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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Develop a more systematic, human-centered, results-oriented thought process Design Thinking is the Product Development and Management Association's (PDMA) guide to better problem solving and decision-making in product development and beyond. The second in the New Product Development Essentials series, this book shows you how to bridge the gap between the strategic importance of design and the tactical approach of design thinking. You'll learn how to approach new product development from a fresh perspective, with a focus on systematic, targeted thinking that results in a repeatable, human-centered problem-solving process. Integrating high-level discussion with practical, actionable strategy, this book helps you re-tool your thought processes in a way that translates well beyond product development, giving you a new way to approach business strategy and more. Design is a process of systematic creativity that yields the most appropriate solution to a properly identified problem. Design thinking disrupts stalemates and brings logic to the forefront of the conversation. This book shows you how to adopt these techniques and train your brain to see the answer to any question, at any level, in any stage of the development process. * Become a better problem-solver in every aspect of business * Connect strategy with practice in the context of product development * Systematically map out your new product, service, or business * Experiment with new thought processes and decision making strategies You can't rely on old ways of thinking to produce the newest, most cutting-edge solutions. Product development is the bedrock of business --whether your "product" is a tangible object, a service, or the business itself -- and your approach must be consistently and reliably productive. Design Thinking helps you internalize this essential process so you can bring value to innovation and merge strategy with reality.
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
Chapter 1: A Brief Introduction to Design Thinking
Introduction
1.1 The Concept of Design Thinking and Its Role within NPD and Innovation
1.2 A Framework of Design Thinking
1.3 Design Thinking as a Nonlinear Process
1.4 The Principles and the “Mindset” of Design Thinking
References
About the Author
Part I: Design Thinking Tools
Chapter 2: Inspirational Design Briefing
Introduction
2.1 Nine Criteria of an Inspirational Design Brief
2.2 Writing the Inspirational Design Brief
2.3 Research Findings about Inspirational Design Briefs
2.4 Three Pitfalls to Avoid
2.5 Conclusion: Keys to Success
References
About the Author
Chapter 3: Personas: Powerful Tool for Designers
Introduction
3.1 Defining Personas
3.2 The Importance of Personas
3.3 Creating Personas
3.4 Illustrative Application of Personas
3.5 Summary
3.6 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 4: Customer Experience Mapping: The Springboard to Innovative Solutions
Introduction
4.1 Inputs to the Experience Map
4.2 The Experience Mapping Process
4.3 The Experience Map as a Springboard to Innovative Solutions
4.4 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Acknowledgment
Chapter 5: Design Thinking to Bridge Research and Concept Design
Introduction
5.1 Challenges in Idea Generation
5.2 The Need for a Systematic Method to Connect to the User
5.3 The Visualize, Empathize, and Ideate Method
5.4 The Importance of Visualizing and Empathizing before Ideating
5.5 Applying the Method
5.6 Conclusion
About the Author
Chapter 6: Boosting Creativity in Idea Generation Using Design Heuristics
Introduction
6.1 Where Do New Design Ideas Come From?
6.2 A Tool to Assist with Idea Generation: Design Heuristics
6.3 How Design Heuristics Were Identified: The Evidence Base
6.4 77 Design Heuristics for Idea Generation
6.5 How to Use
Design Heuristics
to Generate Design Concepts
6.6 Evidence of the Value of the
Design Heuristics
Tool
6.7 Conclusion
6.8 Appendix
References
About the Author
Chapter 7: The Key Roles of Stories and Prototypes in Design Thinking
Introduction
7.1 A Design Thinking Product Development Framework
7.2 What Is a Story?
7.3 What Is a Prototype?
7.4 Putting It Together—Combining Stories and Prototypes
7.5 Employing Stories and Prototypes in Your Process
7.6 Conclusion
References
About the Author
Part II: Design Thinking within the Firm
Chapter 8: Integrating Design into the Fuzzy Front End of the Innovation Process
Introduction
8.1 Challenges in the FFE
8.2 Design Practices and Tools for Assisting in Problem Definition
8.3 Design Practices and Tools for Assisting in Information Management
8.4 Design Practices and Tools for Assisting in Stakeholder Management
8.5 How to Integrate Design Professionals in FFE
8.6 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 9: The Role of Design in Early-Stage Ventures: How to Help Start-ups Understand and Apply Design Processes to New Product Development
Introduction: An Emerging Start-up Culture
9.1 The Basics
9.2 The Process
9.3 Troubleshooting Common Mistakes
About the Author
Chapter 10: Design Thinking for Non-Designers: A Guide for Team Training and Implementation
Introduction
10.1 What Do Non-Designers Need to Learn?
10.2 Challenges Teams Face with Design Thinking
10.3 Three Team Strategies for Success
10.4 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 11: Developing Design Thinking: GE Healthcare's Menlo Innovation Model
Introduction
11.1 GE Healthcare's Design Organization
11.2 The Menlo Innovation Ecosystem
11.3 The Significance of Design Thinking at GE Healthcare
11.4 Conclusion
References
About the Author
Chapter 12: Leading for a Corporate Culture of Design Thinking
Introduction
12.1 The Critical Impact of Corporate Culture on Design Thinking
12.2 What Is Corporate Culture?
12.3 Corporate Forces that Undermine Design Thinking
12.4 Four Pillars of Innovation for Enabling Design Thinking
12.5 Four Stages of Transforming to a Culture of Design Thinking
12.6 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 13: Knowledge Management as Intelligence Amplification for Breakthrough Innovations
Introduction
13.1 Designing Amidst Uncertainty
13.2 Knowledge Management Tasks for Breakthrough Innovation: From Intelligence Leveraging to Intelligence Amplification
13.3 KM and Selected Tools for Breakthrough Innovation
13.4 Organizational Implications
13.5 Appendices
References
About the Authors
Chapter 14: Strategically Embedding Design Thinking in the Firm
Introduction
14.1 Role of Key Personnel
14.2 Organizational Practices
14.3 Organizational Climate and Culture
14.4 Embedding Design Thinking
References
About the Authors
Part III: Design Thinking For Specific Contexts
Chapter 15: Designing Services that Sing and Dance
Introduction
15.1 Products, Services, and Experiences
15.2 How to Design for Compelling Service Experiences
15.3 Services that Sing and Dance
15.4 Designing a Service Experience Is Never Finished
15.5 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 16: Capturing Context through Service Design Stories
Introduction
16.1 Service Design
16.2 Context, Stories, and Designers as Interpreters
16.3 Context Through Narratives—The CTN Method
16.4 Case Illustration of the CTN Method
16.5 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
About the Authors
Chapter 17: Optimal Design for Radically New Products
Introduction
17.1 Communicate the Challenge Goal toward Radically New Products
17.2 Shift Time Frames to Future and Past
17.3 Promote an Emerging Technology Focus across the Consumption Chain
17.4 Promote the Use of Analogical Thinking
17.5 Look for Novel Ways to Solve Simple Problems
17.6 Leverage More Ideators via Crowdsourcing
17.7 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 18: Business Model Design
Introduction
18.1 What Is a Business Model?
18.2 When Do I Need to Think about My Business Model?
18.3 What Value Should I Expect from a Business Model Design?
18.4 What Method Can I Use to Design a Business Model?
18.5 Process of Designing a Business Model
18.6 How Do I Implement My New or Revised Business Model?
18.7 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Chapter 19: Lean Start-up in Large Enterprises Using Human-Centered Design Thinking: A New Approach for Developing Transformational and Disruptive Innovations
Introduction
19.1 Lean Start-up
19.2 Transformational and Disruptive Innovation: Defining the Domain Where the Lean Start-up Process Should Be Used
19.3 Why Is a Business Model a Valuable Part of the Lean Start-up Process?
19.4 Lean Start-up through the Lens of Human-Centered Design
19.5 Implementing the Lean Start-up Approach in Enterprises
19.6 Conclusion
References
About the Author
Part IV: Consumer Responses and Values
Chapter 20: Consumer Response to Product Form1
Introduction
20.1 How Product Form Influences Consumer Product Evaluation
20.2 Product Form Characteristics and Consumer Perceptions
20.4 Practical Implications
References
About the Author
Chapter 21: Drivers of Diversity in Consumers' Aesthetic Response to Product Design
Introduction
21.1 Culture
21.2 Individual Characteristics
21.3 Situational Factors
21.4 Discussion
21.5 Conclusion
References
About the Author
Chapter 22: Future-Friendly Design: Designing for and with Future Consumers
Introduction
22.1 A Framework for Understanding Changing Consumer Values
22.2 Emerging Consumer Needs
22.3 Going Forward
References
About the Author
Part V: Special Topics in Design Thinking
Chapter 23: Face And Interface: Richer Product Experiences through Integrated User Interface and Industrial Design1
Introduction
23.1 Divergent Paths: User Interface in Physical and Digital Products
23.2 Emerging User Interface Technologies
23.3 New Technology Demands a New Development Process
23.4 Seven Questions to Guide the Integration of Industrial Design with User Interface Design
23.5 Practice Makes Perfect
About the Author
Chapter 24: Intellectual Property Protection for Designs
Introduction
24.1 “Design” in Intellectual Property
24.2 Utility Patents
24.3 Design Patents
24.4 Copyrightable Designs for Useful Articles
24.5 Trademark Rights for Product Design
24.6 Legal Overlap, Trade-Offs, and Strategic Considerations
24.7 Conclusion
About the Author
Chapter 25: Design Thinking for Sustainability
Introduction
25.1 Design for “X”?
25.2 Design Thinking Integrated into Design for Sustainability
25.3 Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: A Brief Introduction to Design Thinking
Figure 1.1 A framework for design thinking.
Figure 1.2 Discover mode.
Figure 1.3 Define mode.
Figure 1.4 Create mode.
Figure 1.5 Evaluate mode.
Figure 1.6 A brief guide to the chapters in this book.
Chapter 2: Inspirational Design Briefing
Figure 2.1 The nine criteria of an inspirational design brief.
Figure 2.2 The three steps of co-creating an inspirational design brief.
Figure 2.3 A suggested distribution of the DQC content in a design brief.
Chapter 3: Personas: Powerful Tool for Designers
Figure 3.1 Anne's persona #1, Fred, tech-aware, corporate.
Figure 3.2 Anne's persona #2, Wilma, tech-savvy, self-employed.
Figure 3.3 Anne's storyboard reminder action: Scene 1 (Wilma as a phone call with a client, and they agree to schedule an event in the future).
Figure 3.4 Anne's storyboard reminder action: Scene 2 (Based on the phone call, Wilma creates an action of her smartphone using the new application).
Figure 3.5 Anne's storyboard reminder action: Scene 3 (The action appears automatically on Wilma's calendar).
Figure 3.6 Anne's storyboard reminder action: Scene 4 (The action e-mails client automatically about the appointment so the client can confirm).
Chapter 4: Customer Experience Mapping: The Springboard to Innovative Solutions
Figure 4.1 “As is” map.
Figure 4.2 Tele-PT concept.
Figure 4.3 “To be” map.
Figure 4.4 Stakeholder value map.
Chapter 5: Design Thinking to Bridge Research and Concept Design
Figure 5.1 The Visualize, Empathize, and Ideate method.
Figure 5.2 Using the Visualize, Empathize, and Ideate method.
Figure 5.3 Technical, market, and user research teams.
Figure 5.4 Creating visual maps.
Figure 5.5 Ideating.
Chapter 6: Boosting Creativity in Idea Generation Using Design Heuristics
Figure 6.1 The first image shows a “scroll”-like embellishment on a vase. The designer exaggerates the scroll in her drawing (center), and then changes the shape to open the ends. She then “flips” the center element on its axis, creating the desk accessory shown in the bottom image.
Figure 6.2 Information on each heuristic is depicted on two sides of a card, serving as a tool for designers to use while working on new concepts.
Figure 6.3 An example card depicting the nature of a specific Design Heuristic. This heuristic suggests using packaging as part of the product, and it is illustrated in two consumer products.
Figure 6.4 The “bend” heuristic adds changes to surfaces to introduce contours.
Figure 6.5 Three different chair designs by study participants where the heuristic “bend” is observed.
Figure 6.6 A participant's design of a chair can be used as a coffee table when placed facedown, combining use of the “bend,” “synthesize function,” and “convert for a second function” Design Heuristics.
Chapter 7: The Key Roles of Stories and Prototypes in Design Thinking
Figure 7.1 Three general product development process blocks and their components.
Figure 7.2 A storyboard collage. Ed, Elise, the city opera, a popular local bar, the cool new restaurant.
Figure 7.3 Electronics breadboard prototype.
Figure 7.4 A placement and modulation prototype.
Figure 7.5 An early prototype of the elbow-carry handle.
Figure 7.6 The elbow-carry handle.
Chapter 8: Integrating Design into the Fuzzy Front End of the Innovation Process
Figure 8.1 Design professionals' practices and tools for FFE.
Figure 8.2 An example of a mind map.
Figure 8.3 An example of the outcome of a generative tool.
Figure 8.4 An example of a customer journey.
Figure 8.5 An example of a persona.
Figure 8.6 An example of a storyboard.
Figure 8.7 Value pursuit for stakeholder mapping: Step 1.
Chapter 9: The Role of Design in Early-Stage Ventures: How to Help Start-ups Understand and Apply Design Processes to New Product Development
Figure 9.1 A designer at Bresslergroup digesting the results of some persona-based user research.
Figure 9.2 Kidsmart allowed parents to record their own voice message to wake sleeping children in the event of a fire.
Figure 9.3 Smart saw an opportunity to improve upon an inventor's touchless paper towel dispenser.
Figure 9.4 This start-up started out wanting to make a custom tablet but saved considerable resources when they decided to make a custom case instead.
Chapter 10: Design Thinking for Non-Designers: A Guide for Team Training and Implementation
Figure 10.1 Three main categories of design thinking tools.
Figure 10.2 Example design thinking process phases and illustration of changing emphasis of tools over time.
Chapter 12: Leading for a Corporate Culture of Design Thinking
Figure 12.1 Distinctive elements of corporate culture.
Figure 12.2 Four pillars for effective creativity and innovation.
Chapter 13: Knowledge Management as Intelligence Amplification for Breakthrough Innovations
Figure 13A.2a Start with a market need.
Figure 13A.2b Start with a novel technology.
Chapter 14: Strategically Embedding Design Thinking in the Firm
Figure 14.1 Value of design thinking.
Chapter 15: Designing Services that Sing and Dance
Figure 15.1 Analogies between theatrical production and service design.
Figure 15.2 Companies can design the conditions (or prerequisites) for a service experience. But it is only when customers interact with the service that the service experience itself comes into existence.
Chapter 16: Capturing Context through Service Design Stories
Figure 16.1 Two types of knowledge and company positions.
Figure 16.2 The CTN method in four steps.
Figure 16.3 Schematic illustration of a constructed landscape of situations.
Figure 16.4 Scene Service Day 2010.
Figure 16.5 Example of a documented use narrative for a given situation.
Chapter 17: Optimal Design for Radically New Products
Figure 17.1 Six ideas to improve the development of a radical new product.
Chapter 18: Business Model Design
Figure 18.1 Evolution of business model thinking has progressed from Gen 1.0, a pure financial model, to Gen 2.0, the logical story supporting the financial model, to Gen 3.0, combining value proposition, resources, and the financial model, to today's Gen 4.0, a model defined herein with six key and interrelated aspects of business.
Figure 18.2 Six-cornerstone business model framework where P = Product/Service, C = Consumer, I = Influencer, R = Revenue and Profit, D = Channel of Distribution, and M/O = Manufacturing or Operations
Figure 18.3 A self-evaluation of your business model. Here, for illustration, M/O (manufacturing/operations) and C (branding) are strengths, and D (channel of distribution) is weak.
Figure 18.4 After scoring Value Accelerators, you can plot by coordinates to visualize which to pursue first.
Chapter 19: Lean Start-up in Large Enterprises Using Human-Centered Design Thinking: A New Approach for Developing Transformational and Disruptive Innovations
Figure 19.1 Schematic showing the four elements of the lean start-up approach: the business model, customer development, the minimum viable prototype (MVP), and agile development.
Figure 19.2 Schematic of the differences between lead users, early adopters, routine users, and laggards; lean start-up teams should focus on lead users and early adopters.
Figure 19.3 Example of an MVP. (a) A very rough prototype, constructed to demonstrate the minimum feature set in terms of look and design needed to get rapid, candid feedback from ENT surgeons). (b) Picture of the final Diego Gyrus ENT debrider.
Figure 19.4 (a) Business model typology showing the relationship between sustaining, transformational, and disruptive innovation (b) and the areas where the lean start-up methodology may best be applied to.
Figure 19.5 Business model canvas.
Figure 19.6 The lean canvas.
Figure 19.7 FEI canvas.
Figure 19.8 Value proposition canvas.
Figure 19.9 Solution attributes map.
Chapter 20: Consumer Response to Product Form1
Figure 20.1 Philips Alessi coffeemaker.
Figure 20.2 Dyson Cool™ tower fan.
Chapter 21: Drivers of Diversity in Consumers' Aesthetic Response to Product Design
Figure 21.1 Summary of the main influences on consumers' aesthetic preferences.
Figure 21.2 Example of bike designs in (a) the United States; (b) the Netherlands; and (c) France.
Figure 21.3 Nonexhaustive external influences of consumer's aesthetic preferences.
Figure 21.4 The making of CVPA.
Chapter 22: Future-Friendly Design: Designing for and with Future Consumers
Figure 22.1 Four value types.
Figure 22.2 Keeping it real: authentic Annie.
Figure 22.3 The relentless pursuit of happiness: Becky 2.0.
Figure 22.4 Community first: good neighbor Bob.
Figure 22.5 We really are the world: Stewart“ship”.
Figure 22.6 Glass houses: high-tech Tina.
Chapter 23: Face And Interface: Richer Product Experiences through Integrated User Interface and Industrial Design1
Figure 23.1 An example of how to merge UI and ID product development timelines.
Figure 23.2 A blended process plan for prototyping in parallel.
Figure 23.3 Human factors sits in the intersection of products, tasks, users, and environment.
Figure 23.4 A slide from a storyboard mapping out a typical day in the life of an automated homebrew device with mobile app.
Chapter 24: Intellectual Property Protection for Designs
Figure 24.1 Sample design patent drawings.
Chapter 25: Design Thinking for Sustainability
Figure 25.1 Cradle-to-cradle approach to design for effectiveness.
Figure 25.2 Four major strategies of design for environment.
Figure 25.3 Design thinking for sustainability foundation.
Figure 25.4 Photo stories.
Figure 25.5 Value chain analysis in sustainable design thinking.
Figure 25.6 Product-service system categories.
Figure 25.7 UNEP's design for sustainability strategy wheel.
List of Tables
Chapter 2: Inspirational Design Briefing
Table 2.1 The Nine Criteria of an Inspirational Design Brief
Chapter 4: Customer Experience Mapping: The Springboard to Innovative Solutions
Table 4.1 Pain points for physical therapy from the “as is” experience map
Chapter 7: The Key Roles of Stories and Prototypes in Design Thinking
Table 7.1 Summary of the Initial Goals of Building Each Prototype
Chapter 10: Design Thinking for Non-Designers: A Guide for Team Training and Implementation
Table 10.1 Design Thinking for Non-Designers: Challenges, Strategies, and Implementation
Chapter 11: Developing Design Thinking: GE Healthcare's Menlo Innovation Model
Table 11.1 Phases of the Menlo Innovation Workshop
Chapter 13: Knowledge Management as Intelligence Amplification for Breakthrough Innovations
Table 13.1 Differences between Incremental and Breakthrough Innovations
Table 13.2 Knowledge Management Tools for Intelligence Leveraging
Table 13.3 KM's Support for Breakthrough Innovation
Table 13.4 Implementation of KM as Intelligence Amplification
Chapter 14: Strategically Embedding Design Thinking in the Firm
Table 14.1 How Different Roles of Key Personnel Can Influence the Strategic Embodiment of Design Thinking
Table 14.2 How Organizational Practices Can Influence the Strategic Embodiment of Design Thinking
Table 14.3 How Organizational Climate and Culture Can Influence the Strategic Embodiment of Design Thinking
Chapter 15: Designing Services that Sing and Dance
Table 15.1 Service Experience Worksheet
Chapter 16: Capturing Context through Service Design Stories
Table 16.1 Steps of Servitization
Table 16.2 Organization of the Workshop
Chapter 17: Optimal Design for Radically New Products
Table 17.1 Implementation of the Six Ideas
Table 17.2 Steps in the Consumer Consumption Chain
Table 17.3 Types of Uncertainty
Chapter 18: Business Model Design
Table 18.1 Comparing Your Business Model Evaluation by Cornerstone against Your Evaluation of Your Two Most Important Competitors
Table 18.2 Score Card for Evaluating Value Accelerators
Table 18.3 Process to Design a Business Model Using the Six-Cornerstone Framework
Chapter 19: Lean Start-up in Large Enterprises Using Human-Centered Design Thinking: A New Approach for Developing Transformational and Disruptive Innovations
Table 19.1 Attributes of Business Model Canvases
Table 19.2 Comparison of Human-Centered Design Attributes with the Different Business Model Canvas
Chapter 20: Consumer Response to Product Form1
Table 20.1 The Influence of Product Form Characteristics on the Different Product Appearance Roles
Table 20.2 Product Category-Related Factors and the Relative Importance of Different Product Appearance Roles
Table 20.3 Consumer Characteristics and the Relative Importance of Different Product Value Types
Table 20.4 The Role of Product Form in Different Phases of the Product Life Cycle
Chapter 21: Drivers of Diversity in Consumers' Aesthetic Response to Product Design
Table 21.1 Visual Preferences and Cultural Dimensions
Chapter 24: Intellectual Property Protection for Designs
Table 24.1 Sample Chair Claims
Chapter 25: Design Thinking for Sustainability
Table 25.1 A Range of Design for “X” Strategies
Table 25.2 Bolted-on versus Embedded Sustainability Design Strategies (Laszlo & Zhexembayeva, 2011)
Table 25.3 Design Strategies for Sustainable Products and Services
DESIGN THINKING
New Product Development Essentials from the PDMA
Edited byMichael G. LuchsK. Scott SwanAbbie Griffin
Cover image: C. Wallace
Cover design: Vector Swirl © iStock.com/antishock
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Design thinking (2015)
Design thinking : new product development essentials from the PDMA / edited by Michael G. Luchs, K. Scott Swan, Abbie Griffin.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-97180-2 (cloth), 978-1-118-97182-6 (ePDF), 978-1-118-97181-9 (epub) and P010238748 (oBook)
1. Product design. 2. Critical thinking. 3. Creative ability in business. I. Luchs, Michael, 1968–II. Swan, Scott, 1962–III. Griffin, Abbie. IV. Product Development & Management Association. V. Title.
TS171.D4695 2015
658.5′752—dc23
2015021569
About the Editors
Dr. Michael G. Luchs is an Associate Professor and is the Director of the Innovation and Design Studio at the College of William & Mary's Raymond A. Mason School of Business. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin in 2008. Prior to earning his Ph.D., Dr. Luchs worked for over a decade as a consultant and executive. As a Principal with the consulting firm Pittiglio, Rabin, Todd & McGrath (now PwC), Dr. Luchs worked with a broad client base to improve their product development and marketing practices and performance. Clients included Fortune 500 companies as well as SMEs in the consumer packaged goods, consumer durables, computing & telecommunications equipment, and telecommunications services industries. In addition to his consulting experience, Dr. Luchs worked in industry as the Sr. VP of Marketing for Labtec Inc. (now Logitech) and as a Product Manager for Black & Decker Power Tools.
K. Scott Swan is a Professor of International Business, Design, and Marketing at The College of William & Mary. Prof. Swan was awarded a Fulbright and named the 2015–2016 Hall Chair for Entrepreneurship in Central Europe at WU (Vienna, Austria) and The University of Bratislava (Slovakia). His latest publications are: Innovation and Product Management: A Holistic and Practical Approach to Uncertainty Reduction (Springer Science & Business Media) October 2014 and A Review of Marketing Research on Product Design with Directions for Future Research (forthcoming in JPIM). Dr. Swan has lectured internationally at University of Applied Science Upper Austria (Wels), Corvinus University in Budapest, MCI in Innsbruck, Tsinghua University in Beijing, Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo, WHU in Koblenz, Germany, and the Vienna Business School (WU) in Austria. His research interests have led to publications in journals such as Strategic Management Journal, Journal of International Management, Journal of International Business Studies, Management International Review, Journal of Business Research, and The Journal of Product Innovation Management. He serves on the editorial boards of JPIM and The Design Journal.
Abbie Griffin holds the Royal L. Garff Presidential Chair in Marketing at the David Eccles School of Business at the University of Utah, where she teaches the 1st-year core MBA Marketing Management course. Professor Griffin obtained her B.S. ChE from Purdue University, MBA from Harvard Business School, and Ph.D. in Management of Technology from MIT. Her research investigates means for measuring and improving the process of new product development. Her latest research can be found in the book titled: Serial Innovators: How Individuals in Large Organizations Create Breakthrough New Products. Her 1993 article titled “Voice of the Customer” was awarded both the Frank M. Bass Dissertation Paper Award and the John D. C. Little Best Paper Award by INForms and has been named the 7th most important article published in Marketing Science in the last 25 years. She was the editor of the Journal of Product Innovation Management from 1998 to 2003. The PDMA named her as a Crawford Fellow in 2009, and she currently serves as the Vice President of Publications for the Association. She was on the Board of Directors of Navistar International, a $ 13 billion manufacturer of diesel engines and trucks from 1998 to 2009. Prof. Griffin is an avid quilter, hiker, and swimmer.
Chapter 1A Brief Introduction to Design Thinking1
Michael G. Luchs
Innovation and Design Studio, College of William & Mary
Introduction
Within the context of new product development (NPD) and innovation, design thinking has enjoyed significantly increased visibility and, for many, increased perceived importance over the last decade. For others, however, this term can be fraught with confusion, questions of relevancy and, for some, the perception of a fad. Within that context, the objectives of this chapter include the following: First, I briefly describe the concept of design thinking and its role within NPD and innovation. Next, I provide and describe a simple framework of design thinking, followed by a summary of some fundamental principles of the “mindset” of design thinking. Throughout, I identify linkages with the other chapters in this book. While this chapter provides an overview of design thinking as well as some context, the remaining chapters in this book provide significantly more detail and a wide variety of specific examples. Thus, this chapter concludes with a visual overview of the book to help guide you to the specific ideas, tools, and practices most applicable to the NPD and innovation problems and opportunities that you and your firm are facing today.
1.1 The Concept of Design Thinking and Its Role within NPD and Innovation
What is design thinking? At its core, design thinking can be construed as a creative problem-solving approach—or, more completely, as a systematic and collaborative approach for identifying and creatively solving problems.2 The term design thinking simply means that one is approaching problems, and their solutions, as a designer would. While this will be elaborated subsequently, an illustrative characteristic of the design thinking approach is that it is intentionally nonlinear. Designers, whether in the arts or industry, tend to explore and solve problems through iteration. They quickly generate possible solutions, develop simple prototypes, and then iterate on these initial solutions—informed by significant external feedback—toward a final solution. This is in contrast to a linear process, such as the traditional Stage-GateTM new product development (NPD) process, in which prototyping is typically done toward the end of the process to reflect the culmination of the development phase and to explore manufacturability, rather than as a mechanism for gaining market feedback. A more thorough description of design thinking as a process and mindset follows, but first I address an important question for those involved with new product development and innovation: When is design thinking most applicable?
When to Apply Design Thinking
Generally speaking, design thinking is best applied in situations in which the problem, or opportunity, is not well defined, and/or a breakthrough idea or concept is needed, that is, an idea that has a significant and positive impact, such as creating a new market or enabling significant revenue growth. Design thinking methods have been used successfully in different ways within business including new venture creation, business model design, and process improvement. While our focus is on applying design thinking to the challenge and opportunity of new product development3 and innovation, this book also includes several chapters that address other contexts, such as business model design (Chapters 18 and 19).
Within the context of NPD, design thinking is very well suited to use in markets that are quickly changing and when user needs are uncertain, such as the emerging market for wearable biometric devices. However, design thinking is equally applicable in more mature markets as a means to identify new, latent customer needs and/or in an effort to develop significant or radical innovations (Chapter 17). Whereas incremental innovations are also critically important to most companies, they typically are bounded by well-defined problems or established customer needs, such as improving gas engine fuel efficiency. In those situations, a more linear, Stage-Gate process is still appropriate. Nonetheless, even in these situations there may be specific elements of a design thinking approach—specific tools or techniques—that can improve a project's outcome.
For the right situations, however, a design thinking approach is more likely to lead to better solutions that address the most important customer needs, and do so more efficiently than traditional NPD approaches alone. One of the reasons for this is that design thinking helps to avoid the trap of investing too many resources too early in a project toward developing a specific, single solution. Rather than placing such a “big bet,” design thinking encourages many “little bets” (Sims, 2013) about customer insights and possible solutions. Sims describes these little bets as “low risk actions taken to discover, develop, and test an idea.” These little bets make it more likely that a project team will quickly converge on solution concepts with the highest potential market success. At some point, of course, specifications need to be well defined and the product needs to be developed and, ultimately, produced. In this sense, another way to think about design thinking is as a clarifying lens on the oft referred to “fuzzy front end” of NPD, whereby a project begins with an iterative, design thinking approach, followed by a traditional Stage-Gate process after enough has been learned about customer needs and possible solutions.
The Origins of Design Thinking
The methods and mindset of design thinking, although championed by progressive companies and design consultancies, draw from a wide field of disciplines including software development, engineering, anthropology, psychology, the arts, and business. Design thinking as it exists today has co-evolved across a variety of disciplines and industries. Over time—well over 50 years, and even longer depending on your perspective—the best and most generalizable methods and practices have emerged and converged in a quasi-Darwinian process of natural selection. These have been codified, integrated, documented, and championed by leading design firms (such as IDEO and frog) and academic institutions (such as Stanford's d.school, and the Rotman School of Management), and have increasingly been adopted by industry and popularized by the media under the shared moniker of design thinking.
While this co-evolution and vetting of design thinking has led to a robust set of methodologies, it has also contributed to some confusion given the proliferation of tools, methods, books, seminars, and, more recently, online training available. Rather than getting lost in the details from the start, a useful way to learn about design thinking methods is through the lens of an organizing framework. Even here, however, there are a variety of frameworks to choose from, each with its own nuances and biases. To the novice, this, too, can be daunting. Given the time to explore these, however, it becomes apparent that there actually is significant consistency across these frameworks. In a sense, each of these has been a prototype framework—building on the ideas and lessons of its predecessors. In that iterative spirit, I propose a framework for design thinking in the next section that is intended to reflect the shared elements of existing frameworks, with the objective of retaining the most important elements of design thinking and their distinctions, while simplifying their depiction and terminology. At the least, this framework introduces the major elements of design thinking as efficiently as possible and facilitates an exploration of the rich content contained within the other chapters of this book. Further, it will make it easier to quickly navigate other design thinking frameworks in use and, in so doing, enable an efficient exploration of the vast library of tools, techniques, and advice beyond these pages.
1.2 A Framework of Design Thinking
There are literally dozens, if not hundreds, of specific design thinking–related methods and tools available, and this book will explore many of these. Learning about just a few of these and understanding how they are used together is likely more valuable than trying to experiment with them without any context. The following framework is intended to provide that context, by organizing these methods and tools based on their role or purpose.
Design thinking, as a systematic and collaborative approach for identifying and creatively solving problems, includes two major phases: identifying problems and solving problems. Both of these phases are critical, but in practice most people and project teams within companies are more inclined to focus on the latter, that is, on solving problems. We are naturally creative beings, and given any problem—however ill-defined—most of us can generate a set of ideas. Unfortunately, these often will not be great ideas, that is, ideas that are both original and that solve the problems with the greatest potential. One of the most powerful features of design thinking is its emphasis on identifying the right problems to solve in the first place. This is, therefore, a key element of the following framework, as indicated by the two phases of design thinking depicted in Figure 1.1: Identify and Solve. Next, I describe the purpose of each of the modes within these two phases, followed by a discussion of the iterative nature of the process as a whole.
Figure 1.1 A framework for design thinking.
Discover
The purpose of the first mode of the design thinking framework (see Figure 1.2) is to Discover new customer insights. One of the challenges for many product development teams is that they are immersed in the world of products and, often, technologies. While that is clearly important expertise, it can limit their field of view and perspective; market information tends to get framed in terms of product specifications relevant to existing products. As a consequence, well-intended research, even when conducted with product users, is often unintentionally biased toward relatively minor modifications to existing products. Instead, a quest for breakthrough ideas often begins with an open exploration of customer4 needs—especially latent, undiscovered needs that may be difficult to articulate—also referred to as customer insights.
Figure 1.2 Discover mode.
So how does one identify customer insights that will inspire great ideas? While there are many specific methods, they generally are qualitative in nature and are intended to help the project team become immersed in their customers' context. This is typically described as a process focused on gaining empathy with customers, that is, developing an understanding of their context, experiences, and behaviors (Chapters 3, 4, and 7).
At some point during data collection, the project team needs to begin synthesizing the data that they have collected. This does not mean that their discovery work is complete. Indeed, the Discover mode is built on iteration between data collection and data synthesis, where data synthesis is the process of summarizing and deriving meaning from the data. Given the qualitative nature of the data (i.e., pictures, transcripts, audio recordings, etc.), the data synthesis process is very different than what is typically assumed with market research. Rather than relying on numerical data and statistics, the team needs to be able to translate qualitative data into specific customer insights. There is a variety of ways to do this, including coding transcripts, drafting personas and empathy maps of archetypical customers, and journey maps that describe the customer's current or ideal experience (Chapters 3 and 4).
Once again, while there are many different techniques available, an important principle of the Discover mode is to continually iterate between data collection and synthesis, that is, to attempt to synthesize insights throughout rather than wait until all data have been collected. This requires flexibility and patience but helps to ensure that the most appropriate methods are used as needed rather than rigidly prescribing exactly how the research will be conducted at the start of a given project. Once the team is confident that they have identified a set of significant customer insights to consider, then they are ready to proceed to the Define mode.
Define
The Discover mode can be characterized by the development of an expanded understanding of the customer—their thoughts, feelings, experiences, and needs. In contrast, the Define mode (see Figure 1.3) is characterized by a distillation of customer insights and framing of specific insights as well-defined problems to solve. At this point in the process, the team should have an inventory of synthesized information about their customers and their contexts. The challenge is to identify the needs and insights most worthy of pursuit through the next phase of the process. Toward that end, these needs and insights are often framed as discrete “problem statements” to use in the next phase as a basis for idea generation, the initial activity within the Create mode. These problem statements generally are short statements that describe the customer type, an unaddressed need, and the insight that explains why the identified need is especially worthy of addressing. For example:
A busy parent of teenagers (customer type)…
…needs a way to reconcile and integrate the dynamic schedules of all members of the family (the need)…
…because the lack of reliable, up-to-date information about conflicting schedules is leading to missed activities and unnecessary stress (the insight that clearly explains why the need is worth addressing).
Figure 1.3 Define mode.
Next, the team needs to converge on a subset of these problem statements to address in the next mode: Create. Multivoting is one of the skills that is most useful at this point. While there are different ways to vote for ideas, or problem statements in this case, the intent is to take advantage of the evolving wisdom of the group that has collectively benefited from participation in the Discover mode (which depends on consistent team membership throughout the project).
Create
The purpose of the Create mode of design thinking (see Figure 1.4) is to develop a concept or set of concepts that can be shared with the target market for feedback and that, through iteration, can be improved upon. While customers can respond to an idea on its own, the best feedback will result from their engaging with a rough prototype of a concept since a good prototype can provide an experience to respond to and another opportunity for designers to observe actual behaviors. Thus, the two primary activities of the Create mode are idea generation and prototyping. Although these will be described in sequence, in practice they are, once again, highly iterative in nature.
Figure 1.4 Create mode.
The first major activity within the Create mode is idea generation. There is a wide variety of tools and techniques available to do this (Chapters 5 and 6). Next, after grouping and refining ideas, the team can again use some form of multivoting to converge on the most promising ideas. At this point, it is appropriate to consider a broad set of criteria. A simple schema to consider might include (a) desirability (from the customer's perspective), (b) feasibility (the ability to deliver the product), and (c) viability (the ability for sustained business benefit, either financial or strategic). It is important, however, to remain focused on the identified customer insights and to avoid filtering ideas too much based on other criteria, since the idea is still nascent at this point and can be improved upon during the next activity, prototyping.
When practitioners of design thinking talk about prototypes, they are not referring to the camera-ready or fully functioning prototypes that appear in the popular press. Rather, they are referring to simple prototypes that provide a very basic experience of a product or feature of a product (Chapter 7). These are often referred to as “low-resolution prototypes” (d.school, 2014). These early-stage prototypes can be three-dimensional objects, a sequence of screen shots of a “software app” concept, or even a mocked-up service counter with actors as agents. One of the unique features of design thinking is that prototyping is used as another activity for exploring an idea—to accelerate and improve idea generation by considering different manifestations of the concept. Thus, a series of prototypes might be developed within the group before one or more are chosen to present to prospective customers for feedback.
Evaluate
The final mode of the design thinking framework is Evaluate, as shown in Figure 1.5. The purpose of this mode is to get feedback on concept prototypes, and the ideas and assumptions embedded within them. Within the design thinking framework, we typically assume that much of this feedback will be used to iterate and improve upon the concepts, especially in the first iteration of the four modes. In other words, this is not the “final step.” This will be elaborated on subsequently, but for now it is important to appreciate that the purpose of the feedback is initially as a mechanism to learn more rather than merely to validate.
Figure 1.5 Evaluate mode.
There are typically two types of activities conducted with this mode. The first is to share prototypes with potential customers to gain feedback. To get the most valuable feedback, the prototype should be used to help simulate an experience for the user rather than serve as a prop for presentation. After the team has collected sufficient feedback, they proceed with a process of synthesizing the feedback. This activity is similar in spirit to the data synthesis completed during the Discover mode, with the obvious difference being that users now have a tangible solution concept to respond to. The objective is, however, quite similar: to gain further insight in addition to converging on the most promising solution or elements of a solution. Depending on the synthesis of the feedback, the team then decides where to go next in the design thinking framework. The ultimate objective, of course, is to move beyond concept prototyping to full development of the product or service. The assumption within design thinking, however, is that this is likely to occur only after multiple iterations of one or more of the modes of design thinking, to which we turn next.
1.3 Design Thinking as a Nonlinear Process
Thus far, I have presented the modes of design thinking as a linear sequence of activities. This is likely the easiest way to learn about these modes and, in practice, the first iteration of these modes will typically proceed as they have been described above: Identify (Discover and Define) and then Solve (Create and Evaluate). However, design thinking is not intended to be a linear process, nor would that be desirable in most situations. Instead, the design thinking approach is to create potential solutions as quickly as possible—knowing that our knowledge is incomplete and that these solutions will be incomplete and potentially flawed—and then use these initial solutions as a means of learning more, of developing more refined insights, and creating better solutions.
Thus, design thinking is best understood as an iterative approach to problem solving, rather than as a sequence of steps—hence the use of the term mode as opposed to step. The number of iterations depends on the project and is, to a certain degree, unknowable at the initiation of a project. This is a judgment call, based on the objectives and constraints of the project, as well as the perceived progress of the work. Deciding how to proceed on a given project is one of the key tasks of the team and its leader throughout the project. This includes deciding when to shift to a different mode and when, ultimately, to move beyond concept evaluation within the design thinking framework into a more traditional, linear product development process once the concept has been sufficiently described and evaluated.
At first glance, the lack of predefinition of which modes to use at a given point in the project, to what degree, and in what order may seem unnecessarily complex and at odds with the logic and efficiency of traditional Stage-Gate development processes. In the right situations, however, this approach provides important flexibility, increasing the odds of arriving at great solutions, while minimizing wasted time and effort. This requires a fundamental shift in mindset, a point to which we turn to next.
1.4 The Principles and the “Mindset” of Design Thinking
At this point, it is likely evident to the reader that design thinking is as much about a way of thinking and doing as it is about process. Process is clearly important, and there are specific, tested tools to consider within each mode, each with its own set of inputs, outputs, and well-defined activities. Beyond process, design thinking is also about mindset, where mindset can be thought of as an integrated set of beliefs and attitudes.
Several chapters in this book will address the mindset and principles of design thinking, as well as the implementation of design thinking in the firm (Chapters 8–14). However, I share below some common themes that can serve as an initial primer. Becoming familiar with these should enable a flexible approach to exploring the wide variety of topics addressed throughout the remaining 24 chapters of this book, collectively illustrated in Figure 1.6. In that spirit, some common principles of the design thinking mindset and philosophy include the following:
People-centric
: A shift from a product and technology-centric orientation to a primary focus on the values, experiences, and needs of people; although products and technologies are clearly critical to ultimately addressing customer needs, they are viewed as enablers of solutions that follow from customers' needs.
Cross-disciplinary and collaborative
: Using teams with a wide variety of backgrounds and training, and with team members that are open to the different perspectives and abilities of a diverse team. While team membership should be relatively consistent throughout the project, it may be wise to occasionally include participants external to the organization—such as customers, suppliers, and other subject matter experts—for select modes or activities.
Holistic
and integrative
: Although details are important, design thinkers are also able to see and consider relationships, interactions, and the connections between seemingly disparate ideas.
Flexibility
and comfort with ambiguity
: Design thinking is best suited to addressing ambiguously defined problems and opportunities, and requires great flexibility with respect to both content and approach (e.g., through as-needed iteration of modes and phases).
Multimodal
communication skills
: A willingness to communicate and work in various modalities, including verbal, visual, and tactile. Design thinkers sketch and create prototypes, without being constrained by a perceived lack of ability or skill. And, last but not least…
Growth
mindset
: A willingness to test ideas, concepts, and prototypes in an effort to learn, unhindered by a fear of failure.
Figure 1.6 A brief guide to the chapters in this book.
References
d.school (2014). Prototype to test. Retrieved from
https://dschool.stanford.edu/
Sims, P. (2013).
Little bets: How breakthrough ideas emerge from small discoveries
. New York: Simon & Schuster.
About the Author
Dr. Michael G. Luchs is an Associate Professor and is the Founding Director of the Innovation and Design Studio at the College of William & Mary's Raymond A. Mason School of Business. He earned his PhD from the University of Texas at Austin in 2008. Prior to earning his PhD, Dr. Luchs worked for over a decade as a consultant and executive. As a principal with the consulting firm Pittiglio, Rabin, Todd & McGrath (now PwC), Dr. Luchs worked with a broad client base to improve their product development and marketing practices and performance. Clients included Fortune 500 companies as well as small and midsized businesses in the consumer packaged goods, consumer durables, computing and telecommunications equipment, and telecommunications services industries. In addition to his prior and ongoing consulting experience, Dr. Luchs worked in industry as the Senior VP of Marketing for Labtec Inc. (now Logitech), and as a Product Manager for Black & Decker Power Tools.
1
This chapter was adapted from “Understanding Design Thinking: A Primer for New Product Development and Innovation Professionals.” © 2014 College of William & Mary.
2
Given a focus on the customer's perspective, I refer throughout to “solving problems,” but in the context of NPD, it would clearly make sense to also think of problems as opportunities.
3
For simplicity, I refer to products, where products can be physical goods and/or services.
4
For simplicity, I refer to customers throughout. These methods are not, however, limited to designing products for traditional customers. They are equally appropriate for any person or group that uses a product or service, or that is part of product or service creation and delivery, for example, a hospital nurse.
Part I
Design Thinking Tools
Chapter 2Inspirational Design Briefing
Søren Petersen
Ingomar&ingomar-consulting
Jaewoo Joo
Kookmin University
Introduction
A design brief is a short document, usually 2 to 20 pages in length, that relays issues of “who, what, when, how, and why” to the design team (Petersen & Phillips, 2011). As a written explanation of the aims and objectives of a project, the design brief represents the desired outcome by relaying requests from management to design teams. A well-written design brief enables designers to understand their clients and to communicate with other designers in a team fluently, eventually helping them to develop concepts. As concept development reflects only 5 percent of development costs, yet influences 70 percent of the final product's cost (Andreasen & Hein, 2000), using a design brief to translate management criteria into measurable and actionable design concepts is critical.
Although the design brief plays an important role in concept development, there are few resources about how to write one. In general, the design brief is viewed as a competitive advantage and traditionally is guarded as a business secret. Research on writing a design brief is scant, and prescriptions for how to organize documents are heavily based on individual consultants' experiences. As such, most design briefs are the writer's interpretation of a request for proposals (RFP) or merely a reformulation of an existing business plan (Petersen, 2011).
Design Brief and Wikipedia
When asked to write a design brief, designers often consult Wikipedia. Wikipedia illustrates six elements of design briefs: company history, company profile, problem statement, goals, solution analysis, and synopsis. Unfortunately, these basic elements provided no insight into how to write a high-quality design brief.
The responsibility for writing a design brief is usually relegated to one department, and there is little or no cross-departmental collaboration. At the Industrial Design Society of America event in 2012, for example, design students and professional designers alike voiced their concerns about the design briefs they had seen. The design briefs written by engineering departments contained too much information and were overly restrictive, whereas the design briefs written by marketing departments contained too little information and did not inspire designers. Therefore, many designers read a design brief when a project is started and rarely revisit it afterward.
2.1 Nine Criteria of an Inspirational Design Brief
To begin, we consider how industrial designers work. Designers are inspired by a wide variety of sources, including nature, fashion, movies, automobiles, aviation, weapons, architecture, and cutting-edge technology. Although some sources may not apply to a specific project, they may help designers formulate a new concept at a later point. Along these lines, we define an inspirational design brief as not only a guide to follow but also a mind-set to help designers leverage constraints in ideation. More specifically, we examined a wide variety of applications submitted to worldwide design awards and identified nine common criteria. We categorized them into three groups—strategy, context, and performance—and introduced them as nine design quality criteria (DQC).
Strategy
1.
Philosophy
: History, values, belief, vision, mission, and strategy of a company
2.
Structure
: Domain, business model, and competitive advantage of a company
3.
Innovation
: Area and type of innovation of a company
Context
4.
Social/human
: Needs and activities about individual and/or group of consumers
5.
Environment
: Requirements of and expectations for environmental concerns
6.
Viability
: Expectations about economic performance
Performance
7.
Process
: Budget and schedule of a project
8.
Function
: Nature of deliverables including unique selling point
9.
Expression
: Sensory styling and aesthetics of products
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