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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
Explores the evolution of martyrdom across Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Martyrdom has long been a defining concept in religious traditions, shaping the identities of faith communities and influencing theological thought across centuries. Death in the Name of God: Martyrs and Martyrdom traces the historical development of this powerful idea within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, examining how cultural, social, and political contexts have influenced evolving interpretations of martyrdom. Through a multidisciplinary lens, noted scholar Rebecca I. Denova provides a comprehensive analysis of how each tradition adapted and redefined martyrdom in response to changing historical circumstances. By offering historical depth and critical examination, the author helps readers understand how martyrdom has been utilized to define faith, legitimacy, and religious authority in different eras.
An accessible yet rigorous study of the roots and transformations of martyrdom, Death in the Name of God features detailed historical context, primary source discussions, and thematic analyses. The book's three-tiered methodological framework—descriptive, comparative, and critical—guides readers through the role of martyrdom in shaping religious belief systems, including its origins in ancient traditions, its role in theological and political developments, and its continued significance in modern religious and social discourse.
An essential resource for understanding the enduring impact of martyrdom in Western religious thought, Death in the Name of God:
- Provides a multidisciplinary analysis of martyrdom through history, incorporating anthropology, sociology, philosophy, and religious studies
- Explores how martyrdom developed in response to shifting historical and cultural contexts
- Features sections that offer deeper insight into key topics such as the evolution of Satan and distinctions in martyrdom between Sunni and Shi′a Islam
- Examines how martyrdom transitioned from an act of deliberate sacrifice to a modern concept of victimhood and social struggle
- Includes timelines, figures, and archaeological findings to provide visual and historical context
Offering a non-theological, academic perspective that fosters objective discussion on a historically and politically charged topic, Death in the Name of God: Martyrs and Martyrdom is perfect for courses in Religious Studies, History, Theology, and Middle Eastern Studies. It is particularly well-suited for degree programs in the liberal arts and social sciences, offering foundational knowledge for courses on the history of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as broader discussions on religious violence and martyrdom in contemporary society.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
PREFACE
The Purpose of This Textbook
Theistic and Nontheistic Religions
Methodology: The Academic Discipline of Religious Studies
The Revealed Traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
The Chapters
Features of this Textbook
The Communal Nature and Common Features of Martyrdom
The State of Our Evidence
Anachronism
Contradictions
I SHARED CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND RELIGION
Concepts and Terminology
Religion
The Universe
Religious Pluralism and Conversion
Polytheism and Monotheism
Myth
The Concept of Sin
Acts of Worship/Rituals
Cult
Religious Festivals
Divination: Astrology, Oracles, Magicians
Religion and Society
Social Class
Citizenship
Education
Collegia
Slavery
Ancient Concepts of the Afterlife
Monism/Dualism
Funeral Rituals
Funeral Games
Judaism/Jews, Christianity/Christians, Islam/Muslims
Languages/Scriptures
Polemic and Rhetoric
Old Testament/Canon
Gentiles and Pagans
Faith versus Rituals
Creative Writing
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
II THE ORIGINS OF CONCEPTS OF THE AFTERLIFE/FUNERAL RITUALS
Mesopotamia
Ancient Egypt
The Story of Osiris and Isis
Persia
Justice
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
III THE TRADITIONS OF JUDAISM
The Story of Ancient Israel
Who Wrote the Jewish Scriptures?
Genesis 1–11
Abraham
Sacrifice
Joseph and His Brothers
Exodus
Leviticus
Purity/Impurity
Numbers and Deuteronomy
Historical Books: Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings
1 and 2 Samuel
A Paradigmatic Shift and a New Disaster
Antiochus Epiphanes IV (Syria, 216–154 BCE
)
Pompey and the Rule of Rome
Jewish Burial Traditions
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
EXCURSUS I: THE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF SATAN
How Did Evil Come into the World?
Ha-Satan and the Book of Job
The Justice of God?
The Dead Sea Scrolls
The New Testament
The Gospel of Peter
IV GRECO‐ROMAN CONCEPTS OF THE NOBLE DEATH AND THE AFTERLIFE
Hesiod and Greek Creation
Formation of the Olympians
Homer
The Concept of a Noble Death
Religion and Philosophy
Schools of Philosophy
The Greek Underworld: Hades
Oracles of the Dead
Hero Cults
The Mysteries
Greek Funerals
Roman Religions
The Mysteries in Rome
Oracles of the Dead
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
V THE MACCABEE REVOLT
Religion and Culture
Apocalyptic Judaism
Daniel
Reaction to Foreign Occupation
Seleucid Dynasty
Antiochus Epiphanes IV (Syria, 216 BCE
–154
BCE
)
Maccabee Revolt
4 Maccabees
The Essentials of Martyrdom
Jewish Sectarianism
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
VI THE LETTERS OF PAUL
Who Was Paul?
Jewish–Christian Relations
The New Perspective
Gentile Inclusion
Galations 1
Judaizers
The Incident at Antioch
Faith Versus Works of the Law
Justified/Righteoused by Faith
Romans 5
Why Then the Law of Moses?
Grace
Christology
The Analogy of Slavery
Paul's Eschatology
Idolatry
Persecution and the Ordeals of Paul
Wild Beasts
Romans 13: “Obey the Governing Authorities”
What About the Jews?
Deutero‐Paul
Paul, the Quintessential Martyr
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
VII THE STORY OF JESUS OF NAZARETH IN THE GOSPELS
The Four Gospels
Gospel of Mark (c. 69/70 CE
)
Gospel of Matthew (85 CE
?)
Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles (95 CE
?)
Gospel of John (100 CE
?)
Problems Faced by the Writers of the Gospels
The Relationship Among the Gospels
Analyzing the Gospels
What Really Happened?
Jesus: The Ideal Martyr
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
VIII THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES: THE INCLUSION OF GENTILES AND PERSECUTION
The Commission
A Missionary Religion
Pentecost (Acts 2)
Peter and John
The Story of Stephen (Acts 6 and 7)
The Story of Paul (Acts 8–9)
Luke's God‐Fearers (Acts 10)
Acts 12: The Beginning of Persecution
Acts 15: The Apostolic Council
Luke's
Apologia
to Rome
The Typology of Rejection in Acts
Acts 14: Paul and Barnabas in Iconium
Acts 16: The Philippian Jailer
Acts 19:10–41: The Riot in Ephesus
Political Innocence
The Arrest and Trials of Paul
Silence on the Deaths of James, Peter, and Paul
The Timing of Acts 15
Rome had a disdain for new, Eastern religions, full of wonder‐workers, astrologists, and necromancers. Periodically, their booths would be ejected from the forum, but they always managed to work their way back. Tiberius had also done this in 19 CE
.
The Legacy of the Acts of the Apostles
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
IX THE IMPERIAL CULT AND LIFE AND DEATH IN THE ROMAN ARENAS
Hero Cults
From Monarchy to Republic
Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE
)
Octavianus/Augustus (63–
14
CE
)
The Imperial Cult of Roma
The Julio‐Claudians
The Year of the Four Emperors (69/70 CE
)
Domitian (81–96 CE
)
Roman Views of Christians
The Roman Penal System
Funeral and Gladiatorial Games
The Pattern of Roman Persecution
Schisms in the Church
John of Patmos and the Book of Revelation
Other Apocalypses
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
X INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND HIERARCHY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
Elders and Bishops
The Theology of Hierarchy and Election
The Church Fathers of the Second to Fourth Centuries
The 10 Commandments
Christian Innovations on Sex and Marriage
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XI THE INVENTION OF ORTHODOXY AND HERESY
The Nag Hammadi Library
What Is Gnosticism?
Gnostic Gospels
Marcion of Sinope (85–160 CE
)
The Formation of the New Testament Canon
Martyrs and Heresy
The Demise of the Gnostics
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XII CHRISTIAN MARTYRS
The Apostolic Fathers
Clement of Rome (35–99 CE
)
Pliny the Younger (61–113 CE
)
Ignatius of Antioch
Polycarp of Smyrna (69–155 CE
)
Bishop Tertullian (160–220 CE
)
Blandina and the Martyrs of Lyon, France (c. 177 CE
)
The Scillitan Martyrs (180 CE
)
Cyprian of Carthage (210–258 CE
)
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Acts of Thomas
Acts of Peter
Paul in Rome
Greek Romance Novels
The Acts of Paul and Thecla
The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity
(202/203
CE
)
Virgin Martyrs
Origen of Alexandria (184–253 CE
)
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XIII MARTYRDOM IN JUDAISM: THE RABBINIC TRADITION
Rabbinic Judaism
Did Jews Persecute Christians?
Reading Martyrdom into the Scriptures
Emperor Hadrian (76–138 CE
) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136
CE
)
New Criteria for Martyrdom
The Covenant of Noah and Righteous Gentiles
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XIV THE CHRISTIANIZATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312)
Edict of Milan (313 CE
)
Why Did Constantine Convert?
Constantinople
Donatist Schism over the Persecution of Christians
Christian Art and Architecture
The Council of Nicaea and the Trinity (325 CE
)
The Immediate Aftermath of Nicaea
The Impact of the Trinity and the Creed
Helena
Theodosius I (347–395)
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XV MONASTICISM AND THE CULT OF THE SAINTS
Early Concepts
Anthony of Egypt (251–356)
Pachomius (290–348)
Evagrius Ponticus (345–399)
Monastics as Martyrs
Communal Benefits
Vigilante Monks
Radical Monastics
Monastic Literature
The Rise of the Cult of the Saints
Prayers for the Dead
Tombs of the Martyrs
Ambrose of Milan (339–397)
Incident at Minorca
Peripheral Body Parts
Celebration of Saints
The Necessity of Purgatory
Icons
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XVI AUGUSTINE AND THE WESTERN TRADITION
Conversion
Back to North Africa
Why Do Humans Sin?
Back to the Garden
Augustine's Innovation
Doctrine of Grace
Predestination
Pelagius and Free Will
Augustine's Concept of Free Will
Augustine and Martyrdom
The Donatists
Circumcellions
The Sin of Suicide
The Barbarian Invasions and
The City of God
Just War Theory
“Slay Them Not”
Adjustments to Christian Innovations
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XVII THE EMERGENCE OF ISLAM
Persecution and Migration
Medina
Prophecy
The Tenets of Islam: The Five Pillars
Islamic Art
Reforms
Fatwas
Creation
Iblis, the Devil
Predestination, Free Will, and Fate
Funeral Rituals
The Afterlife
End‐Time Oppression
Life in the Grave
Muhammad as Intercessor for the Faithful
Martyrdom
Suicide
Post‐Muhammad Era (750–1258)
The Crusades
The Modern Era (Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)
World War II and the Postwar Period
Islamic Fundamentalism
Contemporary Islamic Persecution and Suffering
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
EXCURSUS II: MARTYRDOM IN SUNNI ISLAM AND SHI'A ISLAM
The Martyrdom of Ali
Holy Sites
Relics (
Tabarruk
)
Occultation (
Ghaybah
): The Concept of the Mahdi
Sufism
XVIII MARTYRDOM IN THE MIDDLE AGES
The Rise of the Papacy
The Petrine Supremacy
The Holy Roman Empire
Ancient Concepts Redefined
Pilgrimage
The Rise of the Nation‐State
The Millennium
Henry II and Thomas Becket
Mendicant Orders
Lucifer
Celebrations of the Dead
The Inquisition
The Inquisition During the Renaissance
Blood Libel
Bubonic Plague
Passion Plays
Literature
New Worlds
Asia and the Pacific
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XIX THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Martin Luther
Europe and the Wars of Religion
Protestant Sects
The House of Habsburg
The English Civil War
Ireland
The French Revolution
Russia
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
XX MODERN MARTYRDOM
Paradigms That Lead to Religious Conflict and Wars
The Modern Secular World
Secular Martyrs
Communal Memory
The Politics of Memory: World Wars I and II
Victims as Martyrs
The Holocaust
Bombings of September 11, 2001
Religion and Politics: Liberation Theology
Violence in Places of Worship
Martyrs for Social Causes
Communal Violence
Religious/Social Perceptions of Persecution
What Motivates a Potential Martyr?
October 7, 2023: Hamas
Power Politics
Viktor Frankl
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
GLOSSARY
INDEX
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 9
Table IX.1 Roman persecution of Christians.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure II.1 Image of Inanna, Queen of the Heavens. The Picture Art Collectio...
Figure II.2 Later iconography of Ereshkigal, Queen of the Dead, Queen of the...
Figure II.3 The Hall of Judgment. Beginning with the upper left‐hand corner,...
Chapter 3
Figure III.1 Second temple in the Holyland Hotel Model of Jerusalem. Berthol...
Figure III.2 Alexander's empire. Generic Mapping Tools / Wikimedia Commons ...
Figure III.3 The Garden Tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem. alefbet / Shutterstock....
Chapter 4
Figure IV.1 Etruscan funeral banquet, tomb of the lionesses, Tarquinia Al Ma...
Chapter 5
Figure V.1 Daniel in the lions' den.
Figure V.2 Daniel's friends in the fiery furnace. Unknown Author / Wikimedia...
Chapter 6
Figure VI.1 The earliest image of Paul from c. 2,000 years ago, found in the...
Chapter 9
Figure IX.1
Ara Pacis
. Augustus' Altar of Peace was dedicated in 13
BCE
. It ...
Figure IX.2 Early graffiti: “Alexamenos worshipping his god.” Unknown Author...
Figure IX.3
Venatio
games. Copyright Rached Msadek, Panoramio / Wikimedia Co...
Figure IX.4 A picture of the “good shepherd” that was adopted for Jesus. Lei...
Figure IX.5 The raising of Lazarus. Credit: The Raising of Lazarus, Catacomb...
Figure IX.6 Funeral meal or Eucharist. Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / ...
Chapter 13
Figure XIII.1 Drawing of the reverse of a coin from Colonia Aelia Capitolina...
Chapter 14
Figure XIV.1 Arch of Constantine. Gimsan / Adobe Stock Photos.
Figure XIV.2 The imperial face of Christ. Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons...
Figure XIV.3 Constantine the Great and his church. Myrabella / Wikimedia Com...
Chapter 17
Figure XVII.1 The
hajj
at Mecca.
Figure XVII.2 The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.
Chapter 18
Figure XVIII.1 St. Thomas Becket.
Figure XVIII.2 Isis and Horus. Cultural Archive / Alamy Stock Photo.
Figure XVIII.3 Raphael's
Madonna and Child with Book
, 1520. Web Gallery of A...
Figure XVIII.4 Michaelangelo's
Pietà
. St. Peter’s Basilica / Wikimedia ...
Figure XVIII.5
Martyrdom of St. Agatha
, c. 1470–1473, by Sano di Pietro (Sie...
Figure XVIII.6 Peter Paul Rubens'
St. Sebastian
, 1614, Berlin. Metropolitan ...
Figure XVIII.7 Miniature from a thirteenth‐century
Passio Sancti Georgii
, Ve...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
PREFACE
Begin Reading
GLOSSARY
INDEX
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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DEATH IN THE NAME OF GOD
MARTYRS AND MARTYRDOM IN THE WESTERN TRADITION
Rebecca I. Denova
This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Denova, Rebecca I., author.Title: Death in the name of god : martyrs and martyrdom in the western tradition / Rebecca I. Denova.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2025. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2025021882 (print) | LCCN 2025021883 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394252923 (paperback) | ISBN 9781394252947 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394252930 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Martyrdom. | Martyrs.Classification: LCC BL626.5 .D46 2025 (print) | LCC BL626.5 (ebook) | DDC 206/.1–dc23/eng/20250530LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2025021882LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2025021883
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: The Crucifixion of Saint Peter by Caravaggio, 1601 CE. Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome.
PREFACE
Most often associated with being an element of the ancient and medieval worlds, the concept of martyrdom became shockingly present in the modern world on September 11, 2001 with the bombing of the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, DC. The members of the Islamist al Qaeda group who hijacked the planes were labeled terrorists by outsiders since they acted on their concepts of martyrdom.
The Merriam‐Webster Dictionary defines a martyr as (1) “a person who voluntarily suffers death as the penalty of witnessing to and refusing to renounce his/her religion”; (2) “a person who sacrifices something of great value and especially life itself for the sake of principle (a cause)”; (3) “a victim of great or constant suffering.”
Those who suffer “for the sake of a principle or cause” has become the modern concept of what we deem secular martyrs, most often associated with assassinated political leaders and those who die or who are killed for a social cause. Great or constant suffering now includes victims of domestic violence, sexual assault and abuse, social activists, and cancer sufferers. Secular, while distinct from religion, nevertheless incorporates social values that arose from religious traditions. These people's deaths are memorialized as a “sacrifice.”
The title of this book, Death in the Name of God: Martyrs and Martyrdom in the Western Tradition, reflects the emergence of concurrent elements that promoted martyrdom. Dying to defend the dictates of the God of Israel resulted in the reward of being transferred to Heaven in the afterlife. But killing the perceived enemies of God resulted in the same reward. This dual concept of death in the name of God continues to provide validation for violence by some participants in the Western traditions.
In the modern world, many people are convinced that religion breeds fanatics and absolutism, hence modern attempts to separate religion (private) from the state (public). Theorists have labeled violence and violent attacks motivated by religious views as arising from a human proclivity for what is described as “ultimate concerns.” Such ultimate concerns have very high stakes. There is a conviction that individuals and the world will not be saved, variously defined, unless there is obedience and conformity to a determined set of divine beliefs and behavior.
A second element of the dual nature of martyrdom is the word itself. From the Greek for “witness,” the original context was as a witness testifying in a court of law, testifying to the “truth.” The members of the martyr's community also serve as “witnesses” to the martyr's death and his/her claims concerning God.
The Purpose of This Textbook
Death in the Name of God: Martyrs and Martyrdom explores the origins and history of the concept of martyrs and martyrdom in the Western traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It is designed for syllabi in courses on the history of these traditions in their historical contexts. Context determines content. In an evolutionary process, each of the Western traditions utilized and built on ancient roots but with updated variations as their historical circumstances and culture changed in various places over time. Many courses on the history of religion often require an extensive amount of reading in the various traditions. Having the basic materials in one book will help with the organization of educational resources. A second purpose is an introduction for participants of non‐Western traditions and lay readers.
Theistic and Nontheistic Religions
The emergence of the social sciences of anthropology, sociology, archaeology, and psychology in the nineteenth century led to the academic categorization of world religions. The Western traditions are described as theistic, systems that are revealed by a creator god or gods, and nontheistic, systems that promote ethnic and moral codes of conduct.
We also use the descriptors of linear for theistic systems and cyclical for nontheistic systems. Theistic, revealed systems begin with creation myths (a beginning of time) and subsequently progress to concepts of an end, the final days of the universe and life on earth. The Western religions share a concept that God will intervene in human history one last time and then manifest his kingdom on earth, his original plan in Eden. Nontheistic systems utilize cycles of birth, life, death, and rebirth, determined by the concept of karma, one's actions, and reincarnation, recurring cycles of rebirth. The measure of one's life ultimately leads to release from the cycle and the attainment of enlightenment. Nontheistic systems include concepts of martyrdom, but in this book we focus on the Western traditions.
Methodology: The Academic Discipline of Religious Studies
Religious Studies is a more recent discipline in the academy in the last century. It is important to recognize the differences between theology (the study of God) and religious studies. Western theology involves the study of the nature of the God of Israel and the way in which God and humans interact. Theologians address such issues from preconceived faith convictions. There are thousands of books and articles on the theological development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Religious Studies (often referred to as “the academic study of religion”) focuses on the origins of religious authority (institutions), beliefs, rituals, sacred texts, and ethics. Absent value judgments on which religions are right or wrong, religious studies examines the people and societies who created religious traditions and the way in which such traditions functioned in daily life.
Religious Studies utilizes a multidisciplinary approach and methodology that incorporate all the liberal arts and social sciences: classics, history, literature, anthropology, archaeology, sociology, philosophy, and psychology. In addition, the study of religion analyzes economics, politics, ethnic studies, ritual studies, gender studies, the arts, global studies, and cross‐cultural approaches. Religious Studies explores the human experience of religion in specific cultures over time, as a “system of meaning.” This is the approach utilized in this book. Working in tandem, a Religious Studies approach also sheds light on the origin and evolution of theological concepts.
Each of the Western traditions is analyzed here through three methods of analysis:
The
descriptive dimension
. This includes the historical, cultural, social, and religious context of each tradition and its concepts of martyrdom.
The
comparative dimension
. In relation to a variety of religious options, which elements of the original were retained? Which elements were rejected and why?
The
critical dimension
. In what way was the development or reinterpretation of traditions deemed necessary? In other words, what was happening in these ancient cultures that necessitated a new or adjusted understanding?
The Revealed Traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
The foundation story for what became Judaism, Christianity, and Islam began with “the call of Abraham,” when a deity subsequently identified as the God of Israel ordered Abraham to create a separate nation (Genesis 12). Described as a “revelation,” God's intentions were consistently repeated and added to over the course of Jewish history.
But religious systems do not arise in a vacuum. All religions are social constructions that provide meaning to daily life. Ancient cultures had “covenants,” contracts from the gods, that dictated religious rituals, social behavior, and gender roles. The divine source provided validity as to why these covenants should be obeyed. Obedience to the contracts was rewarded with prosperity and procreation, while disobedience was punished. A dominant theme in ancient cultures was survival: survival of people, crops, and herds. The survival of people was assured through the social unit of the family, which extended to the clan and the tribe. Thus, we describe these societies as communal.
Martyrs also do not arise in a vacuum. A martyr cannot declare himself/herself as such. The recognition must come from a community. Communal recognition includes anniversaries of the martyr's death, community reenactments of his/her life and suffering, pilgrimages to the tombs of the martyr, and public memorials. Martyrologies, biographies of the martyr, remain popular literature.
The communal element is expressed in concepts of collective reward and punishment. The actions and speeches of martyrs address contemporary sins or social crises. This serves as anticipatory ways in which to avoid the wrath of the God when he eventually institutes his kingdom on earth. At the same time, the experience of martyrdom, that of suffering, persecution, and ultimate death, is offered as a reversal to the continuing problem of the existence of evil in daily life.
The Chapters
Chapter I: Shared Concepts of Culture and Religion
The opening chapter includes a survey of cultures in the areas of the ancient Mediterranean and Middle East and their shared elements of religious concepts and practices. For our purposes, we consider here those areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea that facilitated trade and cultural interaction.
We define the basic terminology and concepts (sacrifices, rituals, divination, etc.) that are used throughout the text. We survey the traditional social conventions of economic class and status and the law codes that evolved in ancient societies. Including the terms in the first chapter avoids repetition in subsequent chapters.
Chapter II: The Origins of Concepts of the Afterlife/Funeral Rituals
Martyrdom cannot be fully understood without the emergence of ancient concepts of what happens at death and the afterlife. The idea of a continuing existence after death, either in body or soul or both, led to the conviction that the dead continued to influence their descendants, for either good or harm. Placating dead ancestors led to funeral rituals. Funeral rituals helped the dead on their journey to the afterlife, but also kept them there. Ultimately dead martyrs were understood to have continuing influence on earth. We highlight the evolution of the earlier traditions of death and the afterlife in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan, and Persia.
Chapter III: The Traditions of Judaism
The story of Israel is related in the Jewish scriptures, which shared religious concepts with neighboring cultures. Over several centuries, Israel suffered several national disasters. It was left to the prophets of Israel to reveal God's purpose in these events. At the same time, they offered a message of hope, in that contemporary suffering would ultimately be alleviated. These texts remain central to the later emergence of Christianity and Islam.
Excursus I: The Origins and Evolution of Satan
The evolution of the existence and the character of Satan, the Devil, addressed the continuing problem of evil on earth. What became the concepts of Heaven and Hell, one's destiny in the afterlife in the Western traditions, emerged over time and were adapted from some neighboring cultures. Martyrs became important heroes in combating the work of the Devil.
Chapter IV: Greco‐Roman Concepts of the Noble Death and the Afterlife
We survey Greco‐Roman concepts of the afterlife that were added to ancient traditions. Suicide in the ancient world was never deemed a sin, nor as anything negative. We explore the idea of self‐death, elevated as the concept of a sacrifice. Social aspects in the ancient world were based on the polarity of honor/shame and the public persona of an individual. We span from Homer to Plato, with the story of Socrates as the template for the “noble death.” A fundamental criterion for a noble death and eventually martyrdom was the element of choice.
Included in this chapter is a survey of voluntary cults, deemed the Mysteries, which required the initiation of participants. The most popular were the Mysteries of Isis and Osiris, Demeter, and Dionysius. The focus of the cults included the suffering, death, and rebirth of divinities as transformative models and a shared, enlightened experience for the participant.
Chapter V: The Maccabee Revolt
The conquests of Alexander the Great in the region (ca. 330 BCE) imposed Greek government, education, philosophy, and religion in the Middle East. When the Hellenistic Syrian ruler Antiochus IV banned the “ancestral customs of Jews” in 167 BCE, the Jews rose in revolt and drove the Greeks out. This was the Maccabee Revolt, which produced the earliest texts that utilized the concept of martyrs (“witnesses”) and their deaths as an atoning sacrifice “for the sins of the nation.” The reward for those who died was “resurrection,” “standing in the presence of God.”
In this chapter we also explore the emergence of what became religious “sectarianism.” Various groups of Jews, described as “sects,” accepted the basic tenets of Judaism, but differed on elements of daily life, governance of the group, and ways in which to integrate cultural elements (or not) under foreign occupation. Sectarianism continued as an aspect of both Christianity and Islam. Different sects evolved different criteria for martyrdom.
The next several chapters focus on the emergence and history of Christianity. In modern, Western culture, the Christian template became and remains the most influential understanding of concepts of martyrdom.
Chapter VI: The Letters of Paul
Our earliest evidence for what became Christianity is found in the letters of Paul, a first‐century Pharisee who became a believer in the Christian movement. We examine both his claim that he “persecuted the church of Christ” and, following his revelation, his experiences of being persecuted, “suffering for the cross of Christ.” Subsequent stories of martyrs all begin with parallel descriptions of their persecution, either by individuals or by the state.
Chapter VII: The Story of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospels
The experiences of an itinerant Jewish preacher, Jesus of Nazareth, were related in the gospels of the New Testament. We introduce both the figure of Jesus in his historical context as well as the traditions that were later incorporated into Christianity. The suffering and death of Jesus became the ideal model for Christian martyrdom.
Chapter VIII: The Acts of the Apostles: The Inclusion of Gentiles and Persecution
The author of the third gospel, Luke, wrote a sequel, Acts of the Apostles, describing how the movement traveled from Jerusalem to the cities of the Eastern Empire. A major change in the demographics was the inclusion of some Gentiles (non‐Jews) who became believers. The Acts of the Apostles remains the prototype for the Christian claim that it was oppositional Jews who persecuted early Christians.
Chapter IX: The Imperial Cult and Life and Death in the Roman Arenas
Instituted by Augustus as the official recognition of Julius Caesar as a god after his death, the Imperial Cult became embedded in the state cults of Rome. It was nonparticipation in this cult that led to Christians being persecuted and executed in the arenas, beginning with the reign of the Emperor Domitian (r. 81–96 CE). Christians were convicted of the charge of atheism, disrespect, and nonparticipation in the imperial cult. This was equivalent to treason. The executions included dramatic, “fatal charades,” which became the concept of “political theater” as an element of martyrdom.
Despite Christian tradition, there is scant evidence for “thousands” of Christian martyrs. Persecution was sporadic and only arose during times of crisis in the Roman Empire. Atheism, “angering the gods,” imperiled everyone. The chapter surveys the known periods of persecution in various parts of the Roman Empire.
Chapter X: Institutional Development and Hierarchy of the Christian Churches
The first Christian communities developed a hierarchy in the form of bishops and deacons. A group of bishops, retrospectively designated the “Church Fathers,” began the formation of what became Christian dogma (a set of principles that all participants should believe and practice).
During this period, the clergy became elevated above other believers by adopting the ideal concepts of chastity and celibacy. As such, they were understood as having “sacrificed a normal life” (marriage and children) in a new concept known as “living martyrs,” which did not necessarily require death in the arena. From this point on, retrospective stories of the earliest Christian martyrs included their life‐long chastity and celibacy.
Chapter XI: The Invention of Orthodoxy and Heresy
In the second century CE, Christian leaders created the innovative concepts of “orthodoxy” (“correct beliefs”) and heresy (from haeresis, the term for schools of philosophy). All subsequent martyrs were judged on their conformity with or divergence from these concepts. The status of martyr was denied to heretics and became a subsequent criterion for official martyrdom by the later institutional Church.
Chapter XII: Christian Martyrs
In this chapter we highlight some of the most famous early Christian martyrs and the circumstances that resulted in persecution. But not all Christian leaders agreed on the criteria and status of martyrdom. What kinds of problems did martyrs create for the Christian bishops in light of their relationship with the Roman Empire?
Chapter XIII: Martyrdom in Judaism: The Rabbinic Tradition
Ater the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by Rome (70 CE), some Jewish leaders began the formation of what became Rabbinic Judaism. This was a way in which to apply the dictates of God now that the Temple no longer existed. They created schools, first in the upper Galilee and then in the many cities that contained Jewish populations.
Many Jews suffered as martyrs during the Second Jewish Revolt, the Bar Kochba Rebellion (132–136 CE). How does the Rabbinic tradition interpret such suffering in light of the circumstances of this particular conflict, and how does that differ from the point of view found in earlier Jewish material? In this period, rabbis began retrospectively declaring some earlier Jewish heroes as martyrs.
Chapter XIV: The Christianization of the Roman Empire
Christianity was not recognized as a permitted collegia (a religious group that had the right to publicly assemble) for 300 years. That changed when the first Christian emperor, Constantine I, granted that privilege to them in the Edict of Milan (313 CE).
A Council meeting at Nicaea in 325 CE established what became the concept of the Christian “Trinity,” as well as the designation of a “creed,” which defined the parameters of Christian belief and behavior. Any alteration was condemned as heresy and was a crime of treason. Subsequent centuries saw variation on the granting of martyrdom, depending on the theological views of individual emperors and bishops.
Chapter XV: Monasticism and the Cult of the Saints
With the legalization of Christianity, opportunities for martyrdom diminished. This coincided with the earlier Christian institution of monasticism (monks and nuns), beginning in Egypt in the third century CE. Having sacrificed a normal life (marriage and children), these men and women also became “living martyrs” and their lives personified the philosophical ideal known as asceticism (Greek ascesis, “discipline”). Ascetic lifestyles (sometimes extreme) became an essential element in determining a martyr.
Combining ancient Greek concepts of the worship of hero cults, the concept of “patron gods and goddesses,” and the template from the Maccabee literature, the “cult of the saints” began in the fourth century. The graves of the earliest martyrs were identified and opened, and became sites of Christian pilgrimage. As the martyred “saint” still existed in Heaven, saints became mediators in appeals to God and Christ. This included the practice of collecting “relics” (body parts and paraphernalia) of the saints, which became a medieval industry. Famous earlier apostles, bishops, and monastics as martyrs were retroactively deemed “saints.”
If all Christians went directly to Heaven after they died, it would diminish the sacrifice of the martyrs. We begin to have the concept of purgatory (“purging”), an interim place where lesser sins could be atoned for to ultimately reach Heaven.
Chapter XVI: Augustine and the Western Tradition
Considered the greatest of the Latin Church Fathers, Bishop Augustine (353–430 CE) established what became the Western tradition of Christianity. His innovative interpretation of Paul resulted in his concept of original sin. While maintaining traditional concepts of martyrdom, Augustine condemned any martyrdom that was a “self‐death,” suicide, as a sin.
Chapter XVII: The Emergence of Islam
Beginning in the sixth century CE, Islam emerged as a reform movement of both Judaism and Christianity under the auspices of a prophet from Arabia, Muhammad. This chapter surveys the concepts of martyrdom in both the Qur'an and the Hadith (“Teachings of the Prophet”). We highlight the concept of the greater and lesser jihad (“struggle” in the defense of the faith) of Islam.
Excursus II: Martyrdom in Sunni Islam and Shi'a Islam
After the death of Muhammad, two main Islamic sects differed over the succession of the movement. While sharing the basic tenets of Islam, the sects held different views on martyrdom. We explore the history of this division of Sunni Islam and Shi'a Islam after the death of Muhammad, and the continuing distinctions and practices in the contemporary world.
Chapter XVIII: Martyrdom in the Middle Ages
What ancient aspects of martyrdom were upheld in the Middle Ages? What new ideas were added and why? Awaiting the kingdom of God, monastic orders of flagellants and mendicants became the new “living martyrs,” sacrificing a normal life as ideal models. A new phase of institutional development arose with the creation of the Inquisition in the thirteenth century, which produced a plethora of martyrs and added further definitions of heresy.
The Middle Ages saw an increase in persecution against Jews. “Passion plays,” reenactments of the trials and suffering of Jesus, motivated violence against Jews. Should a Jew commit suicide when forced to convert? Did suicide upend the concept of martyrdom? We consider such questions in this chapter.
Chapter XIX: The Protestant Reformation
Ancient cultures had no distinction between religious concepts and the secular world. But with the beginning of what became “nation‐states” in Europe, martyrs absorbed elements of politics, issues involving “church and state.” Who represents the “kingdom of God on earth” while awaiting the return of Christ: the church or the monarch? With the emergence of the Protestant Reformation, how did Catholics and Protestants define their individual martyrs?
The period of the Reformation coincided with the exploration of and exposure to other cultures in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The motivation to convert Indigenous populations created new ideals for martyrs. The great sacrifice was not only the risk of death but the willingness to abandon civilized society, “to live among the heathens,” for the greater purpose of “spreading the word of God.”
Chapter XX: Modern Martyrdom
This final chapter highlights some specific case studies in modern history to analyze both traditional concepts and adjustments: the victims of the Holocaust as martyrs; the self‐sacrifice of Muslims in the post‐World War II Middle East; cases of assassinated leaders, particularly Martin Luther King, Jr., and John F. Kennedy, as well as Bishop Romero of El Salvador in the context of the rise of modern Liberation Theology; and the victims of 9/11.
The criterion of voluntary choice for a martyr no longer applies. Those who die through domestic and sexual violence against homosexuality, mass shootings, and school shootings have become elevated to martyrdom as “innocent victims.” Modern sites of such violence are now sacred, communal memorials.
Features of this Textbook
Between the chapters there are Excurses, which feature a more detailed examination and summary of a topic or point of view. Examining the ancient world as well as scholarly methods of analysis often necessitates a vocabulary that is beyond the average reader. You will notice that some words and concepts appear in bold print and these are found in the Glossary.
Understanding the background and particulars of ancient society and ancient texts requires years of study and analysis. Boxes are provided in the chapters that summarize issues or add detail to the material. Some boxes also highlight ancient literature and material remains used both to construct and critique our historical sources.
Figures and timelines also appear within the chapters and highlight maps, schematics, and archaeological sites associated with the development of the Western traditions. Each chapter concludes with “Suggestions for Further Reading” for those who wish to explore the material in depth. The suggestions include both traditional studies and more recent articles and books.
The Communal Nature and Common Features of Martyrdom
Declaring someone a martyr is a decision by a community. Within each of the Western traditions, criteria were established for acclaiming someone as a martyr:
Heroism
. The martyr as hero is a person of some renown who is devoted to a religious concept or cause and is deemed admirable according to religious and social criteria at the time.
Opposition
. The views of the martyr/hero are opposed in some manner, either by individuals or by the governing authorities. The opposition views the martyr as a dangerous challenge to the status quo, upending sacred/cultural traditions.
Foreseeable risk
. The martyr/hero is aware that his/her continuing activity may result in suffering and torture. This can be mental or physical pain, financial ruination, or loss of status and reputation. The martyr/hero persists despite the risks; the concept or cause is more important than the individual. This acceptance is a deliberate, voluntary choice on the part of the individual, in the full knowledge that his/her views could result in death.
Future status
. The future status of a martyr is often demonstrated during their lifetime with stories of their miraculous birth, experiences of visions, and the ability to perform miracles.
Recognition
. Modern, secular martyrs are no longer held to miracles, but are celebrated in recognition of their body of work or lifetime achievements in a common social cause or opposing government oppression.
The State of Our Evidence
The problem for the historian of any age is to carefully balance extant literature with material remains (archaeology). But what we know about the past derives from the writings of a small percentage of the educated classes of Jews, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Muslims. The difficulty remains in understanding the literal living‐out of religious and social law codes “on the books” in actual practice. Modern archaeological methods can confirm some of this material, but material remains alone cannot confirm what the majority of ancient people were actually thinking as they went about their daily lives and participated in religious rituals. Then as now, these “systems of meaning” were individually selected and interpreted.
Anachronism
What is anachronism? It is placing something out of its own time and place in another time or place. The best way to understand this is to compare it what are known as “gaffes” in Hollywood movies, for instance watching a movie that takes place in the 1970s but where people are using cell phones. Anachronistic examples are also used to highlight contrasts through the juxtaposition of similar events or ideas to either change or reverse the original meaning. But historians often apply anachronism to help the reader identify similar concepts. For example, Mark wrote that Jesus died “in the ninth hour,” which was the way people measured time in the Roman Empire. English Bibles automatically translate this as “three o'clock in the afternoon.”
Anachronism is related to context, the interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs. When we say something “is out of context,” it means that a point being argued is removed from its original time or meaning. Different contexts result in different explanations, arguments, and explications.
Anachronism and context can be challenging for historians. This is because we are human. It is difficult to set aside our own experiences and knowledge so that we can be entirely objective. We expect objectivity from historians, but it is virtually impossible. All historians must decide what they think is important, and so there is immediately subjectivity in the selection. Knowing the end of a story always influences analyses of the past. For example, it is exceedingly difficult to write a history of World War II and ignore how it ended.
Complicating our reconstructions of the ancient world is the fact that theologians and historians have centuries of theology and history that is “read back” into the early texts. But a medieval, martyred saint was not the same as a first‐century victim of the Roman arena. We often find this in the speeches in martyrologies. Many later stories of first‐ and second‐century martyrs contain references to Christian dogma that was only created in the fourth‐ and fifth‐century institutional councils, for instance.
Contradictions
As moderns, we tend to bemoan the fact that ancient literature is full of contradictions, especially ancient religious texts, including the Bible. We spend an inordinate amount of time attempting to determine “what really happened.”
The ancients did not share our obsession with the problem of contradictions. This was because there was no centralized, authorized body that had the authority to mandate “what everyone should believe and practice” (unlike the later Christian creeds). What we have are various beliefs and narratives that arose in towns and cities over the centuries, in different contexts and then updated over time. The ancients considered variations as different points of view. They understood the purpose of myths as explanations of the origins of the gods and society that elucidated and validated contemporary society and were not necessarily literal history. Poets and dramatists in Athens freely adjusted and added details to the older myths of Homer and Hesiod, just as later editors of the Bible updated earlier traditions through the centuries.
And finally, I have taught courses on the origins and emergence of the Western traditions for over thirty years. Some students enter the course with more background than others, usually from Bible study programs in their synagogues and Christian churches and the study of the Qur'an in mosques. In the beginning there is often a level of anxiety over the fear that a historical method will uncover something that will challenge aspects of their faith. Faith by its very nature is not subject to verification or scientific analysis. The purpose of this textbook is not to attempt to challenge anyone's belief in martyrs and martyrdom. It is to provide an understanding of how those concepts evolved in the ancient world and their continuing meaning in our modern world.
ISHARED CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND RELIGION
Concepts and Terminology
Religion
The Universe
Religious Pluralism and Conversion
Polytheism and Monotheism
Myth
The Concept of Sin
Acts of Worship/Rituals
Cult
Religious Festivals
Divination: Astrology, Oracles, Magicians
Religion and Society
Social Class
Citizenship
Education
Collegia
Slavery
Ancient Concepts of the Afterlife
Monism/Dualism
Funeral Rituals
Funeral Games
Judaism/Jews, Christianity/Christians, Islam/Muslims
Languages/Scriptures
Polemic and Rhetoric
Old Testament/Canon
Gentiles and Pagans
Faith versus Rituals
Creative Writing
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
Recognize the complete integration of religion and society in antiquity.
Become familiar with the shared religious views and rituals that benefited both individuals and communities of the ancient world.
Concepts and Terminology
Before we begin the rest of the book, there are several concepts and terms that are utilized throughout. Listing them at the start helps to avoid repetition in each subsequent chapter.
Religion
In the modern world, one's identity is often categorized by adherence to a specific religion (Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.). What we mean by this word is a “system of belief” that includes concepts of the divine powers of the universe, law codes, rituals, social codes of behavior, and gender roles. But in the ancient world the concept of religion as a separate category did not exist in the sense that we understand it today. In fact, there was no word for religion in ancient Greek or Hebrew. The modern term, which came into use in the seventeenth century, derived from the Latin root religio, coined by the Roman advocate Cicero (106–43 BCE), as “those things that tie or bind one to the gods.”
The Universe
Ancient cultures shared a three‐tiered concept of the universe:
The heavens (above), the realm of the
divine
. This was the abode of the all the gods, characterized by descending gradients of importance and relative to their functions in the physical world, such as originators or protectors of agriculture or craftsmanship. Many systems had the concept of a
high god
, or a “king of the gods,” who ruled over diverse powers. The lowest levels of divinity, the demons or
daemons
in Greek, originally neutral, eventually came to be blamed for the exigencies of evil in life.
The Earth. The abode of humans, animals, and plants, distinguished from the divine as consisting of physical matter.
The underworld, the netherworld, the “land of the dead” for humans. Initially a neutral area, later concepts developed special areas for the righteous and wicked dead.
All ancient peoples believed in the total integration of the divine with humans and everyday life, from the moment you woke to your dreams at night. If you stopped someone in the street and asked them what religion they practiced, they would have no idea what you were talking about. Instead, the question should be, “What customs do you live by?” The typical response would be, “The customs of our ancestors.” These customs were what identified people as ethnic groups, passed on through the blood of the generations. Ancients were born into religious systems. Ethnic groups shared a common ancestor or founder, language, history, homeland, religious rituals, and mythology. All these elements were handed down by the gods and provided the basis for the governing authorities.
There was also no ancient concept of race as we now understand and define it through the disciplines of anthropology and physiology. Although people were fully aware of ethnic differences in skin color, facial structure, and hair, these were defined along the lines of geography and social class. There were notable differences among the people from the northern climates, the Italian Alps, Gaul and Germania, and those of the Middle East, North Africa, and sub‐Saharan Africa. But the differences were also aligned with social class. The rich had access to cosmetics that could protect them from the sun. Darker skin usually indicated lower social classes; these people worked outdoors, in the fields.
Religious Pluralism and Conversion
The ancient world is noted for its religious pluralism; people could fully participate in various native cults that promoted some gods over others without contradiction. Nor did this simultaneous activity require conversion. Our modern concept of religious conversion is understood as changing from one system of religious belief to another. In the absence of systematic theology in the ancient world, conversion in the ancient world meant changing one's inherent customs and lifestyles. The best example of the concept of conversion was when someone from a native cult wanted to become a Jew. Judaism had unique, physical identity markers of circumcision and different dietary laws.
All ethnic groups shared common ideas and rituals concerning the divine, but there was no one authority to turn to; a concept such as the later Vatican did not exist. If you had questions, you could consult a member of the priesthood (specialized experts), although you could receive different answers from different individuals. Sacred scriptures varied from group to group and region to region. The closest concept to the Christian Bible was found in the works of Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Everyone in the Mediterranean Basin learned these stories, which included tales of constant interaction with the gods. Romans elevated their foundation myths as sacred (Romulus and Remus), with earlier traditions retold in Virgil's Aeneid (first century BCE).
Polytheism and Monotheism
Polytheism (the belief in multiple deities), or sometimes pantheism (the belief in all powers), is always juxtaposed with monotheism (the belief in one god), understood in polar opposition. However, the terms are problematic because they are modern. No one in the ancient world would have identified with being a polytheist. The term was utilized to describe temples and shrines that held more than one image of the gods (poly‐). More importantly, there was no such concept as modern monotheism in the ancient world, including among the Jews.
In Western culture, monotheism specifically refers to the God of Israel—the God of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This is demonstrated by the fact that this God is always written with a capital “G.” This designates the God of Israel above all other gods and assumes an element of faith. The God of Israel was simply one among the many thousands of deities that populated the universe. This text will continue to utilize the capitalization of God to differentiate this deity.
Like their neighbors, ancient Jews conceived of a hierarchy of powers in Heaven: “sons of God” (Genesis 6), archangels, angels (the messengers from God who communicated God's will), cherubim, and seraphim. Jews also recognized the existence of demons and introduced the concept of a fallen angel who eventually became Satan, the Devil.
The foundational story for the idea that Jews were monotheistic was when Moses received the commandments of God on Mt. Sinai: “I am the Lord your God … You shall have no other gods before me.” This does not indicate that other gods do not exist; it was a commandment that the Jews were not to worship any other gods. We combine “worship” with “belief” and “veneration” (modern terms), but worship in the ancient world always meant sacrifices. Jews could pray to angels and other powers in Heaven, but they were only to offer sacrifices (animals, vegetables, libations) to the God of Israel. This commandment was one of the major differences between Jews and the traditional ethnic cults. The Jewish word for the native cults was idolatry, the worship of idols (Greek icons
