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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Serie: Blackwell Ancient Religions
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides a broad and balanced understanding of how Christianity originated in the first five centuries Varieties of Early Christianity: The Formation of the Western Christian Tradition traces the origins and evolution of Christian concepts from the first through the sixth century CE, exploring the events, issues, and individuals that helped shape the beliefs and practices of Christianity. With a multidisciplinary Religious Studies approach, this reader-friendly textbook places the early sources of Christian teaching within their historical and cultural contexts to highlight what gave rise to the beliefs and rituals that Christians follow in the present day. Chronologically organized chapters analyse the ways in which Christians absorbed and adapted ancient concepts from Judaism and Greco-Roman religion and culture from the first through the sixth centuries. Combining both traditions, early bishops, Church Fathers, and theologians added innovations that contributed to the establishment of a unique systematic theology (dogma) that became "Christianity." Throughout the text, readers are encouraged to consider how the ways early Christians integrated their worldviews, politics, and daily lives can help articulate their own "systems of meaning" in the modern world. * Helps readers navigate the vast amount of Christian literature produced in the early centuries of the Church * Provides the religious and cultural background of Judaism and Greco-Roman religion and culture, the two major contributors to Christian thought * Describes the methodology used to analyze the gospels in relation to ancient literature * Explores topics such as Christian martyrs in the Roman Empire, the role of women in Mediterranean society, Gnostic Christians, the Christianization of the Roman Empire, the work of Saint Augustine, and the Council of Chalcedon * Includes excerpts from primary documents, definitions of words and concepts, further readings, and numerous figures, timelines, and maps Featuring concise analyses of key scholarly and archaeological research, Varieties of Early Christianity: The Formation of the Western Christian Tradition is an excellent textbook for secondary school classes and college undergraduate courses on the history of Christianity, as well as a valuable resource for general readers interested in examining the history of Christian ideas in their historical context.
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Blackwell Ancient Religions
Ancient religious practice and belief are at once fascinating and alien for twenty-first-century readers. There was no Bible, no creed, no fixed set of beliefs. Rather, ancient religion was characterized by extraordinary diversity in belief and ritual.
This distance means that modern readers need a guide to ancient religious experience. Written by experts, the books in this series provide accessible introductions to this central aspect of the ancient world.
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Religion in the Roman Empire James B. Rives
Ancient Greek Religion, Second Edition Jon D. Mikalson
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Greek and Roman Religions Rebecca I. Denova
Varieties of Early Christianity Rebecca I. Denova
VARIETIES OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY
THE FORMATION OF THE WESTERN CHRISTIAN TRADITION
Rebecca I. Denova
© 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Names: Denova, Rebecca I., author.
Title: Varieties of Early Christianity: The Formation of the Western Christian Tradition/Rebecca I. Denova
Description: Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2023. |Series: Blackwell ancient religions | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022060569 (print) | LCCN 2022060570 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119891246 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119891253 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119891260 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Christianity--Origin. | Jesus Christ--Historicity. | Bible. New Testament--Criticism, interpretation, etc.
Classification: LCC QR111. P333 2022 (print) | LCC QR111 (ebook) | DDC 579/.1757--dc23/eng/20221005
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022060569
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022060570
Cover Image: © PaoloGaetano/Getty Images
Cover design by Wiley
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CONTENTS
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
I Shared Concepts of Ancient Religions
II The History of Israel
Excursus I The Origins and Evolution of Satan, the Devil
Excursus II Introduction to the Gospels
III The Origins of Christianity
IV Martyrdom
Excursus III The Church Fathers
V Classical Culture (Paideia)
VI Greco-Roman Views on Life, Sex and Marriage: Christian “Innovations”
VII The Challenge of Gnosticism, “Wisdom, Falsely So-Called”
VIII Finding an Identity and Separating from Judaism
IX Charismatic Christianity: Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
X Institutional Development: Bishops and their Authority
XI The Conversion of the Roman Empire: Constantine and Nicaea
XII Asceticism and Monasticism: The Desert Fathers and the Cult of the Saints
Excursus IV The Latin Fathers
XIII Augustine (354–430)
Excursus V Chalcedon and Beyond
Epilog The Legacy of Christianity in the Western Tradition
Appendix I: A Brief Outline of the History of Rome
Appendix II: Timeline for the Early History of Christianity
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 02
Figure II.1 Biblical time line...
Figure II.2 Map of ancient...
Figure II.3 Schematic of the...
Figure II.4 Alexander’s...
CHAPTER 04
Figure IV.1 Ara Pacis. The...
Figure IV.2 Early graffiti. Unknown...
Figure IV.3 Venatio games.Source...
Figure IV.4 The catacomb of...
Figure IV.5 A picture of...
Figure IV.6 “The raising...
Figure IV.7 Daniel in the...
Figure IV.8 Funeral meal or...
Figure IV.9 Roman persecution of...
CHAPTER 06
Figure VI.1 From Symposium scene...
CHAPTER 07
Figure VII.1 Schematic for Gnosticism...
Figure VII.2 Concepts of Monism...
CHAPTER 08
Figure VIII.1 Drawing of the...
CHAPTER 09
Figure IX.1 The midwife bathing...
Figure IX.2 Caravaggio’s...
CHAPTER 10
Figure X.1 Crossed keys. durantelallera...
CHAPTER 11
Figure XI.1 Gravestone for the...
Figure XI.2 Head of a...
Figure XI.3 Roman Empire under...
Figure XI.4 Arch of Constantine...
Figure XI.5 Constantine the Great...
CHAPTER 12
Figure XII.1 St. Pachomius Alchetron...
CHAPTER 13
Figure XIII.1 Augustine’s...
Figure XIII.2 “Unde hoc...
Figure XIII.3 Summary of the...
Guide
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
EPILOG
APPENDIX I: A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF ROME
APPENDIX II: TIMELINE FOR THE EARLY HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
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PREFACE
Often described as a “revealed religion”, Christianity did not arise in a vacuum. It took several centuries to constitute what became Christian dogma, or the essential concepts and rituals that Christians follow today. The word, “varieties” in the title reflects the fact that there was no central authority for three hundred years (such as the Vatican which evolved in the fifth century). Dozens of Christian communities worked out their own systems, often in competition with each other.
Throughout the Roman Empire there were groups collectively known as Jewish-Christians, Gentile-Christians, “proto-orthodox”, Ebionites, Martyrs, Mandaeans, Encratites, Gnostics, Montanists, Manicheans, Arians, and Nestorians, to name only some of the largest. At the same time, the Christian equivalent of Greek philosophical schools emerged in various cities under the auspices of a master teacher (“catechism schools”). Dominating the views of these diverse groups was the continuing concern for the relationship between “the body and society.” How to relate religious beliefs and concepts to everyday life? And how to ensure conformity throughout the Roman Empire?
In an age of diversity and diverse religious views, there has recently been an increased publication of historical surveys of Christianity in late antiquity. People are interested in the roots of church and state relations and especially the social and religious construction of gender identity and roles. What can this history teach us about these concepts in the modern world? Then as now various Christian communities struggled with changes over the decades, reinterpreting both Scripture and traditions as updated versions to provide meaning in their contemporary societies. This process continues.
The Myth of the Rise of Christianity
In the Western tradition, the rise and success of the new religion was described as “the triumph of Christianity.” Thoroughly embedded in faith traditions, this history was presented in polarized and oppositional views of both Judaism and the dominant religious culture of the Roman Empire. The tradition was summarized as follows:
The history of Christianity and its triumph as the only religion of the Roman Empire was the result of “divine fulfillment”. God, through the Prophets, had promised to restore his kingdom to Israel, but Judaism had become corrupt and meaningless. It was necessary for God to send his son to redeem the world from sin, which could not be accomplished through Judaism. From the beginning, Christianity grew by leaps and bounds with an unprecedented conversion rate (like “wild-fire”), providing a new community of brotherhood, in place of a paganism bereft of spirituality. The “spirit” could find no place in a world of sexual immorality and no respect for the dignity for the human body. Pagan religion had too many gods, too many philosophical schools, so that the average person dwelt in an “age of anxiety”. Christianity created an egalitarian world order, where there was neither “Jew nor Greek, male nor female, slave nor free”.
(Paul’s letter to the Galatians 3:28)
The problem is that there is no historical evidence for any of the statements that summarize the history of Christianity. This view of Christianity is validated upon faith, but undemonstrated by historicity. “Growing like wild-fire” is difficult to verify. Scholars continue to apply Social Scientific methods to calculate raw data for Christian communities. By the year 300 CE, there is an estimated population in the Roman Empire of 60 million. This may have included 11 million Jews and 3 million Christians. But these statistics continue to be challenged in modern archaeological surveys of crop ratios, trade, infant mortality rates, and wars. We do have evidence for a broad expansion. Christian communities were established very early in the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, France, Britain, the Balkans and beyond, and half-way down the Nile in Roman Egypt. Another misconception is that Christians only attracted the poor and slaves, the “oppressed” of the Empire. On the contrary, Christianity appealed to all classes.
The traditional construction of this “triumph” consisted of two false assumptions: (1) “paganism”, containing no spirituality and no morality, was already dying a slow death by the time Constantine converted (312 CE); and (2) after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Jews “turned inward”, and had no further standing or influence in the ancient world. But paganism was alive and well and continued for centuries; Jewish communities continued to survive and flourish throughout the Empire.
Several modern scholars are beginning to question the use of the word, “triumph” for the history of Christianity. If Judaism and paganism were no longer viable, in what sense was this a “triumph?” Methodologically, the reconstruction of ancient Christianity remains problematic because of the nature of our evidence. The literature from this period is dominated by the educated classes, estimated to be anywhere from 1–5%. It is incredibly difficult to reconstruct the ways in which Christian teaching impacted the lower classes due to the absence of an equivalent body of literature.
Christianity began as a sect of Judaism in the first century, following the preaching of Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 26–36 CE.) His basic message was informed by what the Prophets of Israel had predicted, that the God of Israel would intervene in human history one more time (“in the final days”) to institute his reign on earth (“the kingdom of God”). According to the gospels, Jesus claimed that this promise was fulfilled in both himself and his ministry, within his lifetime.
The first generation of the followers of Jesus (deemed Christianoi, the “followers of Christ” (christos, Greek for the Hebrew, “messiah,” “anointed one”), were able to sustain this hope for 40 to 60 years after his death through reinterpretation of events. However, as the decades passed, and the kingdom did not come, the delay of the kingdom became problematic. Was Jesus a failed Prophet? Awaiting the kingdom was still the primary goal, but Christians began the process of how to live their daily lives in the interim, proleptically, as if the kingdom was already here. These teachings became the Church, as a separate, independent religion from Judaism beginning in the second century. The Church was then institutionalized as the basis for Christian government and society in the Western tradition.
The purpose of this textbook is to survey the history of Christianity in its first 500 years and to highlight the events and issues that helped form the origins of Christian belief. Many modern Christians remain unaware of the sources of Christian teaching. For example, all Christians are taught the formula of the Trinity (“father, son and holy spirit as one essence”), but without understanding the historical context of how and why this innovation became necessary; it is not in the Bible per se.
The study of origins is crucially important, not only to study the past, but to understand what gave rise to concepts and beliefs in their historical context. Context determines content. Many modern Christians consistently quote Biblical passages to validate their views not only on religion, but society and politics as well. The quotes help to validate one’s faith, but different contexts create different meanings.
We are fortunate to have an enormous body of literature from this period (sermons, letters, treatises, and histories of the Roman Empire). The unfortunate element is that the literature is incredibly complicated and at times esoteric without knowing the historical, literary, and cultural contexts. This textbook will offer ways in which to navigate this Christian literature for the beginning student and public. Many histories of Christianity only focus on the unique elements of that tradition, to the neglect of historical events and changes in the dominant culture. At the same time, “Judaism” is reduced to the Christian utilization of its Scriptures, without reference to the fact that the continuing existence of Judaism and Jews created theological as well as community threats to the validation of the claims of the Church. This text will follow the history of both non-Christians as well as Jews to the sixth century.
A second purpose of the textbook is to serve as background reading for Syllabi in both secondary and university undergraduate courses on the history of early Christianity. There are literally thousands of books on the history of Christianity in various periods. Many of them are concerned with scholarly debates on various theories and utilize specific jargon that is unique to the discipline. This textbook will analyse both the scholarly and archaeological research in a comprehensible format. Having this material in one textbook will also reduce the cost of requiring additional texts for courses. This textbook focuses for the most part on the period after the first century. The beginning decades are summarized, but for a more detailed history and analysis of the origins in the first century see Denova, Origins of Christianity and the New Testament (Wiley-Blackwell, 2019).
The Academic Discipline of Religious Studies
Religious Studies is a relatively new discipline in the academy (in the past 70 years). It is important to recognize the differences between Theology (the study of God) and Religious Studies. Theology involves the study of the nature of God and the way in which God and humans interact. Theologians address such issues from a preconceived faith conviction. There are thousands of books and articles on the theological development of Christian theology.
Religious Studies (often referred to as “the academic study of religion”) focuses on the origins of religious authority (institutions), beliefs, rituals, sacred texts, and ethics. Absent value judgments of which religions are right or wrong, Religious Studies analyses the people and societies who created religious traditions and the way in which they functioned in daily life.
Religious Studies utilizes a multidisciplinary approach and methodology that incorporates all the liberal arts and social sciences: classics, history, literature, anthropology, archaeology, sociology, philosophy, and psychology. In addition, the study of religion analyses economics, politics, ethnic studies, ritual studies, gender studies, the arts, global studies, and cross-cultural approaches. Religious Studies explores the human experience of religion in specific cultures over time, as a “system of meaning”. This is the approach that is utilized in the following chapters. Working in tandem, a Religious Studies approach also sheds light on theological issues.
The Contents
To fully understand the development of Christianity, it is important to recognize the religious and cultural background of the two major contributors to Christian thought: Second Temple Judaism (450 BCE–70 CE) and Greco-Roman religion and culture.
Chapter I: Shared Concepts of Ancient Religions contains definitions of religious rituals and beliefs between the two.
Chapter II: The History of Israel, provides the background and history of Judaism, as told in their Scriptures. Jesus of Nazareth was a Jew, not a Christian (there was no such entity at the time). This chapter places him within that religious and historical context.
Excursus I: The Origins and Evolution of Satan
The concept of Satan, or the Devil, emerged over time and only became a more dominant figure after the rise of Christianity.
Excursus II: Introduction to the Gospels
The gospels are neither biographies nor histories. Scholars and theologians have developed methodology over the years on how to analyse the gospels in relation to comparable ancient concepts and literature. This chapter provides some of those tools in “the quest for the historical Jesus.”
Chapter III: The Origins of Christianity, establishes the basic message and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth and how and why the movement began in Jerusalem and moved to the cities of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Acts of the Apostles narrates details on the spread of Christianity in the first century to non-Jews (Gentiles). A highlight of this chapter is understanding the mission and letters of Paul.
Chapter IV: Martyrdom
The Christians in the Roman Empire were persecuted and condemned for the crime of “atheism”, or non-participation in the state cults. How do the magistrates go about this, and how do outsiders view Christianity in this light? This chapter will include several martyrologies, or stories of famous martyrs.
Excursus III: The Church Fathers
Christian leaders in the second century who created what became Christian dogma (a system of belief) are retrospectively deemed the “Church Fathers” for their contributions to the faith. We highlight several of the more important Church Fathers and their major treatises.
Chapter V: Classical Culture (Paedeia)
One of the greatest challenges to Christianity from the mid-second century onward was presented by the “religiousness” of Greco-Roman culture and the philosophical world-view(s) of late antiquity’s paideia, or “higher learning.” How does Christianity find a place within these various world-views and what arguments are presented to challenge “the presence of the gods?”
Chapter VI: Greco-Roman Views on Life, Sex and Marriage: Christian “Innovations” In the Jewish book of Genesis, humans were told to be “fruitful and multiply.” Greco-Roman society viewed marriage and procreation as part of the natural order, a religious duty of every citizen for the welfare of his community. Influenced by both traditions, Christianity nevertheless opted for a conception of sex and marriage that is inferior, and at times opposed to, the ideal of Genesis, as well as their contemporary culture. Important in this context, is understanding the role and function of women in traditional Mediterranean society.
Chapter VII: The Challenge of Gnosticism, “Wisdom, Falsely So-Called”
Much of the early life of the Church was involved in family feuds––conflicts among Christians, rather than external opponents. The result became the innovation of the twin concepts of orthodoxy and heresy. What was the danger of “false teaching?” How did this differ from non-Christian views of religious pluralism? This chapter provides the background and concepts of Gnostic Christians.
Chapter VIII: Finding an Identity and Separating from Judaism
Beginning as an apocalyptic sect within Judaism in the first century, the large number of non-Jewish converts helped this movement emerge as a distinct belief system called “Christianity”. How much of the parent religion should be retained? What is the relationship between the Judaism of the Jewish Scriptures and the new Christian sects?
Chapter IX: Charismatic Christianity: Apochrypha, Pseudepigrapha
Christian religious expression encompassed ecstatic behavior, such as “speaking in tongues”, spirit possession resulting in prophecy, and often developed unique ideas on the uses and abuses of the body, including extreme fasting and life-long celibacy. As non-Christians asked, “Where does all this madness comes from?” How are such “overachieving” Christians viewed by both adherents and outsiders? By the second century, Christians had developed legendary stories of the Apostles and Christian missionaries that upheld what became some basic tenets of model Christian behavior.
Chapter X: Institutional Development: Bishops and Their Authority
Bishops became distinctive and unique leaders in the early Churches, while also borrowing styles of leadership from both Judaism and the dominant culture. What was the basis of their authority and how did they perceive themselves in relation to their flocks? This period also saw the development of Christian rituals and holidays. How much of this was borrowed from Judaism and how much from Greco-Roman culture?
Chapter XI: The Conversion of the Roman Empire: Constantine and Nicaea
When Constantine converted, the Empire did not become Christian overnight. What problems within the Church did Constantine inherit? How did his court and the subsequent conferences resolve the continuing problems of schism, the nature of God and the Trinity, and continuing co-existence with non-Christians?
Chapter XII: Asceticism and Monasticism: The Desert Fathers and the Cult of the Saints
Contrary to popular views, the “mad rush” to the desert was not the result of perceived tensions in worldly society, but the means to escape Christian feuds. What was the impetus for the ascetic ideal and what is the relationship of monastic communities to the rest of Christian society? The “saints” of Christianity will follow the concepts of patron/client inherent in Greco-Roman religion and society, adding the innovation of relics.
Excursus IV: Latin Fathers
Late antiquity provided the major contributions to Christianity from men who now wrote in Latin. We highlight their backgrounds and contributions: Ambrose, John Chrysostom, Jerome.
Chapter XIII: Augustine (354–430)
Augustine’s work was the pinnacle of the Christianization of the Roman Empire and set the tone for the relationship between the body and society and between the Church and state in the subsequent development of Western Christianity. More than any other writer of late antiquity, Augustine was the most influential theologian for the way in which Catholicism developed in the later Middle Ages. Through the work of an ex-Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, Augustine contributed to the rise of the Protestant Reformation.
Excursus V: Chalcedon and Beyond
One of the largest of the Council meetings of late antiquity, Chalcedon completed the final explication of the combination of the two natures of Christ, simultaneously divine and human.
Epilog: The Legacy of Christianity in the Western Tradition
The original teachings of Christianity were condoned over time, but also subject to reinterpretation and continuing debate. The historical process of exegesis and re-interpretation of Scriptures continues in modern Christian debates, with the same “variety” we saw in the ancient world.
Features of this Textbook
Each of the chapters contains excerpts of primary documents and places the documents within their historical context. Examining both the world of ancient Christianity as well as scholarly methods of analysis often necessitates a vocabulary that is above and beyond the average reader. Throughout the text, words and concepts will appear in bold print and are then defined in a convenient Glossary at the end. Between the chapters, I have added what is called an Excursus, or a more detailed examination and summary of a topic or point of view.
Boxes
Understanding the background and nuances of ancient society and ancient texts requires years of study and analysis. Boxes are provided in the chapters that summarize issues or add detail to the background. For example, “Sexuality and Marriage in the Jewish Scriptures”, and “Concepts of Monism and Dualism in the Ancient World”.
Figures and Timelines appear within the chapters and highlight maps, schematics, and some of the archaeological sites associated with the development of Christianity. I have travelled and explored all these sites. When appropriate I have added a few details of each place.
Each chapter concludes with Suggestions for Further Reading for those who wish to explore the material in depth. The suggestions include both traditional studies and more recent articles and books.
Reconstructing the Past
The problem for the historian of any age is to carefully balance the literature with material remains (archaeology). In reconstructing the world of early Christianity, we rely on established, written law-codes of both Judaism and the Roman Empire, to first, understand these societies. We then analyse innovations (or not) through Christian teaching. However, how do we know that all ancient people literally “followed the laws” in their everyday lives without parallel evidence? This remains especially problematic in analysing the separation of Christianity from Judaism. The Christian polemic against Judaism utilized the laws of Leviticus to prove that Judaism oppressed people. But we often have little information of how these “laws” were enforced (if ever), especially for Diaspora Jews (living outside the land of Israel), in their historical contexts. Much of Leviticus only applied when one was approaching the Temple. Later Christian writers consistently critiqued the Jewish Temple rituals, although the Temple had been destroyed by Rome in 70 CE.
As moderns, we tend to bemoan the fact that ancient literature is full of contradictions (including the Bible). This is because there was no centralized, authorized body that dictated “what everyone should believe and practice” in antiquity (unlike the later Christian “creed” or the Vatican). What we have are various beliefs and narratives that arose in various towns and cities over the centuries, in different contexts. Beginning with the myths of the Olympians, contradictory views of the divine were rampant. Dozens of cities all claimed to have the tomb of the Greek/Roman hero, Herakles/Hercules. There were countless views on the afterlife. Everyone read Homer’s description of Odysseus’ descent to Hades (the Iliad), where the dead exist as “shadows” and are eternally miserable. But as “shadows”, they remain tactile; the dead still experience joy, but also pain and suffering.
We are also going to encounter contradictions in Christian literature. As we will learn, various Christian communities (including the international Councils) all declared what had to be believed and followed. But Councils continued to be re-called and re-constituted because oppositional teachings and opinions still flourished despite such declarations and bans on “false teaching”.
Another problem is the one-sided literary evidence of ancient Christianity; our literature reflected the thoughts of elite, educated men. With a few exceptions, the masses did not produce an equivalent literature. It is difficult to reconstruct what ordinary Christians thought or how they lived. But sometimes we can “read between the lines”. For example, Christian leaders adopted the cultural understanding that women should have no public or political voice. Some Christian women defied the customs and taught in the communities. We know this because the men consistently denounced such practices, naming names. In other words, for every general conclusion about ancient society and religion, there are always going to be exceptions.
And finally, I have taught a course on the “Varieties of Early Christianity” for over 25 years. Some students enter the course with more background than others, usually from Bible Study programs in their churches. In the beginning there is often some anxiety over the fear that an historical method will uncover something that will challenge their faith. “Faith” by its very nature is not subject to verification or scientific analysis. This text is not designed to challenge anyone’s faith. It is to provide an understanding of how that faith originated in the first five centuries.
The study of the origins of Christianity is a fascinating subject. Learning how the ancients fully integrated their worldviews, politics, and daily life through these centuries can help us continue to articulate our own “systems of meaning” in the modern world.
I SHARED CONCEPTS OF ANCIENT RELIGIONS
Concepts and Terminology
Religion
Polytheism and Monotheism
Religion and Society
Social Class
Slavery
Myth
Acts of Worship/Rituals
Cult
Official Cults
Voluntary Cults: The “Mysteries”
Religious Festivals
Divination: Astrology, Oracles, Magicians
Ancient Concepts of the Afterlife
Ancient Judaism
Ancient Greece and Rome
Greek and Roman Funerals
Funeral Games
Gentiles and Pagans (Problematic Terms)
Conversion
Canon/Old Testament/Jewish Scriptures
Faith vs. Rituals
Church
“Spirit”
Polemic/Rhetoric
The Problem of Anachronism
Creative Writing
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
Recognize the complete integration of religion and society in the ancient world.
Become familiar with the shared religious views and rituals that benefitted the communities of the Roman Empire.
Concepts and Terminology
Before we begin, there are several concepts and terms that are utilized throughout the book. Listing them at the beginning helps to avoid repetition in each chapter.
Religion
In the modern world, one’s identity is often categorized by a specific religion (Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.). What we mean by this word is a “system of belief” that includes concepts, rituals, law and social codes. But in the ancient world, the concept of religion as a separate category did not exist in the sense that we understand it today. In fact, there was no word for religion in ancient Greek or Hebrew. The modern term, which came into use in the seventeenth century, derived from the Latin root, religio, sometimes translated as “those things that tie or bind one to the gods”.
All ancient peoples believed in the total integration of the divine (the gods, the powers in the heavens and under the earth), with humans and everyday life. If you stopped someone on the street and asked them what religion they practiced, they would have no idea what you were talking about. Instead, the question should be, “What customs do you live by?” The typical response would be, “The customs of our ancestors”. These customs were what identified people as ethnic groups, with a common ancestor, history, homeland, language, rituals, and mythology. All these elements were handed down by the gods and provided the basis for the governing authorities, the social construction of gender roles, and appropriate law-codes of behavior.
All ethnic groups shared common ideas and rituals concerning the divine, but there was no one authority to turn to; a concept such as the Vatican did not exist. If you had questions, you could consult a member of the priesthood (specialized experts), and you may receive different answers from different individuals. Sacred Scriptures varied from group to group and region to region. The closest concept such as our Bible was found in the works of Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Everyone in the Mediterranean Basin learned these stories, which included tales of constant interaction with the gods. Romans elevated their foundation myths as sacred (Romulus and Remus) as later told in Virgil’s Aenead (first century BCE).
Polytheism and Monotheism
Polytheism (the belief in multiple deities), or sometimes pantheism (the belief in all powers) is always juxtaposed to monotheism (the belief in one god) understood as its polar opposite. However, the terms are problematic because they are modern. No one in the ancient world would identify with being a “polytheist”. More importantly, there was no such concept as “ancient monotheism”. All ancient people were polytheists, including the Jews.
In Western culture, monotheism specifically refers to the God of the Bible—the God of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This is demonstrated by the fact that this God is always written with a capital “G”. It designates the God of Israel above all other gods, and assumes an element of faith. The God of Israel was simply one among the many thousands of deities that populated the universe. This text will continue to utilize the capitalization of God to differentiate this deity.
Ancient cultures viewed the universe on three levels: the heavens (the abode of the gods); the earth (the abode of humans); and the underworld, often referred to as “the land of the dead”. Gods could transcend, or travel around all three. Many groups had the concept of a high god, or a “king of the gods” who ruled over diverse gradients of divine powers. Lower divinities were called daemons, but eventually were seen as evil, and hence the popular word “demons”. Gods as well as demons could possess people. In the latter case, this was an ancient explanation of mental health issues and physical disabilities. There were many excorcists, or experts on expelling demons from people.
Like their neighbors, ancient Jews conceived of a hierarchy of powers in heaven: “sons of God” (Genesis 6), angels, archangels (the messengers from God who communicated God’s will), cherubim, and seraphim. Jews also recognized the existence of demons, and introduced the concept of a fallen angel who eventually became Satan, the Devil.
The foundational story for the idea that Jews were monotheistic was when Moses received the commandments of God on Mt. Sinai: “I am the Lord your God … You shall have no other gods before me”. The Hebrew could be better understood as “no other gods beside me.” This does not indicate that other gods do not exist; it is a commandment that the Jews were not to worship any other gods. We combine “worship” with “belief” and “veneration”, but worship in the ancient world always meant sacrifices. Jews could pray to angels and other powers in heaven, but they were only to offer sacrifices (animals, vegetables, libations) to the God of Israel. This commandment was one of the major differences between Jews and all other traditional ethnic cults.
The Jewish texts consistently refer to the existence of the gods of the nations (ethnic groups): Deuteronomy 6:14 “Do not follow other gods”; 29:18 “to serve the gods of those nations”; 32:43 “Praise O heavens, his people, worship him all you gods!”; Isaiah 36:20 “who among all of the gods of these nations have saved their nations?”; and Psalm 821 “God presides in the great assembly; he renders judgment among the gods”. In the story of the Jews’ Exodus from Egypt, God battled against the gods of Egypt to demonstrate who controls nature. This makes little sense if their existence was not recognized: “…I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt” (Exodus 12:12).
While Jews only offered sacrifices to the God of Israel, they shared a common conviction that all the gods should be respected; it was perilous to anger the other gods. Exodus 22:28 ordered the Jews never to revile the gods of the other nations. Early Christians accepted these levels of powers in heaven (and Hell) and the Apostle Paul often referred to the existence of the gods of the other nations in his letters. He berated “these powers” (archons) for interfering with his missions. Modern historians continue to debate the origins of a concept of “one god” in ancient Judaism. One theory placed it during the period when the Israelites adopted the Canaanite concept of the high god, El, into their views of Yahweh. Another theory claims that it was late, after the Babylonian captivity, adopting the high god, Marduk, in variations of Yahweh.
Religion and Society
The most dominating theme of all ancient cultures was that of fertility—fertility of crops, herds, and people. Wihtout fertility, the clan/tribe did not survive. Thus, the gods were portrayed as male with a female consort or goddess. These pairs mated and produced offspring. (Judaism did not have this concept; the God of Israel had no consort.) “As in the heavens, so on earth”; ancient societies mirrored the heavenly realm by making the family the basic social unit. The family was an extended household which included parents, inlaws, children, slaves (and ex-slaves), business clients, and dead ancestors.
The way in which the family was promoted and validated was through extra-familial elements of society that were common to all regions of the Mediterranean basin. One’s social class defined the parameters of status and rank, while honor and shame established the codes of ideal behavior for both individuals and the community. Honor was not just a private goal of an individual, but a public acknowledgment of one’s worth or value to the community. A person with honor was one who adhered to social codes and conventions, and respected the gods. This trait was crucially important for one’s public persona, or one’s dignity and status in the community.
The patron/client system (how things got done) provided the network for relationships necessary for the common good, including relationships between humans and the gods. These extra-familial elements became encoded in the self-perception of all classes and levels of society, both free and slave, in social morals, and in one’s relationship with the divine (cult). The upper classes had a religious duty to help the lower, and in return, the lower classes supplied food and crafts. Such obligations were given to the gods (through prayer and sacrifice) with the expectation that the gods would reciprocate with benefits to the person and the community.
Social Class
When we think of class in the modern world, we automatically think of economics: upper, middle, and lower classes. In the ancient world, economics was an important element of the social classes, but not necessarily the most important part; blood trumped wealth. Our image of the upper and middle classes will usually include education, just as it did in the ancient world (although levels of education differed). But in ancient society slaves also had opportunities for education.
At the top of the social order was the aristocracy (“rule of the excellent”) where governing power resided in a small, privileged class who claimed descent from ancient, founding families. It was the bloodline that endowed nobility. Another class of males was equivalent to our middle or business class, where they engaged in manufacturing, trade, and banking. They could not claim the same kind of ancestry as the aristocracy, but they could and did accumulate wealth. Inter-marriage was permissable among the classes, with the tacit understanding that one should always “marry-up” to a higher class.
Slavery
Slavery in ancient Greece and Rome was not the same institution experienced in the ante-bellum South in the United States. Slavery was common throughout the ancient world, but it was not confined to one ethnic group or class; it consisted of all cultures and economic classes. Some educated Greeks sold themselves into slavery to work as pedagogues or tutors, and could thereby advance themselves. The beginning of the institution of slavery most likely began with war captives.
Manumission, the freeing of slaves, could occur if either the master paid over the price of the slave, or by the slave if he had saved enough money to buy his freedom. Particularly in Rome, domestic and commercial slaves were paid a minimum wage or sometimes given the management of a piece of property (peculium) that could be accumulated against their eventual manumission. Many slave owners, particularly businessmen, freed slaves and then set them up in business, where the freedman still retained a client’s obligation to his former master. In Greece, freedom did not include the right of citizenship, but in Rome citizenship was conferred with manumission. Roman freedmen could not hold public office or priesthoods, but they could vote, and their children were free citizens. The possibility of manumission (and change of social status) is one of the great differences between slavery in the ancient world and the ante-bellum South.
Mirrored as class levels in society, there were classes of slaves. At the top were the household slaves (tutors, hairdressers, maids, cooks) and at the bottom, prisoners of war, rebellious slaves, and convicted criminals. These latter were the ones punished with having to work in the tin, silver and copper mines of the provinces or row the galleys of the commerical ships.
Myth
We often use the word myth to automatically designate “something false”. In the study of religion, myths are ways in which people understand experiences with the divine, through stories, images, and metaphors. By their very nature, myths are not subject to verification. Myths are multivalent, meaning they are subject to many different interpretations. Myths help to create a worldview to explain origins (where did we come from?) but more importantly, they help to validate the social order of the contemporary world. Myths function to explain the ideals and institutions of society, gender roles, and law-codes.
All religions have “origin myths”, set in primordial time that explain the beginning of the cosmos, gods, human beings, and sacred sites. The first eleven chapters of the book of Genesis are often described as “myth” in the sense that they explain origins. Myths utilize etiologies or explanations (e.g., the beginning of agriculture). Many of the towns and cities in the Mediterranean Basin had foundation myths, claiming a god or hero as their original ancestor.
Myths can be understood literally or as allegory, applied most often by the schools of philosophy and educated writers. They read myth as containing symbols that went beyond the basics to promote ideals or universals. Stories in the Bible were allegorically interpreted over the centuries by both Jewish and Christian writers.
Acts of Worship/Rituals
Temples were the homes of the gods on earth and were deemed sacred space. Unlike our modern places of worship, almost all the activity took place out of doors. This is where the altar was located, and people congregated around it. Because this was sacred space, one had to be in a state of ritual purity to enter and participate. “Ritual purity” is a state of being. Experiences of daily life, such as sexual intercourse and child-birth, rendered a person impure or “unclean” for a temporary amount of time before one could enter sacred space. These elements involved semen and blood, the two sources of life that were given by the gods and these moments were recognized as a suspension of normal activity. Another was the problem of corpse contamination. The dead ejected a miasma that was toxic, and had to be eliminated through certain rituals and time. Most purity rituals involved “washings”, but the concept is not necessarily related to hygiene.
Overseeing all aspects of worship were priests and priestesses. Their function was to ensure that worship was done correctly (according to the ancestral traditions). Some communities had a priest elevated above others, the high-priest. Unlike modern clergy, the priesthoods were not charged with caring for the souls of the congregation. Their first loyalty was caring for the god/goddess. A major difference with the priesthoods in the ancient world is that with few exceptions, they were part-time jobs. Priests and priestesses served in rotation (sometimes a week, sometimes a month). When they were finished with their term of service, they went back to their normal jobs or businesses. Conferring of a priesthood and the title were sought-out advantages for the ancients. Not only did this activity command respect, but it was an important element for one’s resume (the memory of a person), described on their funeral monuments.
Priests and priestesses oversaw the rituals (Latin, ritus, “doing things”) that included sacrifices, prayers, and hymns (prayers sung to music). The most important element of these rituals was that of sacrifices. Sacrifices were crucial to maintaining the balance between gods and humans. These were communal events directed to the welfare and prosperity of the group. Sacrifices had to be something of value, which in the ancient world was most often meat. Priests sacrificed sheep, goats, pigs, oxen, fowl, and wheat cakes if you could not afford an animal. Thousands of Temples had daily sacrifices. A portion of the animal was divided among the priests, and then the rest was distributed to the people. This is likely the only time that the poor were able to eat meat.
Another element of rituals was specific to marking heightened stages in life: birth, puberty, marriage, death. The modern term for these occasions, which were all celebrated through religious rituals, is rites of passage (some of which became the later Catholic sacraments).
Cult
We typically apply the term cult negatively to religious ideas that differ radically from the majority. In the ancient world, cultus (Latin, colere, “care or cultivate”) was a broad term for everything that was involved in the care and maintenance of the gods. This referred to the sacrificial knives, incense burners, and other implements of the rituals. It did not indicate theology or spiritual differences. In this text, we use “native” or “ethnic cults” as a category. Then as now criticism of someone else’s “cult” occurred often. We encounter this specifically in Christian criticism of Judaism and the native cults.
In modern sociological studies of religion, cult is part of an evolutionary process. There is a basic “mother religion”, but some members decide that reforms are needed. This becomes a sect within that system. Sects maintain the original concepts, but with updated reforms. (Think of the thousands of different denominations in modern Protestantism.) Later, the reformers may decide that more changes are needed, or new interpretations applied, and is deemed a cult. Ultimately, the group can break with the original mother religion as an independent faction. Christianity began as a sect within Judaism, became a cult in the Roman Empire, and eventually evolved into an independent religion.
Official Cults
Every village, town, and city in the Roman Empire had dozens of temples and shrines to both the Olympian gods as well as local gods. The government supported the worship of these gods, and added the state cults of Rome (the Capitoline Trinity of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). The first Emperor, Augustus, instituted the Imperial Cult, to honor the royal family (see Chapter IV on Martyrdom). Participants had the freedom to join in the worship and festivals of all these deities in a concept known as religious pluralism. In other words, worshipping multiple deities was not understood as a conflict or contradiction.
Voluntary Cults: The “Mysteries”
Running parallel to the official cults of the Empire, was the option to participate in voluntary religious practices, usually limited to a group who had to undergo initiation. There was a public side to this worship, but initiates were able to gain secret knowledge. This knowledge took the form of how to achieve benefits in this world as well as the afterlife. They took a vow never to reveal the secrets, and thus, these practices were deemed the Mysteries. What these cults had in common was an emphasis on fertility, in the cycles of birth and re-birth. Many scholars have proposed the theory that Christianity modeled itself upon these various Mystery cults.
The most popular and Empire-wide cults were:
The Mysteries at Eleusis and Athens of the cult of
Demeter
. The festivals re-enacted her search for her daughter, Persephone, who had been abducted by Hades. Demeter was the goddess of grain and the seasons. During the search, the earth wilted and nothing grew (winter), but upon the reunion with her daughter, the crops arose again (spring and summer).
The cult of
Dionysius
, the god of fertility, the vine, and wine-making. The Cult of Dionysus was associated with the origins of drama and dance, and his festivals coincided with the presentation of plays in Athens and elsewhere. Apparently the wine-drinking led to a relaxation of the social conventions; both women and slaves were welcome to attend. The rituals also incorporated the ability to go into a trance, “letting-go” as it were and experiencing an out-of-body freedom. This was known as
catharsis
. The festivals became quite raucous at times, and became a target of Christian criticism. The original Greek word for “ritual” was
orgia
,
orgy
. This term became the most popular negative Christian description of all native cults, claiming polemic charges of sexual freedom at those festivals.
Magna Mater
(The Great Mother, Cybele). This was an ancient religious cult, most likely originating from Anatolia (central Turkey) and introduced in Rome during the second Punic War (218–201 BCE). The cult re-enacted the myth of Cybele (a grain goddess) and Attis, her lover, a devotee, who went into an ecstatic trance (who was made “mad” by the goddess) and castrated himself. Cybele’s priests went into a trance-like state and castrated themselves in imitation of this devotion. Every year in Rome, the Megalesian games were celebrated by her eunuch priests and other initiates, dancing through the streets in ecstasy and self-flagellation.
The Cult of
Mithras
. Mithras was a Persian sun god who was eventually adopted by Rome, particularly by the legions. They had various degrees of initiation, somewhat like modern orders of the Masons. They met in underground chambers (
mithraea
) for communal meals and celebrated the death and re-birth of Mithras. Many of these chambers have been excavated throughout the Roman Empire. In late antiquity, the spread of this cult was one of the most competitive in relation to Christianity.
Religious Festivals
Throughout the Roman Empire, religious festivals were community events, either to honor a specific god or goddess or to honor a founding deity of the community. These festivals were also coordinated with calendars, or the marking of sacred time as well as the agricultural cycles. Festivals could last from one or two days to a week. Religious festivals consisted of three elements: sacrifices, drama, and games.
The many sacrifices throughout the city during festival time resulted in left-over quantities of meat and cakes, which were then distributed to the public. The myths of the gods were reenacted in plays during the same week. Athletic contests were added, the most popular of which were the chariot races. The combined events were labeled ludi, “games”. All these simultaneous events drew people into the city from the countryside. At the same time, they were occassions to honor magistrates (the governing personnel who paid for the games), and served as propaganda venues in the Empire.
Divination: Astrology, Oracles, Magicians
The way in which humans communicated with the gods, and the gods with humans, is generally described as divination. This was done through astrologers, seers, oracles, prophets, augurs, haruspexes, wonder-workers, and necromancers. Astrology (the study of the nature and power of the stars/planets) flourished, as the stars controlled people born under their influence. While many did not take this seriously, nevertheless, “just in case,” people often consulted experts who allegedly understood these powers. Knowing the time of one’s birth, these experts consulted “star-charts”, to determine which powers were dominant in your life.
Seers, oracles, and prophets went into an ecstatic trance and were “possessed” by a deity. The speech of the god was often in an unknown language, so a priest was usally required to translate. “Oracle” was the term for both the person as well as a place. There were hundreds of oracles sites throughout the Mediterranean Basin. One of the most famous oracles in the ancient world was the oracle at Delphi, controlled by the god Apollo. For the most part, oracles were consulted to determine if a decision that was already made “pleased the god”. The Prophets of Israel were the Jewish version of oracles. When they spoke, it was the words of the God of Israel that were uttered.
Augurs in Rome adopted the ancient Etrucan methods of studying lightning and the flights of birds to determine good and bad omens. Haruspexes (also influenced by Etruscan rituals) were experts in examining the entrails of a sacrificial animal. If the entrails were bad or diseased, another animal had to replace it.
Wonder-workers were popular throughout the Empire. These were men (and sometimes women) who claimed special gifts that were granted by a god or goddess in relation to performing miracles. The result was physical cures for cripples, diseases, and the mentally ill. A common belief was that these problems were caused by demon-possession. Wonder-workers were expert exorcists, or those who “drove out” demons. Jesus of Nazareth fitted this traditional mold of a wonder-worker and exorcist.
Necromancers were experts in communicating with both the powers of the underworld (the land of the dead) as well as the ability to conjure up the dead. Unfortunately, in the Western tradition, wonder-workers and necromancers became grouped together under the term, “magicians”. The term derived from Persian court astrologers, deemed magi (as in the visitors at the nativity in Matthew). Because of their knowledge of the universe and astrology, it was believed that they were experts in being able to manipulate nature, for good or for ill. Thus our modern descriptions of “white” and “black” magic. This has influenced histories of the ancient world by assuming that “magic” was a unique and separate category.
When scholars describe these specific rituals, they use terms such as “spells” and “incantations”. But these “spells” and “incantations” were simply the same as prayers and hymns applied in all the rituals. The difference was in the fact that they often appealed to the powers of the underworld. These were known as the cthonic deities who required special rituals and sacrifices (black animals instead of white). There is a misconception that the powers of the underworld were all evil (influenced by later conceptions of Satan, the Devil). For example, Hecate was a benificent goddess whose role was to accompany dead souls to a blessed afterlife. Through Christian polemic, these practices were deemed “superstition,” and these deities were demonized. Hecate became the “witch” of medieval Halloween practices.
Ancient Concepts of the Afterlife
Approximately 100,000 years ago, people began burying the dead with tools, weapons, decorated artifacts, and jars of food. Most scholars agree that these practices demonstrated a belief that there was another form of existence after death; the grave items would be useful. Generally, a belief in an afterlife refers to specific beliefs that a person continues to exist in some form, either in a disembodied personal essence (soul) or a combination of soul with a new or reconstituted physical body. A belief in an afterlife also assumes a location for this existence outside the realm of earthly life. In connecting the ancient world to the modern, we find belief in an afterlife and funeral rituals to be one of the most conservative elements in history, changing very little over the centuries.
We do not know exactly when or why, but it apparently became difficult to believe that the human person (and personality) could simply be annihilated. In dreams, the dead appeared alive. The idea began to emerge that the dead still existed in some form, and that the dead resided in a separate place. Often deemed the netherworld or the underworld, this place was located under the earth and originally it was a neutral place—neither good nor bad.
The ancient Mesopotamians developed a pessimistic view of death and the underworld. In one of their myths, they claimed that the gods created death in order to control humans and control the population of the earth. In Irkalla, their “land of no return”, the dead suffered in agony, eating clay, and were eternally thirsty. Because they did exist, the dead could find ways to return to earth and either harm or help the living. Therefore, the dead spirits had to be placated with food and drink offerings.
