseling frameworks designed to address inequities and marginalization, ethical considerations in working with immigrant and refugee populations, and the MSJCC needed to do so. This brief assessment aims to explore your current understanding of key concepts and provide a foundation for further learning. Answering the following questions will better equip you to engage with the content.
Self-assessment: Please respond to the following statements by rating yourself on the following Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree, or unsure.
I strive to be more culturally aware so that I can be an effective and ethical counselor with immigrant and refugee clients.
I recognize the social justice movements in this country that have reduced barriers for immigrants and other disenfranchised groups.
The MSJCC guide my counseling work.
I have considered the social justice issues that impact immigrants and refugees in counseling.
I can define key terms used to describe immigrants and refugees.
I have incorporated counseling theories and models (e.g., RCT, the CCW model, CRT, acculturation theory) into my practice as recommended for working with marginalized clients.
Social Justice Movements and Civil Rights
Marginalization and disenfranchisement of individuals based on immigrant status, racial and ethnic minority heritage, gender identity, LGBTQ+ identity, disability status, socioeconomic status, and educational attainment persists to this day in the United States even though the Civil Rights Act (1964) legislated open access to employment, education, and housing for African Americans and other groups. Furthermore, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964) serves to protect women from sexual discrimination and harassment, while the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) ensures access to public transportation, employment, education support, and other resources for individuals with disabilities. When people’s rights are abused, social movements have taken form in this country and around the world. We highlight a few movements because of their relevance to multicultural and social justice principles and practices in the counseling profession and their influence on the promulgation of the MSJCC (Ratts et al., 2015).
“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly.” This quote by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (1963) heightened awareness and action to counter injustices toward not only African Americans but also other oppressed groups. In the late 1960s, the United Farmworkers movement began to protect immigrant farmworkers, primarily Latinx and Pilipino, from exploitation specific to wages, work hours, housing, and workplace safety. Consciousness-raising led to grape strikes across the country with the leadership of César Chavez and Dolores Huerta (Library of Congress, n.d.). Earning a living wage has been and continues to be a social justice issue for laborers, such as agricultural workers, across the country.
Indigenous groups maintain their own sovereign nations in the United States yet still must mobilize to have treaties with the United States honored (DeLucia et al., 2021). Counselors need to know about the cultural persecution that occurred in 1857 with the Trail of Tears (Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde, n.d.; Schurr, 2017) and in the boarding schools (Schupman, 2020) where Indian children were removed from their homes “to have the Indian taken out of them.” Social justice movements that have more recently emerged include Black Lives Matter, which has expanded into a global network focused on systemic change for racial equality and the eradication of police brutality (Black Lives Matter Transparency Center, n.d.), and the #MeToo movement, which gives voice to victims of sexual harassment and assault for the sake of legal accountability (me too, n.d.). Specific to immigrants, sanctuary cities (American Immigration Council, 2020) across the country have been created through laws, ordinances, regulations, resolutions, policies, or other practices that restrict immigration enforcement and shield undocumented persons from U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement; they provide additional evidence of social justice actions in practice today.
Insomuch as counseling programs are established internationally, knowledge of social justice movements occurring around the world is also necessary. South Africa experienced apartheid for decades, but through the leadership of Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu, there were countrywide actions to eliminate it. One such movement was called the Defiance Campaign, a large-scale nonviolent resistance never before seen in South Africa that united South Africans of all backgrounds who considered apartheid a social justice issue. Later, with the election of Nelson Mandela as the first non-White president of the country, relations began to shift and greater access to education and other basic rights was ensured for Black South Africans. Archbishop Desmond Tutu, a global crusader for South Africa, stated,
If you are neutral in situations of injustice, you have chosen the side of the oppressor. If an elephant has its foot on the tail of a mouse and you say that you are neutral, the mouse will not appreciate your neutrality. (as cited in Brown, 1984, p. 19)
The quotation remains a call to action to people and professions; we cannot stand silent when individuals’ rights are not honored.
Indigenous rights in many Latin American countries have also been attacked for centuries, dating back to the arrival of the European conquerors who enslaved the Indigenous peoples in numerous countries. Historical genocide and oppression have led to contemporary families living in poverty and others who are walking across Mexico to enter the United States to avoid violence and starvation. An internationally known social justice advocate and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 is Rigoberta Menchú Tum (The Nobel Foundation, n.d.). She is credited with her interventions leading to reconciliation among ethnic groups and her advocacy for the rights of Indigenous groups in Guatemala, specifically the Mayan people (Gossen, 1999).
These domestic and international accounts of social justice movements influenced the development of the MSJCC (Ratts et al., 2015). The rationale for the competency documents dating back to 1992 is grounded in social justice principles and civil rights legislation. These accounts are important historical examples for contemporary counselors to recognize because, as a profession, we stand on the shoulders of social justice actions and advocacy that can be learned from and applied in the 21st century. The antecedents for the cultural and social justice competencies are discussed in the next section.
MSJCC
The Multicultural Counseling Competencies (Sue et al., 1992) were developed by scholars on behalf of AMCD, originally the Association of Non-White Concerns. The authors (and Dr. Thomas Parham, who commissioned the competency document) were attempting to give voice to the inequities experienced primarily by African Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos in different counseling contexts. Their rationale for a multicultural perspective in counseling was based on (a) diversification of the United States, (b) the monocultural nature of training, (c) sociopolitical realities in the United States, (d) multicultural conceptualization and research, and (e) ethical issues. The tripartite model of culture-centered awareness, knowledge, and skills was a call to action for educators, researchers, and practitioners. These competencies and standards were designed to be aspirational as well as guidelines, particularly for practitioners.
The operationalization of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (Arredondo et al., 1996) provided greater specificity of the 32 Multicultural Counseling Competencies. These competencies were operationalized with 131 explanatory statements. Additionally, this document was inclusive of more identity groups, not just the four racial/ethnic minority groups referenced in the 1992 document. Although both competency documents were informed by social justice principles, they were not overtly discussed. Thus, the development of the MSJCC (Ratts et al., 2015) served to further articulate power dynamics in the counseling relationship and the role of context. It can be said that the MSJCC have opened new ways of understanding the synergistic nature of identities in relationship to one another.
The MSJCC framework (Ratts et al., 2015) integrates current social justice concepts to create a contextual framework that goes beyond the one-to-one counseling relationship. That is, the MSJCC framework recognizes the layers of complexity in counselor-client relationships, synthesizing the intersections of identity with considerations for dynamics of power, privilege, and oppression that exist in all relationships.
The MSJCC framework conceptualizes counselor development through four domains: “(a) counselor self-awareness, (b) client worldview, (c) the counseling relationship, and (d) counseling and advocacy interventions” (Ratts et al., 2015, p. 37). The focus on advocacy extends the previous multicultural model created by Sue et al. (1992). (See Figure 1.1.)
Counselors’ MSJCC competency work includes first developing awareness of their own worldview. Awareness of one’s worldview requires taking account of one’s privileged and marginalized statuses and “values, beliefs, and biases” (Ratts et al., 2015, p. 38). Counselors gain awareness through self-reflection, interpersonal learning, acquiring knowledge through readings, professional development, and other scholarly opportunities in an intentional quest to learn about oneself in a variety of contexts as a part of a larger cultural community (Ratts et al., 2015). Additionally, through recognition of one’s own values and unconscious biases that result from one’s status, individual counselors can more likely avoid imposing them on their clients (ACA, 2014, Standard A.4.b.).
FIGURE 1.1.Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies
Note. From Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (p. 4), by M. J. Ratts, A. A. Singh, S. Nassar-McMillan, S. K. Butler, and J. R. McCullough, 2015, Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/competencies/multicultural-and-social-justice-counseling-competencies.pdf). Copyright 2015 by M. J. Ratts, A. A. Singh, S. Nassar-McMillan, S. K. Butler, and J. R. McCullough. Reprinted with permission.
Counselors must also become knowledgeable and aware of their clients’ worldview—that is, the sociocultural experiences and intersecting identities of those with whom they work. Here, the MSJCC (Ratts et al., 2015) intersect with counselors’ ethical responsibilities. The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) mandates that counselors learn about clients’ perspectives and respect their autonomy, rights, and cultural views (Standard B.1.a.). Thus, counselors are expected to deepen their knowledge about the history of immigration in the United States and associated terminology, the varying experiences immigrant populations from different countries have encountered, and their mental health stressors and needs. In-depth knowledge then informs theoretical perspectives and technical applications that may best support counseling relationships with immigrants, which is crucial to ethical and socially just work. It is also necessary to recognize individuals’ developmental status (e.g., child, adolescent, young adult, older adult) and the tasks typically required at these stages.
Immigrants’ and refugees’ cultural or national heritage identity, and the fluid nature of a person’s identity as they navigate new and culturally dissimilar environments, must be assessed as a potential mental health stressor. The intersectionality of the client’s identity is also important to consider. Intersectionality, as described by Crenshaw (1989), delineates differentiating aspects of a person’s experiences based on the complex interplay of attributes such as race, gender identity, and country of origin. A person’s immigration status is only one aspect of their identity, yet the intersections of an individual’s identities are inextricably intertwined (Jones & McEwen, 2000). In the dimensions of personal identity model introduced in the 1996 Multicultural Counseling Competencies expansion, Arredondo et al. (1996) described the origins of this model as emanating from counseling research with immigrant adolescents and their parents. This tripartite model (see Figure 1.2) indicates that an individual’s personal attributes of gender, age, sexual orientation, and so forth (A Dimensions) intersect with immigration experiences. Immigration is identified as a historical moment. It is a major change factor with multiple consequences in the postmigration period. Although counselors must recognize the intersecting and historical identities of each immigrant, it is important for the client to choose the priority each aspect of their identity takes in their counseling work. For example, an adolescent may say that being gay has upset his family relationships, or a college student from El Salvador may express anxiety about being in a classroom with a professor from Guatemala, fearing political distrust. In each of these cases, aspects of one identity take priority over others, but all are still important considerations in person-centered and culturally responsive counseling with immigrant clients.
FIGURE 1.2.Dimensions of Personal Identity Model (Arredondo & Glauner, 1992)
Note. From Personal Dimensions of Identity Model, by P. Arredondo and T. Glauner, 1992. Copyright 1992 by Empowerment Workshops, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
In line with the MSJCC model (Ratts et al., 2015), counselors also need to explore aspects of an immigrant client’s identity and to learn about the systems in which clients have previously experienced and currently navigate. With this information, counselors can respond in systemic ways to support them. It is not enough to work directly with clients in individual counseling. Counselors must consider clients’ protective factors and strengths (e.g., collectivistic relationships, spiritual beliefs, resilience) as well as risk factors and contextual barriers (e.g., professional licensing restrictions, language used in school communications, access to insurance benefits). To comprehensively consider systems that impact immigrants, Ratts et al. (2015) referred to five levels of influence in their MSJCC socioecological model: (a) intrapersonal, (b) interpersonal, (c) institutional, (d) community, and (e) public policy. Forms of oppression in each of these levels exist, influencing the development and psychological well-being of clients. It is recommended that counselors explore forms of oppression and support in all systems affecting clients specifically, and then construct layers of intervention according to identified needs, such as setting goals with the individual client, while working in their respective settings like schools, workplaces, community agencies, or family systems to support clients and system change (Singh et al., 2020).
For individuals who are marginalized in various ways across multiple systems, it is important for counselors to be aware of concepts such as minority stress (Meyer, 1995, 2003) and weathering (Geronimus, 1992). Both concepts consider how systemic oppression and discrimination negatively affect marginalized groups and their mental and physical well-being over time. Counselors who consider the impact of systemic forms of oppression on individuals can move from an intrapsychic perspective, which includes focusing treatment planning on change in the individual using “office bound strategies” (Ratts & Greenleaf, 2018, p. 79), to multisystemic intervention models (e.g., the counselor-advocate-scholar model; Ratts & Pedersen, 2014). Thus, the counselor who is knowledgeable about cultural implications for the client works alongside the client as an advocate to intervene with or for the sake of the client. Similar to using a trauma-informed lens (which shifts the question from “What is wrong with you?” to “What happened to you?”), counselors grounded in multiculturalism and social justice recognize that systems of oppression have affected the client and move toward change with the client—and the systems that affect the client—in holistic ways.
Two other components of the MSJCC model require counselors to develop skills and take action to support their clients (Ratts et al., 2015). In addition to using counseling and advocacy skills effectively, counselors are tasked with integrating critical thinking skills into their work to examine disparities in privilege. This means openly considering worldviews different from their own and recognizing their own missteps in counseling relationships. For example, counselors should use their observation and assessment skills to recognize a client’s withdrawal behaviors, broach the possibility of the counselor’s own missteps, and then work to reconcile any microaggressions they may have committed. For instance, if a counselor refers to a client as African American, and the client corrects them and notes they are from Jamaica or Barbados, the counselor should apologize and take time to explore the client’s cultural heritage and what it means to their identity. Because of issues around power, privilege, and oppressive experiences, counselors must be aware that not all immigrant and refugee clients will be forthcoming about microaggressions they have experienced; thus, counselors should periodically create intentional time in session discussions or use other methods (e.g., surveys) to solicit feedback from clients about “how they are doing.”
Furthermore, counselors are lifelong learners who intentionally strive to learn from others to develop MSJCC competency and take on part of the social justice work by engaging in social justice advocacy. Social justice advocacy must include joining with immigrant voices to encourage clinics, schools, hospitals, and other community service providers to translate all documents into the preferred languages of all members of the community to make information accessible to all families. Counselors can also connect with cultural leaders to learn about their perceptions of counseling, acknowledge and rectify concerns with the profession (when possible), demystify the counseling process, and destigmatize counseling prevention and intervention practices. When the marginalization of immigrants puts them at risk when self-advocating, counselors advocate for the sake of immigrants (Lewis et al., 2003). For example, counselors can be a voice for undocumented clients who have been victims of specific crimes, in coordination with law enforcement, to be eligible to apply for a U visa (see U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, n.d.; Victims of Trafficking and Violence Prevention Act, 2000).
ACA Code of Ethics
Immigrants and their U.S.-born children make up a substantial percentage of the U.S. population at 26%, or approximately 85.7 million people (Ward & Batalova, 2023). Thus, counselors, who strive to provide services to people of all ages and backgrounds, must be ethically and responsibly prepared to work with the immigrant population. The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) describes clear core values for our profession that inform our work with immigrants. Counselors commit to
enhancing human development throughout the life span;
honoring diversity and embracing a multicultural approach in support of the worth, dignity, potential, and uniqueness of people within their social and cultural contexts;
promoting social justice;
safeguarding the integrity of the counselor-client relationship; and
practicing in a competent and ethical manner. (ACA, 2014, p. 3)
Ethical practice also includes recognizing diversity and embracing “approaches that support the worth, dignity, potential, and uniqueness of individuals in their historical, cultural, economic, political, and psychosocial contexts” (ACA, 2014, p. 20). Thus, it is important for mental health professionals to recognize that their professions have traditionally oppressed immigrants, including restricting immigration by taking money from the Pioneer Fund to promote the idea of sending Black Americans to Africa, and diminishing educational opportunities (American Psychological Association, 2023). Furthermore, White, Western, and male-dominant perspectives are embedded within the counseling profession (Good-man & Gorski, 2015). In particular, counseling theories are based on North American and European colonist, male ideologies that maintain an intrapsychic focus (Ratts & Greenleaf, 2018) with underlying motives toward power and oppression, which have been perpetuated as counselors told clients “what was wrong with them” without understanding them or their culture (Singh et al., 2020).
Chavez et al. (2016) noted that some traditional theoretical perspectives ignore the subjective experiences of oppressed people, leading to the pathologizing and marginalizing of communities such as immigrants and refugees. For example, Idemudia and Boehnke (2020) provided a critique of attachment theory applications to immigrant populations, given that they do not account for pre- or midmigration contextual factors that may affect the attachment of infants and toddlers to parents who are in the midst of migrating. The problem Chavez et al. (2016) and Singh et al. (2020) identified is that a monocultural legacy still exists in which theory is arbitrarily applied regardless of culture, identity, and experiences, and human behavior is evaluated by comparing it with Eurocentric standards. Thus, marginalization of immigrants and refugees continues.
Instead, counselors must purposefully work to decolonize the profession when integrating theory into practice. Such decolonization requires counselors to critically examine traditional counseling theories that approach work with clients from a White, Eurocentric viewpoint to avoid further marginalization of those clients and to consider alternative theories and counseling practices that may better align with clients’ cultural beliefs (Singh et al., 2020).
Decolonization of Counseling
Decolonization can be defined as decentralization of the status quo that perpetuates inequities “maintained by cultural, social, and economic capital of dominant groups” (Hernández-Wolfe, 2011, p. 294). Chavez et al. (2016) provided principles aligned with liberation psychology to do so. In keeping with the MSJCC approach, questioning is an essential part of recognizing marginalization practices. A part of the aforementioned advocacy work includes examining one’s own practices as a counselor and the counseling profession for evidence of oppression and marginalization woven into one’s education and ongoing professional development.
Recognition of the dynamics of power and privilege is important in all counseling contexts; for counseling relationships with immigrants, this is an essential assessment process (Malott et al., 2023). Traditional counseling theories, almost solely conceptualized by White males from Eurocentric worldviews, have been criticized for “blaming the victim,” that is, admonishing the client for their own mental health issues, thereby causing harm (Wendt et al., 2015) to marginalized clients such as immigrants (Sue et al., 1992). Examples in the literature suggest psychoanalysis (Tummala-Narra, 2022), humanism (Chavez et al., 2016), and rational emotive behavior therapy (Terán, 2020) among others should be used with caution with non-White populations. Some authors have gone further to suggest the trend in multicultural, social justice work continues to replicate these Eurocentric frameworks rather than effect real change toward intercultural mental health practices (Goodman & Gorski, 2015). For instance, clinicians still use assessment tools that have not been normed on populations representative of immigrant clients or are in other ways biased against particular racial and ethnic groups, at times leading to inaccurate results and misdiagnoses (Liang et al., 2016; Paalman et al., 2013). Integrating multicultural and social justice concepts into required courses reportedly occurs, but the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, the accrediting body, has not yet raised the bar to require more evidence of multicultural preparation in core courses.
Singh et al. (2020) underscored the importance of decolonizing the counseling profession through critical examination of theories and interventions that continue to victimize marginalized clients. Counselors can learn and include theoretical models containing social justice work as tenets. Singh et al. recommended RCT (Miller, 1976), CRT (Bell, 1995), and intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1989, 1991). RCT is highlighted because it focuses on the counseling profession specifically as well as the CCW model, which celebrates strengths in communities of color. Crenshaw (1989, 1991) addressed intersectionality and the importance of including all aspects of the person’s identity, similar to what is outlined in the dimensions of personal identity model (Arredondo & Glauner, 1992).
RCT
RCT (Miller, 1976) may give counselors an additional framework to consider how contextual and sociocultural challenges can impact the development of relationships between counselors and clients (Comstock et al., 2008; Duffey & Haberstroh, 2022). With application of RCT, counselors nurture relationship growth by encouraging mutuality and empowerment through empathy, authenticity, and understanding of racial/cultural/social identities along with the particular issues they experience.
When using RCT with immigrant clients, counselors must first consider the needs of the client. Instead of making assumptions about clients’ needs, counselors develop authentic relationships by listening to clients’ perspectives of their needs and experiences. For example, in one study, 15 Latinx and Asian immigrants and refugees shared their premigration, migration, and postmigration experiences and perceived counseling needs at each stage of their journey (Cigrand et al., 2022). Despite managing difficult decisions and traumatic events, immigrants in this study reported an ability to set goals, persevere toward the achievement of those goals, and maintain resilience throughout the migration process despite life-threatening adversity. One might think these immigrants would require insight-oriented counseling to deal with their experienced traumas. However, a key study finding was that the immigrants reported they may not be interested in seeking counseling support for their trauma (Cigrand et al., 2022). Rather, they indicated they had other more basic and practical needs, such as finding a home, finding a job with stability, and making a livable wage. This feedback from immigrants suggests counselors may need to engage in advocacy more than traditional mental health counseling. Being pragmatic matters.
In addition to identifying ways to advocate for opportunities for immigrants to meet these basic needs, counseling professionals using RCT must ask themselves if there are other reasons that immigrants think counseling relationships are not helpful. Possibly, immigrants have not found connectedness, empathy, empowerment, or respect in counseling, or they do not identify counseling professionals as relational partners and advocates toward mitigation of oppression and social injustices. Immigrants may also be confused about what counselors really do if the term in their preferred language does not explain the meaning well. For example, in many cultures, psychologist is more recognized than the term counselor
