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Celeste Allen Novak

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Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

Water conservation is one of the most effective sustainable design practices, yet few professionals know how to collect and use rainwater effectively. Rainwater Harvesting the first comprehensive book on designing rainwater harvesting systems. It provides practical guidelines for developing a rainwater harvesting strategy, taking into account climate, public policies, environmental impact, and end uses. Case studies are included throughout. Rainwater Harvesting is a valuable reference for architects, landscape architects, and site engineers.

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Leseprobe

Title

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: The Importance of Rainwater Harvesting

Water Capital

A Brief History of Centralized Water Systems

Examples from Around the World

Policy Issues and Sustainability

Valuing Water Resources

Return on Investment

Challenges, Education, and Paradigm Shifts

Endnotes

Chapter 2: System Planning and Policies

Benefits That Drive Rainwater Harvesting Systems

Planning a System

Endnotes

Chapter 3: Water for Thirsty Buildings

Rainwater: Calculating Collection and Use

Building Sectors, Sizes, and Demands

Alternative Water Sources

Plumbing Design and The Myth of Unlimited Water Supply

Thoughtful Planning Brings Success

Endnotes

Chapter 4: System Elements

Integrated Approach

1. Collection/Catchment Surface (Roof or Other)

2. Conveyance (Gutters and Downspouts)

3. Prestorage Filtration and Debris Exclusion

4. Storage

5. Distribution

Integration, Thoughtful Planning, and Continuing Education Are the Keys to Success

Endnotes

Chapter 5: Maintenance and Safety

Water Quality of a Rainwater System

Sources of Pollutants

Fate and Transport of Pollutants in a Rainwater Harvesting System

Microbial Contamination

Addressing Water Quality for Various End Uses

Case Studies—Cautionary Tales and Pilot Projects for Potable Water Systems

Summary of Design Recommendations

Conclusion

Endnotes

Chapter 6: 21st-Century Interviews

Stan Abbott

John Apostolopoulos

Alf Brandt

Bob Drew

Nicole Holmes

Bill Hunt

Lutz Johnen

Heather Kinkade

Kevin Kirsche

Billy Kniffen

Dennis Lye, PhD

Shawn Martin

Neal Shapiro

David Stooksbury

Dave Viola

Endnote

Appendix A

Appendix B

Supplemental Images

Index

Access to Companion Site

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1 Queens Botanical Garden Visitor and Administration Center is an example of integrated rainwater harvesting system design.

Figure 1.2 EARTH A Graphic Look at the state of the world

Figure 1.3 At the Queens Botanical Garden, rainwater is a valuable resource.

Figure 1.4 Designed by Perkins+Will, the Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability integrates rainwater collection, graywater reuse, and water treatment for building potable water to meet the Living Building Challenge™.

Figure 1.5 Tang Dynasty leader Li Jing (571–649 AD) praised this cistern as being a “Smart Spring.” It was “full of water when drought came and it was dry when the flood came.”

Figure 1.6 Fort Pulaski National Monument in Georgia provides an example of a historic rainwater collection system. Ten brick subterranean cisterns incorporated into the structure of the fort were capable of storing 200,000 gallons of fresh water. After the capture of the Fort, in 1862, Union soldiers supplemented the natural supply with a steam condenser which converted the moat’s saltwater into freshwater.

Figure 1.7 Eco Boulevard, a conceptual proposal for Chicago by UrbanLab Architecture + Urban Design.

Figure 1.8 Water from the impervious surfaces for the National Martyr’s Memorial, designed by Mathew & Gosh in Bangalore, India, is collected in a cistern below the building and used for toilet flushing inside the building.

Figure 1.9 Triangular skylights animate the memorial space through the day at the National Martyr’s Memorial.

Figure 1.10 At Potsdamer Platz in Berlin, Germany, Atelier Dreiseitl collaborated with numerous architects to design an integrated water system that adds to the vitality and energy of the City as well as providing stormwater.

Figure 1.11 Potsdamer Platz integrates various water system designs to create a vibrant natural area in the heart of Berlin.

Figure 1.12 Designed as a welcoming gateway to the city, as well as an active hub for large cruise ships, Pier 27 Terminal is built on the impervious surface of a large San Francisco pier. Rainwater harvesting was employed as a means to provide flushing for toilets in the building designed by KMD Architects with Pfau Long Architecture.

Figure 1.13 Three aboveground rainwater collection tanks are sized to meet both the monthly demand for toilet flushing and for irrigation at Pier 27.

Figure 1.14 Concerns for water resiliency and the promotion of sustainable design practices were key drivers for the Perkins+Will Atlanta, Georgia, office renovation, which uses captured rainwater for toilet flushing in tenant spaces.

Figure 1.15 Rainwater system diagram for the renovated Atlanta offices of Perkins+Will.

Figure 1.16 Image from “Energy Demands on Water Resources.”

Figure 1.17 Extreme Weather Map showing thousands of weather records broken in the U.S. in 2012.

Figure 1.18 Site plan diagram.

Figure 1.19 Project sustainability is showcased by this exterior rainwater harvesting cistern that stores water for toilet flushing in store restrooms.

Figure 1.20 The 2001 Philip Merrill Environmental Center, designed by SmithGroup for the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, was the first Platinum LEED® building. This project demonstrates that a design that includes a number of sustainable strategies including rainwater harvesting can save energy and water resources.

Figure 2.1 Stakeholder sessions and green charrettes assure successful rainwater harvesting systems. Atelier Dreiseitl also includes participatory meetings with clients and stakeholders as shown in this project meeting for Queens Botanical Garden.

Figure 2.2 Queens Botanical Gardens design plan.

Figure 2.3 Conceptual system diagramming highlights overall water strategies for the entire site.

Figure 2.4 Children as engaged stakeholders planning waterscapes at Queens Botanical Gardens.

Figure 2.5 Diagrams that show the complete water cycle and integrated strategies through a project site can be used to educate clients and the public. Solar power is integrated with the rainwater system at the Grand Canyon Visitor Center, designed by Lake|Flato Architects.

Figure 2.6 Map of states showing number of impaired waterways.

Figure 2.7 Landscape architect Rios Clementi Hale Studios collaborated with water system designer Biohabitats to meet stormwater regulations and challenges by using rainwater as part of the design methods for irrigation at Pete V. Domenici U.S. Courthouse in Albuquerque, NM.

Figure 2.8 Diagram of the top-tier stormwater concepts in Tysons Corner for rainwater harvesting.

Figure 2.9 Tysons Corner flowchart showing stormwater concepts and the decision tree for the use of rainwater harvesting.

Figure 2.10 Design goals were set at an early stage of planning for the VanDusen Botanical Gardens in Vancouver, Canada. This project was designed by Perkins+Will to be in harmony with nature, and is currently targeting the Living Building Challenge™ and LEED®-Canada NC Platinum. Rainwater is filtered and used for the building’s water requirements and various integrated stormwater drainage systems designed to meet local and stringent best management practices for the community.

Figure 2.11 Total rainwater volume collected on the roof of the VanDusen Botanical Gardens was 143,302 gallons annually. No rainwater was collected from the green roof on this project.

Figure 2.12 Presentations to the team and to the public explain project strategies and provide an opportunity for contributions to the planning process.

Figure 2.13 Putting it all together means a seamless integration of the environment as part of a building system as seen in this plan by Lake|Flato Architects of the Government Canyon Visitor Center, in San Antonio, Texas.

Figure 2.14 The high-use, low-maintenance, and economical structures at the Government Canyon Visitor Center reinforce the mission of the client.

Figure 2.15 Integrated sustainable design strategies were incorporated into the design of the Government Canyon Visitor Center.

Figure 3.1 Water balance chart and analysis of the rainwater system for American University School of International Service designed by Quinn Evans Architects with William McDonough Partners.

Figure 3.2 Manassas Park Elementary School buildings in Virginia, designed by VMDO, use a monthly average of 570 percent less water than neighboring Cougar Elementary.

Figure 3.3 A butterfly roof offers an aesthetically pleasing and convenient catchment point for rainwater. To educate students about the environment, a sculpture at Poquoson Elementary School uses rainwater to wash a sundial during wet weather.

Figure 3.4 Rainwater waterfall at the NOAA Center for Weather & Climate Protection, College Park, Maryland, USA.

Figure 3.5 End uses of water in various types of commercial and institutional facilities.

Figure 3.6 The rainwater collection system for Fire Station Number 6 in Raleigh, North Carolina, provides water for toilet flushing.

Figure 3.7 Atlanta monthly rainfall.

Figure 3.8 Atlanta demand/supply analysis.

Figure 3.9 Rainwater collection tanks are visible from an outdoor classroom that incorporates a demonstration rain garden at Fowler Drive Elementary School.

Figure 3.10a Installation of 20,000-gallon cistern for the Metro Intermodal Transit Center in Akron, Ohio, designed by GPD Group.

Figure 3.10b Metro Intermodal Transit Center collects rainwater for use in toilet flushing for this 2000 person commuter hub.

Figure 3.11 Center for the Sciences and Innovation at Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas, designed by EYP Architecture & Engineering and RVK Architects. The reclaimed water system using condensate collection earned 6 points in the Water Efficiency category toward LEED® Gold.

Figure 3.12 Gallons condensate continuous outside airflow through the AHU, per month.

Figure 3.13 Burton Elementary and Middle School in Grand Rapids, Michigan was designed to collect rainwater to flush toilets and water closets as part of a sustainable renovation to this historic building.

Figure 4.1 Storage is celebrated and integrated into the aesthetics of the courtyard in a rainwater fountain.

Figure 4.2 Fundamental elements of an integrated rainwater harvesting system.

Figure 4.3 An integrated system provides water for toilet flushing and cooling towers at the University of Georgia Visual Arts Building.

Figure 4.4 Rooftop water is collected on a glass roof and used for irrigation and in a waterscape of creeks and ponds.

Figure 4.5 Prisma waterscape in atrium of building.

Figure 4.6 A butterfly roof in Denton, Texas, offers aesthetics and a convenient catchment point for rainwater.

Figure 4.7 Example of a green roof installed by Ann Arbor Architects Collaborative that included rainwater collection for roof irrigation in Michigan.

Figure 4.8 Urban roofs provide many opportunities for rainwater collection.

Figure 4.9 Typical design of a multilevel gravel roof. Over time, debris will accumulate on this roof. The degree to which this type of roofing material will affect water quality in the tank is determined by intensity of local rainfall and how well the roof is maintained.

Figure 4.10 Water is conveyed from a butterfly roof to storage at the Young At Art Museum.

Figure 4.11 Insulated leaders from a flat roof convey water inside the building envelope to a rainwater tank.

Figure 4.12 Interior downspout attached to conservatory structure recedes into the planting bed on its way to storage.

Figure 4.13 The gutters and downspouts used on this building repeat as part of balanced modules in the facade of Blue Ridge Electric Membership Cooperative, Young Harris, Georgia. With over 100 downspouts, they serve as a strong visual element in the facade of the building.

Figure 4.14 Exaggerated conveyance provides educational opportunities in a rain garden/rainwater harvesting system for the Fowler Drive Elementary School, Athens, Georgia.

Figure 4.15 Large capacity downspout filter with built-in overflow. This filter is installed vertically and must be accessible for ease of cleaning as water cascades over the screen.

Figure 4.16 This filter has an angled screen, which excludes debris.

Figure 4.17 Two types of Downspout Filters: Downspout filters include angle screen and vertical screen types.

Figure 4.18 Basket-type filters may be used in several locations.

Figure 4.19 Typical commercial roof with HVAC commercial rooftop units. Contaminant loads exiting commercial roofs are highly variable, depending on locale and rooftop inspection and maintenance.

Figure 4.20 Centrifugal Filter.

Figure 4.21 Cascading type filter.

Figure 4.22 Representative stormwater debris remover with potential use in Rainwater Harvesting.

Figure 4.23 Corrugated tank with access opening is attached to the top section of the tank.

Figure 4.24 Typical components of storage. Collected and pre-filtered rainwater is conveyed to storage, where it is available for distribution on demand.

Figure 4.25 Aboveground tanks at Posty Cards Manufacturing Plant in Kansas City, Missouri

Figure 4.26 Care must be taken during construction to prevent introduction of mud and debris into tank. Note that this inlet pipe is temporarily covered during construction.

Figure 4.27 Wood cladding transforms a utilitarian plastic tank into an attractive fountain feature.

Figure 4.28 Typical components of Distribution. Distribution includes components that link the pre-filtered water from storage to pressure, filtration, disinfection and to end use.

Figure 4.29a Control station closed.

Figure 4.29b Control station open.

Figure 4.30 Automated Protected Direct Bypass to end use after disinfection. This configuration directly bypasses the entire rainwater harvesting system with protected municipal water. The inherent pressure and water quality of the municipal water is fully utilized.

Figure 4.31 Make-up supply to main tank with air-gap protection. In this configuration, make-up water flows from municipal supply to main tank. Air gap provides backflow protection to municipal supply. The inherent energy (pressure) and water quality of the municipal water are lost due to the mixing with untreated rainwater in a non-pressurized tank.

Figure 4.32 Make-up supply to day/buffer tank with air-gap protection. Municipal supply provides make-up water to day/buffer tank with air-gap protection. Quality of make-up water is not compromised since day/buffer tank stores water treated suitable for end use. A booster pump is required since the inherent pressure of the municipal water is lost flowing through the air gap.

Figure 5.1 Complete rainwater harvesting system at Dockside Green in Vancouver, BC.

Figure 5.2 Atmospheric pollution and smog over Tiananmen Square during a heat wave, spring 2013, Beijing, China.

Figure 5.3 Accumulation of gravel in a commercial gutter and built-up gravel roof.

Figure 5.4 pH scale with examples of solutions with various pH values.

Figure 5.5 Contaminants building up on commercial roof.

Figure 5.6 Sediments and organic matter accumulate on the bottom of rainwater storage tanks and can become a source of contamination.

Figure 5.7 Purpose for Calming inlet.

Figure 5.8a and b A floating extractor clogged with pollen after removal from the tank (a), and then later after cleaning and removing the pollen (b).

Figure 5.9a and b An example of a cascading type filter when dirty (a) and then after cleaning (b).

Figure 5.10a Inline filtration units are chosen for desired size of filtration screen as well as flow rate.

Figure 5.10b Water flow rates and intensity of UV light are matched to achieve disinfection.

Figure 5.11 Typical make-up supply at tank with air-gap protection. Float valves are shown to illustrate a method of achieving optimum filling regime.

Figure 5.12 Reduced pressure zone principle backflow preventer.

Figure 5.13 Moorhead Environmental Center

Figure 5.14 Research on sustainability designed by Perkins+Will Architects has an extensive rainwater harvesting system.

Figure 5.15 Rainwater to stormwater system.

Figure 5.16 Rainwater to potable water system.

Figure 5.17 Reclaimed water system.

Figure 5.18 Tyson Living Learning Center uses rainwater as a source for potable water.

Figure 5.19 Tyson Living Learning Center downspouts with rain diverter.

Figure 6.1 Stan Abbott

Figure 6.2 John Apostolopoulos

Figure 6.3 Alf Brandt

Figure 6.4 Bob Drew

Figure 6.5 Nicole Holmes, PE, Leed AP

Figure 6.6 William Hunt

Figure 6.7 Lutz Johnen

Figure 6.8 Heather Kinkade

Figure 6.9 Kevin Kirsche

Figure 6.10 Billy Kniffen (at far right during a rainwater inspection at Choctaw Nation).

Figure 6.11 Dennis Lye in the Laboratory

Figure 6.12 Shawn Martin

Figure 6.13 Neal Shapiro

Figure 6.14 David Stooksbury

Figure 6.15 Dave Viola

Figure 3A.1 Screen shot of Step 1: NOAA Data Access.

Figure 3A.2 Screen shot of Step 2: NOAA Data Access.

Figure 3A.3 Screen shot of Step 3: Quick Links.

Figure 3A.4 Screen shot of Step 4: Climate Normals.

Figure 3A.5 Screen shot of Step 5: 1981–2010 Normals Data Access.

Figure 3A.6 Screen shot of Step 6: Monthly Normals from Berkeley, California.

Figure 3B.3 Ann Arbor monthly rainfall.

Figure 3B.4 Ann Arbor demand–supply analysis.

Figure 3B.5 New York City monthly rainfall.

Figure 3B.6 New York City demand–supply scenario.

Figure 3B.7 Phoenix, Arizona monthly rainfall.

Figure 3B.8 Phoenix demand–supply analysis.

Figure 3B.9 San Francisco monthly rainfall.

Figure 3B.10 San Francisco demand–supply analysis.

Figure C.1 Designed by HOK, the NOAA Center for Weahter & Climate Protection in College Park, Maryland, achieved LEED NC Gold Certification uses rainwater collected in an underground cistern for many uses.

Figure C.3 The Paul Coverdell Research Center at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, uses rainwater for toilet flushing and cooling tower makeup water.

Figure C.4 The West Virginia Regional Jail designed by AECOM uses rainwater for toilet flushing, washing, and irrigation.

Figure C.7 Center for Interactive Research on Sustainability, designed by Perkins+Will Architects, has an extensive rainwater harvesting system.

Figure C.10 Great Neck Middle School in Virginia Beach is one of several Virginia schools that collects rainwater for toilet flushing and irrigation.

Figure C.12 Rainwater harvesting equipment area in mechanical room at the College of Environment and Design at the University of Georgia, Athens.

Figure C.13 Diagram showing the estimated amount of landscape water for the Pete V. Domenici Federal Courthouse in Albuquerque, New Mexico with and without the rainwater system; demonstrating an approach to using rainwater to meet stormwater management regulations.

Figure C.15 Rainwater harvesting is an integration of place, water, and the environment as seen in the Queen’s Botanical Garden Visitor and Administration Center designed by architects BKSK of New York with Atelier Dreiseitl, who were responsible for the landscape architecture, master plan and the stormwater system.

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Total Rooftop Rainfall for Eight U.S. Cities

Table 3.2 Runoff Coefficients for Common Roof Materials

Table 3.3 Potential Water Savings in Office Buildings

Table 3.4 Modeled Water Use in Office Buildings

Table 3.5 Model Water Use by Students

Table 3.6 Atlanta Rainwater Supply Calculation

Table 3.7 Comparison of Rainfall Collection at Five Schools

Table 3.8 EPA WaterSense: Water Quality Considerations for Onsite Alternative Water Sources

Table 5.1 Concentration of Selected Contaminants That Results in a “Hazardous Waste” Classification (Values Reported in Mg/L for Use With the Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure). For a full list of contaminants visit www.usepa.gov.

Table 5.2 Drinking Water Standards (DWS) and Guidelines (DWG) from Various Agencies

Table 5.3 Maintenance Tasks and Recommended Frequency

Table 5.4 Project Goals and Targets Specifically Related to the Rainwater System

Table 5.5 Project Goals and Targets Specifically Related to the Reclaimed Water System.

Table 3B.2 Ann Arbor Rainwater supply calculation

Table 3B.3 NY Rainwater Supply Calculation

Table 3B.5 San Francisco Rainwater Supply Calculation

Table 3B.6 Cities Comparison

Table A4.1 Key Findings from Numerous Studies on the Effect of Roofing Materials on Rooftop Runoff Quality from Rainwater Harvesting—A Comprehensive Review of Literature, contains a compilation of case studies from different locales and climates available from the North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute.

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

DESIGNING RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS

Integrating Rainwater into Building Systems

Celeste Allen Novak, FAIA, LEED AP

G. Edward Van Giesen, MLA, ARCSA AP

Kathy M. DeBusk, PhD, PE

Cover Design: Michael Rutkowski

Cover Photography: Top left: Lake|Flato Architects; Top middle: Vivian Van Giesen;

Top right: KMD ARCHITECTS + PLA, a Joint Venture; Bottom: Alan Karchmer, Courtesy of HOK

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with the respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom.

For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Novak, Celeste Allen.

Designing rainwater harvesting systems: integrating rainwater into building systems / Celeste Allen Novak, FAIA, LEED AP, Eddie Van Giesen, ARCSA AP, Kathy M. DeBusk, PhD.

pages cm

Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-118-41047-9 (hardback); 978-1-118-42188-8 (ebk); 978-1-118-41786-7 (ebk)

1. Water harvesting. 2. Sustainable buildings—Design and construction. 3. Cisterns—Design and construction. 4. Sustainable architecture. I. Van Giesen, Eddie. II. DeBusk, Kathy M. III. Title.

TD418.N68 2014

628.1'42—dc23

2013038062

Preface

G. EDWARD (EDDIE) VAN GIESEN

August 2013

After receiving my Masters in Landscape Architecture from the University of Georgia in 1995, I worked as a self-employed design/build landscape and general contractor and homebuilder in Athens, Georgia. I always incorporated green building practices, and received local sustainable building awards, but I knew that I could do more.

In 2007, we were all on the edge of the deepest economic recession that any of us could remember. I had an eerie suspicion that the housing boom was resting on a foundation of loose sand. By the end of the summer, homebuilding, as I knew it, was over. The profession that I had enjoyed for ten-plus years was not there anymore. I was forty-six years old and suddenly out of business.

At the same time, along with the economic recession, Georgia and much of the Southeastern United States was in the grip of an extreme drought. Due to the State’s increasing population, the effects of this drought were significantly amplified. Either we were all going to have to find other sources of water for the region or we would be increasingly vulnerable to water scarcity.

I did a lot of soul-searching in those months. I reflected on a trip made to Northern California in 2001, and a workshop I attended on rainwater harvesting. I read a few books on the subject, but little did I know that in only six years I would embark on the greatest adventure of my life.

I discovered that rainwater harvesting could be an answer to our water woes. It was a no-brainer. Rain falls on the roof; it is collected and utilized. Simple, easy, and sensible. Shortly thereafter, I stumbled upon the American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association (ARCSA). Through ARCSA I came to know people who had experience and generously shared their knowledge. I did not need to reinvent the wheel.

I began to install systems on a small scale and eventually worked with a company in North Carolina. By 2010, that company was bought by Watts and I joined them as the public policy director. Later I became the National Sales Manager and through my travels, I have had the opportunity to see the bigger picture. There is an enormous potential yet to be realized. Two things became abundantly clear: (1) education is essential for all the parties involved in these systems, and (2) plumbing codes need to be developed so that the industry can have a foundation upon which to build.

The opportunity to educate the design community through this book resonated with me when I was approached to be a co-author. It was a chance to establish and reinforce the fundamental principles of rainwater collection, as well as illuminate the connections between water policies, codes/regulations, and new and existing technologies.

Everyone involved—architects, engineers, landscape architects, mechanical contractors, manufacturers, suppliers, policy makers, code officials, and others—needs to see the importance of their respective roles as part of the practice of wise use of rainwater. It is my sincere hope that this collaborative effort will contribute to an increase in awareness and implementation of successful rainwater harvesting systems.

KATHY DEBUSK

August 2013

It was during a canoe trip along the James River near Richmond, Virginia, that I discovered my true calling in life: stormwater management. While paddling past the heart of downtown Richmond one summer, my father and I were caught in a surprise thunderstorm. The short, yet intense, storm resulted in the discharge of urban runoff into the river just upstream of where we were floating. Not only did this water have a foul odor, but it was filled with a tremendous amount of trash and debris. Then and there, I decided that I wanted to become a part of the effort to decrease the impact of urban runoff on valuable water resources such as the James River.

It wasn’t until many years later, after a bachelor’s and master’s degree in engineering at Virginia Tech, that I was exposed to rainwater harvesting. One of my first design projects as an Extension Associate at North Carolina State University was a rainwater harvesting system for an animal shelter in Craven County. It was love at first sight. I continued to design and research rainwater harvesting systems throughout my stay at NCSU, and even made rainwater harvesting the focus of my doctoral research.

Rainwater harvesting is a unique creature, unlike any other. From a water supply perspective, it challenges our country’s largely centralized approach to water supply and use. This brings about many uncertainties and unknowns, which leads to a widespread hesitancy regarding the implementation and use of these systems. From a stormwater management perspective, rainwater harvesting systems are the only best management practices (BMPs) that serve an important supplementary goal—that of water supply. Moreover, rainwater harvesting systems contain more moving parts than any other stormwater BMP currently used. Together, these factors greatly increase the design complexity of these systems, the number of project stakeholders, and the necessary maintenance requirements, thus generating hesitancy within the stormwater industry to exploit the full potential of these systems. The result? Inconsistency, confusion, and a profound lack of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of these systems.

Consequently, it seems predestined that someone would recognize the need for a compilation of current knowledge regarding these practices to serve as an all-inclusive source for any person dealing with rainwater harvesting. Celeste and Eddie recognized that need and had the courage and passion to embrace such a daunting task. My hat goes off to them, and I thank them for including me. I couldn’t be more honored and delighted to have been part of this effort, and I sincerely hope that the result is a valuable resource for design professionals. I learned countless lessons the hard way when designing, installing, and utilizing these systems, and if my experiences can help one person avoid the same mistakes, then it was worth every sleepless night.

CELESTE ALLEN NOVAK

August 2013

Water surrounds Michigan and our State motto Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam circumspice translates to “If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look around you.” It is true; we are surrounded by three of the five Great Lakes. With at least one-quarter of the world’s freshwater supply, there are enough rivers, inland lakes, rain, and snow to fill our aquifers and water my garden. So, why am I, a native of Michigan, so concerned about water use and rainwater harvesting?

It is the storage and treatment of waste and stormwater control that drives many of the systems described in this book, not necessarily the lack of freshwater. However, as an architect and advocate for the environment, I know that a growing population largely removed from natural cycles threatens water resources across the world. The notion that we can find new ways to live within the means of the world’s environmental envelope appeals to me as a common-sense solution to a growing problem. I also know that there is a gap between policy and practice that restricts professionals from tapping into (pardon the pun) rainwater as a natural resource.

As one of my students asked after being given the simple calculations for schematic planning for rainwater harvesting: “If rainwater design is this easy, how come architects are not doing this on every project?” It’s a good question and one that will be addressed in this book on planning for rainwater harvesting in building systems. As also will be discussed, not every project in every community can include rainwater harvesting. Some solutions will require new policy and code changes, some will require new types of community or neighborhood water collection and treatment. Most solutions will require the construction and maintenance of a self-sufficient decentralized water system for part of a building water supply. In some countries, rainwater collection is a strategy that can provide water as part of a disaster assistance program. In the future, it may be possible to design schools, stores, and community centers to collect, store, and treat water in order to provide a resilient water resource in times of drought. It is my belief that future buildings will be designed to collect rainwater and designers will create a new hydrologic system that restores water as it flows through the environment.

Acknowledgments

The authors draw from strong backgrounds on the subject. Celeste Allen Novak, AIA, is an architect, writer, and adjunct professor at Lawrence Technological University who specializes in sustainable design. G. Edward Van Giesen, MLA, National Sales Manager at BRAE/WATTS Water Technologies, has extensive experience in the design and implementation of rainwater systems. He has been instrumental in developing new rainwater codes and standards nationwide. Dr. Kathy DeBusk, PhD, PE, and Assistant Professor of Environmental Science at Longwood University in Farmville, Virginia, has just completed a thorough examination of rainwater quality and treatment, providing one of the first published international overviews of this global resource in communities. Contributing authors include Viviane Van Giesen, Graphic Designer, who along with Dr. Jim Novak, PhD, has offered countless hours of editing, design, and support. Fred Smotherman, BLA, has drawn from his perspective and knowledge of the construction of rainwater systems to provide information on components and maintenance. Many thanks to Cedric, Ian, and Isabella Van Giesen for their patience and hours of work transcribing interviews.

Finally, special contributions by Dr. Diana Glawe, PhD, PE, LEED AP, Associate Professor at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas, provided the most recent information on the use of condensate; and Nicole Holmes, PE, LEED AP, provided an excerpt describing the factors involved in cistern sizing. In addition, a special thanks to researchers Azubeke Ononye, a graduate student from Lawrence Technological University, and Jacquie McDermott-Kelty, currently at the University of Michigan. Others who were significant in the development of this book include the following: Robert Goo, Office of Water, USEPA, who provided contacts for this book; Dolly Patel and Preeta John, both young architects who provided information and contacts from India. To these and to all of the architects and professionals who provided images, interviews, case study data, and constructive criticism, the authors give thanks.

Chapter 1The Importance of Rainwater Harvesting

Rain water harvesting and conservation aims at optimum utilization of the natural resource that is Rain Water, which is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle and hence is a primary source of water for us. The Rivers, Lakes, and Ground Water are the secondary sources of water. In present times, in absence of Rain Water harvesting and conservation, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds to these secondary sources. The value of this important primary source of water must not be lost. Rain water harvesting and conservation means to understand the value of rain and to make optimum use of Rain Water at the place where it falls.

—India: Rain Water Harvesting and Conservation Manual1

Figure 1.1 Queens Botanical Garden Visitor and Administration Center is an example of integrated rainwater harvesting system design.

WATER CAPITAL

Water is the only commodity on Earth for which there is no economic substitute. Seventy-five percent of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, yet only 2.5 percent of it is suitable for human consumption. Of that 2.5 percent, most is locked in polar ice caps or hidden beyond the reach of commercial technologies.2 All life forms on the planet depend on water to survive. Simply stated, water is the basis for all life on Earth.

The more technologically advanced humans become, the more water is consumed on a per capita basis. Electricity use within a typical home requires 250 gallons (almost 1,000 L) of water per day per person; the manufacturing processes of computer chips, televisions, and cell phones require water, and the production of a half-gallon (roughly 2L) bottle of soda can take over 1.3 gallons (5 L) of pure water.3 Even the production of food requires tremendous amounts of water, as producing 1 pound (0.5 kg) of chicken and 1 pound (0.5 kg) of beef requires over 1,600 gallons (6,000 L) of water!4 Historically, an abundance of water, as well as water scarcity, has affected both the growth and decline of every civilization. History teaches that finite water resources need to be managed with the utmost care.

Figure 1.2 EARTH A Graphic Look at the state of the world5

(Source: Igor A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999. Image courtesy of UNEP.)

As profound as our dependence on water is, there is an equally profound lack of knowledge concerning where water comes from and how it is best and most efficiently used as a public and private resource. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the following statistics underscore the challenges faced by architects, engineers, and public policy makers as they face looming freshwater shortages:

The average American directly uses 80 to 100 gallons of water each day, but supporting the average American lifestyle requires over 1,400 gallons of water each day.

Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater: worldwide, about 70 percent of all withdrawals go to irrigated agriculture.

Only 1 percent of the world’s freshwater is accessible to humans.

Forty percent of America’s rivers and 46 percent of its lakes are too polluted to support fishing, swimming, or aquatic life.

Power plants in the United States use 136 billion gallons of water per day, more than three times the water used for residential, commercial, and all other industrial purposes.

In addition, scientists and researchers are describing a “peak water” crisis for water use throughout the world. As a response to these issues, professionals are developing new strategies to conserve and effectively use water resources.

Peak Water

The planet is getting thirstier as a growing worldwide population is using fresh water resources. Dr. Peter Gleick, president of the Pacific Institute, has coined “peak water” as a description for the world’s water crisis. This concept describes the lack of sustainably managed water throughout the world, just as “peak oil” refers to the lack of oil reserves globally. According to Dr. Gleick, there are three major definitions for peak water. These are:

Peak Renewable Water:

The limit reached when humans extract the entire renewable flow of a river or stream for use.

Peak Non-Renewable Water:

Groundwater aquifers that are pumped out faster than nature recharges them—exactly like the concept of “peak oil.” Over time, groundwater becomes depleted, more expensive to tap, or effectively exhausted.

Peak Ecological Water:

The point where any additional human uses cause more harm (economic, ecological, or social) than benefit. For many watersheds around the world, we are reaching, or exceeding, the point of “peak ecological water.”

The design challenge is to reverse the direction of peak water so that it is not a linear loss of water, but a regenerating system that allows humans to participate in the continuation of the hydrologic system.

One response to the water supply challenges is the re-creation of one of the world’s oldest water supply systems: rainwater collection. Rainwater collection, or rainwater harvesting, involves the capture of water from roofs and/or impervious/pervious surfaces. The roofs of buildings, schools, offices, large data distribution centers, and agricultural buildings can serve as the contributing drainage area for a given system. Once captured within the rainwater harvesting system, the quality of the runoff water may be improved via physical and biological processes including filtration, disinfection, and other treatment strategies. New approaches in plumbing design are using site-collected rainwater/stormwater to provide all or part of a building’s and its site-related water needs. This results in a reduction of stormwater runoff volumes leaving a site, while at the same time providing a new source of water to reduce the burden on potable water supplies.

Figure 1.3 At the Queens Botanical Garden, rainwater is a valuable resource.

(James Wasley/Atelier Dreiseitl)

Water conservation and stormwater management are two of the most effective sustainable design practices available to architects and engineers. Rainwater collection conforms to the goals and objectives of low-impact development, which aims to mimic the predevelopment site hydrology by using site design techniques that store, infiltrate, evaporate, and detain runoff.8 Reducing the runoff from storm events via rainwater harvesting strategies provides benefits to property owners, including lower municipal fees and larger developable site area, and contributes to the big-picture goal of reducing the impact of urbanization on receiving water bodies.

Rainwater collection is becoming one of the many tools used by sustainable design professionals. Sustainable building rating methods and performance guidelines are influencing the development of rainwater harvesting systems. Projects throughout the world are demonstrating that rainwater collection systems can solve some of our water-related problems. Rainwater systems are meeting the challenges of water conservation while demonstrating the effectiveness of alternative nontraditional water supplies. There are numerous benefits to this approach for the conservation of the world’s most valuable natural resource.

Low Impact Development

Until the 1960s, the philosophy of stormwater management was to dispose of the water as quickly as possible from urban areas to the nearest receiving water.9 Extensive underground piping networks were used to convey runoff from parking lots, roadways, and buildings and discharge it into the closest stream or river. As the negative impacts of discharging stormwater runoff and wastewater into surface waters became apparent, the focus shifted to encompass water quality concerns as well, initiating what is now considered traditional stormwater management.10 The major components of a traditional stormwater system are concrete curbs and gutters, drop inlets (catch basins), underground pipe networks, and detention/retention basins. The majority of modern developments, both residential and commercial, utilize curb and gutters to convey stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces (such as parking lots and roadways) to drop inlets, which are connected to extensive networks of underground pipes that carry the water to large detention or retention basins.

The use of retention and detention basins addresses some water quality and quantity concerns; however, there are detriments associated with their implementation. While retention ponds can reduce peak flows to some extent, recent research has shown that the outflow is often released at rates exceeding that, which can be absorbed by receiving streams, resulting in erosion of the streambed and banks.11 Furthermore, basins are designed to release outflow longer than the duration of the storm event, thereby causing a prolonged state of erosion within the stream.12 Detention and retention basins can also increase the temperature of captured stormwater due to exposure to sunlight and the shallow pool depth. The introduction of this warm water to cold-water streams can be detrimental to biota, especially trout.

The optimal approach to minimizing hydrologic impacts from an urbanizing watershed (as opposed to traditional stormwater management) is through the implementation of low-impact development (LID) principles and practices during the planning and construction phases of development. The overall goal of LID is to “mimic the predevelopment site hydrology by using site design techniques that store, infiltrate, evaporate, and detain runoff.13” Unlike the traditional stormwater management paradigm, the LID approach encompasses all aspects of watershed hydrology, including runoff peak flows and volume as well as the temporal and spatial distribution of runoff events.14

(Diagram Courtesy of Perkins+Will)

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CENTRALIZED WATER SYSTEMS

Most conventional water sources include groundwater from shallow or deep wells, rivers, and lakes (natural and manmade). Humans depend on these sources and their replenishment via the hydrologic cycle. Through the input of energy from the Sun, water moves from the Earth’s surface to clouds and back to the Earth’s surface again. Water is in constant motion in the hydrologic cycle.

Populations have always grown where there is adequate water. In addition to gathering water from surface sources and wells, the use of cisterns has been documented in many cultures. As far back as 3000 BC, stone structures for capturing rainwater have been found in India.15 Large cisterns and canals carved in rock for transporting roof-collected rainwater are found in Petra, Italy, dating from roman times.16 Aqueducts constructed by the Romans were also early efforts at providing centralized water systems to concentrated populations. Other examples are found worldwide, including irrigation strategies for agriculture.

Over the centuries, small and large communities have faced continual successes and failures in securing adequate sources of clean freshwater for daily activities. Problems in securing these sources include:

Overuse, as populations and uses increase;

Contaminants from human waste as well as commercial/industrial/agricultural activities.

The effect of poor sanitation, lack of control over purification systems, and major health crises of waterborne diseases in the 19th century, particularly in urban environments, led to the current centralized water systems. Along with the need to provide water for the increased demand associated with the industrial boom, population growth demanded even more water for human needs.

Figure 1.5 Tang Dynasty leader Li Jing (571–649 AD) praised this cistern as being a “Smart Spring.” It was “full of water when drought came and it was dry when the flood came.”17

(Celeste Allen Novak, Architect)

In the early 1900s, the development of successful chlorination methods for disinfection of water led to further expansion of controlled water supply in the United States.18 Centralized systems in use today throughout the developed world provide a standard level of safe, treated drinking water through a continuous loop that extracts water from lakes, rivers, and aquifers and then treats and distributes the water to the end users.

As described in a recent publication on climate change, “Urban water systems have evolved into large highly engineered systems in which water is imported from surrounding catchments and aquifers, distributed through extensive pipeline networks and used just once. Most of the used water is then collected in large sewerage systems, treated to remove contaminants and nutrients and discharged back to rivers and oceans.”19

Once in place, that water infrastructure is largely taken for granted by the public and policy makers alike. Over the decades, the focus has been primarily on expanding the infrastructure to accommodate growth at the expense of maintaining the aging original infrastructure. According to the EPA, the aging water infrastructure is one of the United States’ top water priorities.20 The impacts of delayed maintenance, budget cuts, and disinvestment in aging infrastructure have become a 21st century political, economic, and social crisis.

The original water infrastructure in many urban centers (in the United States and worldwide) is more than 100 years old. Lisa Jackson, former EPA administrator, highlights the current state of deterioration of this infrastructure. In “Water Infrastructure” (October 2010), she writes: “An issue we face is deferred maintenance in our [water] infrastructure, which in too many communities is over-worked and under-budgeted. Our system is deeply stressed, our financial and our natural resources are limited and our needs are not negotiable.”21 This report defines one of our current national problems: We are facing costly upgrades and repairs to an aging water infrastructure that includes drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities.

(Eddie Van Giesen)

In the last 100 years, with the exponential increase of manmade impervious surfaces, the hydrologic cycle has been interrupted and impacted by industrialization, mechanization, and population growth. The result is an alarming increase in stormwater discharge velocities and volumes, causing a paradoxical shortage of freshwater resources. This shortage is caused not by a reduction of the amount of water, but rather contamination and pollution of the available water due to floods, erosion, and sewage overflows.

Some alarming statistics in the EPA report include an estimated 240,000 water main breaks per year and up to 75,000 sanitary sewer overflows per year in the United States, resulting in the discharge of 3 to 10 billion gallons of untreated wastewater into our waterways.22 Each leak wastes water and increases the costs associated with treatment and distribution. Sanitary sewer overflows discharge polluted water downstream, causing environmental damage. At the same time, pollution compromises downstream community water supplies.

Nevertheless, new regulations and policies that promote centralized water distribution are still being encouraged to the exclusion of all other decentralized approaches in many parts of the world. One of the barometers of the economic health of a country is the degree to which centralized drinking water and sewer systems are present. Countries that lack functioning centralized water distribution systems continue to look to the developed world as a source for inspiration and technical knowledge. Inadvertently, the developed world is leading their technological disciples toward their own water shortages. However, some countries, like India, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand, are rethinking their policies toward centralized water systems and developing new approaches to water use and reuse.

New Approach to Centralization—Decentralized Rainwater Systems

U.S. cities with hundred-year-old utilities are beginning to address the creation of new municipal water systems. For example, the City of Chicago has slated over $1.4 billion in investment into fixing the leaks in aging water mains and eroding sewer systems. Chicago’s improvements include the replacement of 900 miles (1,450 km) of century-old water pipes, repairing 750 miles (1,200 km) of sewer lines, reconstructing 160,000 catchbasins, and modernizing Chicago’s water filtration plants. The upgrades could save an estimated 170 billion gallons (645 million m3) of water by 2020, or close to all the water that Chicago households consume in two years, according to Chicago’s Mayor Rahm Emanuel.23

A recent vision for a new Chicago water system was provided by UrbanLab, the winner of the City of the Future Competition in 2011. UrbanLab described a city that could become a “holistic living system that would multiply and intensify Chicago’s ‘Emerald Necklace’ of parks, boulevards and waterways; and saving, recycling and ‘growing’ 100 percent of its own water.”24 Water infrastructure (drinking and waste) is being viewed as part of a living system.

Eco-Boulevard by Martin Felsen, AIA

Chicago, Illinois

Chicagoans discard over 1 billion gallons of Great Lakes water per day. This “wastewater” never replenishes one of the world’s most vital resources. As a remedy, this project re-conceives the Chicago street-grid as a holistic Bio-System that captures, cleans, and returns wastewater and storm-water to the Lakes via “Eco-Boulevards.”

The Eco-Boulevard transforms existing roadways, sidewalks, and parks (the “public-way”), which comprise more than a third of the land in a city such as Chicago, into a holistic, distributed, passive bio-system for recycling Chicago’s water. Treated water is returned to the Great Lakes, closing Chicago’s water loop.

Eco-Boulevards are ecological treatment systems that make use of natural bioremediation processes to remove contaminants from storm-water and wastewater sources. In the proposal, two types of bio-systems are at work: Type A and Type B. Type A is a hydroponic bio-machine that uses aquatic and wetland ecological processes to treat wastewater naturally. These processes are carried out in reactor tanks in enclosed greenhouses. Type B is a wetland bio-system that uses constructed wetlands and prairie landscapes that use low energy processes to biologically filter storm-water naturally.

Re-designing Chicago’s non-sustainable water infrastructure will have a profound impact because the Great Lakes are a global resource holding 21% of the world’s, and 84% of North America’s, fresh surface water. Water availability is becoming a key global issue as water scarcity/pollution and climate change bear down on the planet. Even in the comparatively water-rich Great Lakes region, global warming could ultimately create urban flooding, frequent droughts and a scramble for water. Implementing blue/green infrastructure that safeguards ecosystem health and drives sustainable development is imperative. This is especially the case for cities adjacent to the Great Lakes because the Great Lakes Region is a $2 trillion/year economic juggernaut.

Figure 1.7 Eco Boulevard, a conceptual proposal for Chicago by UrbanLab Architecture + Urban Design.

(UrbanLab Architecture + Urban Design)

The Eco-Boulevard concept re-conceptualizes current roadway designs on a case-by-case basis (over time) to create a preferred breed of performance-based infrastructural landscapes. Integration and connectivity between ecological and social systems is the key breakthrough toward the cultivation of a healthy ecosystem.

A modern decentralized water infrastructure can include site-collected rainwater, graywater, stormwater, and blackwater systems. These alternative water sources may never totally replace centralized systems. They do help manage and store water and treat it to various levels of quality for use in buildings and the sites upon which they stand. By designing the site and building as a complete system for water storage and use, designers can conserve water resources, save energy, and reduce the cost to community treatment facilities.

New technologies and a better understanding of these “new water sources” allow the designer to use these natural resources as part of the integrated design of commercial buildings. India, Malaysia, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Bermuda, and many countries in the Caribbean are and have been harvesting rainwater for both potable and nonpotable water sources. The following projects in India, Germany, and the United States are just a few of the case studies that will be explored as examples of successful rainwater collection systems throughout the world.

EXAMPLES FROM AROUND THE WORLD

India

The following example is a project that exemplifies the use of rainwater in a public memorial both inside and outside the building by the Indian firm of Mathew & Gosh Architects.

(Mathew & Gosh Architects)

National Martyr’s Memorial

Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Designed by Mathew & Gosh Architects, this project was conceived as a place to remember those who gave their lives for the country since India’s independence in 1947. The client was the Bangalore Development Authority and the building is located at the site of the Rashtriya Sainika Smaraka in Bangalore.

Located on an arterial road of the city, the site gains visual prominence amidst busy thoroughfares. In addition to isolating the site from the noise and pollution, the dense vegetation becomes the foundation for the design of the National Martyr’s Memorial. The Memorial is conceived as a place of quiet remembrance and homage.

Figure 1.9 Triangular skylights animate the memorial space through the day at the National Martyr’s Memorial.

(Mathew & Gosh Architects)

The ceremonial path of commemoration begins at a series of plaques with the physical marking of 21,763 martyrs’ names. Water from the roof of this underground space flows through the site and is collected in a cistern below the building to be used for toilet flushing.

Intended to retain an important green space within the city, the built form of the motivational hall was designed to disappear into the ground. The structure below ground meanders between the roots of the trees to preserve a large part of the vegetation. Of the 324 trees at the site, only 4 eucalyptus trees were removed to accommodate the structure while 40 trees were newly planted.

The entrance to the motivation hall through a large open court is the first of five courts that serve to provide ventilation and daylight into the underground structure. In addition to the open courts, triangular skylights animate the space through the day.

This project is designed to be a “light touch on the ground” within the trees. The concept by the architect is to create a memorial that remembers the untimely loss of precious life and absence of these heroes. The design is to simulate a “lovingly mount of earth patted in a cemetery.”

Germany

The work of Atelier Dreiseitl is known worldwide and has influenced numerous architects to rethink the use of water in urban environments. Prominent landscape designers have included parks, fountains, and elegant stormwater designs as part of architectural site design. Similarly, many collaborations have included urban designs that used water primarily for stormwater management. By using water resources as part of a system that included aesthetics, human interactions, and the naturalization of the urban environment, Atelier Dreiseitl paved the way for a new approach to rainwater collection and management.

A biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals. Biotope is almost synonymous with the term habitat, which is more commonly used in English-speaking countries. However, in some countries these two terms are distinguished: the subject of a habitat is a species or a population; the subject of a biotope is a biological community.25

Potsdamer Platz, in Berlin, Germany, was one of the first integrated urban rainwater systems using water as art and public engagement. It created a cleansing, manmade biotope and used stormwater from the buildings and site for toilet flushing. Since this project, this firm has designed water systems worldwide. Their latest is a project in Indonesia that will take all roof rainwater and turn it into a potable water source for an entire community.

(Atelier Dreiseitl)

Potsdamer Platz

Berlin, Germany

The redevelopment of Potsdamer Platz provided an opportunity for designers to utilize numerous sustainable water management strategies to add to the vitality of the city. A three-acre lake helps create a place that brings nature into the heart of central Berlin.

Rainwater falling on 11 acres of surrounding rooftops makes its way into huge underground cisterns. Thirty-seven percent of the contributing rooftop area employs green roofs, which provide a first line of filtration for runoff entering the rainwater harvesting systems. The cisterns function in two ways:

Providing irrigation and toilet flushing water to an adjacent high-rise (50 percent of the toilet flushing water). Technical filters are used as needed to treat water to appropriate levels.

Providing makeup water for the lake (the stormwater retention area).

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