Destination Time Travel E-Book

Steve Nallon

• Herausgeber: Luath Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Seitenzahl: 524

Beschreibung

Where are we going?  The future, Doc!  Great Scott!  Not forgetting the wibbly-wobbly, timey-wimey past.  That's right, ticket holders, Destination Time Travel is your journey into the many worlds of the time travel tale – exploring its tropes, its rules, its devices, its science, its values, its plots, its characters and, most importantly, its enduring – and timeless – appeal. Alongside their upcoming film seminar at the British Film Institution in October, join Steve Nallon and Dick Fiddy as they explore the world's obsession with time travel in film and television. From the classics of Doctor Who and Back To The Future to the Netflix hit Dark, Nallon and Fiddy explore just what it is about time travel that makes us tick.  This book will be a guaranteed hit with fans of time travel and the different film and television series that Nallon and Fiddy explore. It will also be key to film buffs and those interested in the medium. 

Leseprobe

STEVE NALLON is a writer, voice artist, actor and occasional academic and lecturer. Steve’s acting and voice artist work ranges from theatre, film and television, to video games, puppetry and audio books. As a playwright and comedy writer, Steve has a considerable body of credits to his name, including plays and series for BBC radio, three one-man theatre shows, plus the satirical book I, Margaret, which he co-wrote with the novelist Tom Holt. The Time That Never Was, the first in Steve’s Time Adventure book series THE SWIDGERS, was published by Luath Press in 2022. For most of the 1990s Steve was a Visiting Lecturer at the University of Birmingham, where his specialist areas of study were story theory, comedy and Greek theatre, and he continues to teach and offer workshops on a freelance basis. Over the years, Steve has contributed to numerous periodicals such as The New Statesman and Musical Stages, and is a much sought after speaker on the lecture circuit for his insightful and amusing talks.

@SteveNallon

DICK FIDDY has researched into, and written extensively about, archive television for many years. He is the author of Missing Believed Wiped: Searching for the Lost Heritage of British Television and is the coordinator of the British Film Institute’s Missing Believed Wiped initiative, which seeks to uncover items absent from the official TV archives. Dick is employed at the BFI as their Archive Television Programmer.

@DickFiddy

First published 2023

ISBN: 978-1-80425-130-0

Typeset in 10.5pt Sabon by Lapiz

The authors’ right to be identified as author of this book under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Acts 1988 has been asserted.

© Steve Nallon & Dick Fiddy 2023

To all fans of the time travel story world, past, present and future.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Recommended Reading

Introduction

CHAPTER 5  It’s Story Time!

CHAPTER 7  Who Tells the Time Tale?

CHAPTER 8  Who Knows What, When and Why?

CHAPTER 10 The Time Machines

CHAPTER 12 Portals, Passageways, Gateways and Vortexes

CHAPTER 14 Potions, Magic, Genii, Artefacts and Other Tickets for the Time Terminal

CHAPTER 11 Time Windows and Time Threads

CHAPTER 15 Time Beings, Time Villains and Time Guardians

CHAPTER 13 Time Loops and Causal Loops in Time Tales

CHAPTER 4  The Paradoxes of Time and Time Travel

CHAPTER 6  The Stories and Plots of Time Tales

CHAPTER 9  The Dramatic Devices of the Time Tale

CHAPTER 3  The Rules of Time and Time Codes

CHAPTER 17 Dreams, Foretellings and Memory

CHAPTER 18 Ageing, Immortals and Ghosts

CHAPTER 16 Utopias/Dystopias, Counterfactuals, Time Sleep and Time Stopped

CHAPTER 19 Time Tales and Genre Crossovers

CHAPTER 1  The Science of Time

CHAPTER 2  The Philosophy of Time

CHAPTER 20 The Appeal of The Time Tale

Steven Moffat Interview

Acknowledgements

GRATEFUL THANKS TO Karen Baldwin, Matthew Barnbrook, Jack Bowman, Steve Bridle, Ed Clarke, Martin Coxhead, Barry Gurney, Ryan McGivern, Moray Laing, Mark Mander, Brian Sled-zico, Paul Smith, Sam Supple and Adam Trembath for their suggestions and encouragement. Thanks too to Victor Surí for his translation of the lines from Aura, Julie Scattergood for her forensic proofreading of the manuscript, Kira Dowie for her detailed edit and excellent suggestions, and to Justin Johnson and Marcus Prince at the British Film Institute for their input and support. Special thanks to writer Steven Moffat for sharing with us his thoughts on writing the time travel tale.

Back cover photo credit: Richard Pickard at the British Film Institute. With thanks to the BFI for allowing us into the projection room of NFT1.

Recommended Reading

TIME MACHINE TALES: The Science Fiction Adventure and Philosophical Puzzles of Time Travel by Paul J. Nahin (published by Springer 2017) is a remarkable and very accessible book covering in detail both the practical science of time travel (Nahin is an emeritus professor of electrical engineering) and the many paradoxical and philosophical questions it raises. James Gleick’s Time Travel: A History (published by 4th Estate in 2016) is a fascinating and insightful look at the concept of time and time travel across history. Paradoxes of Time Travel by Ryan Wasseram (published by Oxford University Press) is an intriguing and in depth mathematical analysis of the near innumerable paradoxes that time travel throws up, accompanied by useful and easily understood graphic illustrations. Colin M. Barron’s Travels in Time: The Story of Time Travel Cinema (published by Extremis Publishing 2019) offers a comprehensive and meticulous journey through movie history and its fascination with the time travel story. Elizabeth Howell’s The Science of Time Travel: The Science Behind Time Machines, Time Loops, Alternate Realities and More! covers literature, television and the movies, and many chapters offer a thoughtful analysis of the psychological and emotional aspects of the story being told. The Scientific Secrets of Doctor Who by Simon Guerrier and Dr Marek Kukula (published in 2015 by BBC Books, part of the Penguin Random House group of companies) looks at the real and theoretical science behind the concepts explored in Doctor Who. We would like to gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to the scholarship and research of all these authors whose books have been invaluable help in the preparation of our own examination of the Time Tale.

Introduction

THIS IS A book about time travel which you can, like a time traveller, approach in whatever order you see fit. Leap straight into those chapters which sound the most fun and then go back in the future to the ones with big words. Skip some altogether as time travellers might skip those historical events that hold no interest to them, such as general elections in Belgium, the War of Jenkin’s Ear or the invention of the shoe umbrella. But to help with your choices, here’s a brief summary (now predetermined in a ‘fixed’ universe because this book has now been printed) as to what to expect…

Our opening chapter, if that is where you really wish to begin, is called It’s Story Time! and it asks why we even bother to tell stories about time travel and how writers go about crafting their tales. To illustrate all this we’ve chosen two contrasting Time Tales: Bob Gale and Robert Zemeckis’ Back to the Future and Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol. Who Tells the Time Tale? asks who is the storyteller and how should the tale be told and the following chapter, Who Knows What, When and Why? considers the importance of story information in building a Time Tale. The next chapter, The Time Machines, looks at the technology, science and design of some well known and a few lesser known mechanisms of temporal transport. Portals, Passageways, Gateways and Vortexes considers what you might call ‘Time Doorways’ to the past, future or alternate timeline universes. Potions, Magic, Genii, Artefacts and Other Tickets for the Time Terminal explores the many and various clever ways you can time travel, especially if you know a friendly wizard or two. Time Windows and Time Threads examines the need sometimes in a Time Tale to connect one time world with another. After all that it’s time to celebrate some of the main players in a Time Tale in Time Beings, Time Villains and Time Guardians. The next two chapters, Time Loops and Causal Loops in Time Tales and The Paradoxes of Time and Time Travel, reflect on the many tricky conceits of time travel that often require you to have a corkscrew mind that can think backwards. The Stories and Plots of the Time Tale looks at reoccurring scenarios such as endangered futures, being stranded in the wrong time and encountering multiverses. The Dramatic Devices of the Time Tale considers some of the tricks of the trade, so to speak, and The Rules of Time and Time Codes examines the various rules and strictures that are required, depending on the type of Time Tale. Dreams, Foretellings, Prophecy and Memory does what it says on the tin in that it reflects on dreams, foretellings, prophecy and memory. Ageing, Immortals and Ghosts looks at those who are immune to the ravages of time (or strive to be) and reflects on that vexing question: Are ghosts time travellers? Utopias/Dystopias, Counterfactuals, Social Commentary, Time Sleep, and Time Stopped takes a side-step into certain aspects of Time Tales which aren’t strictly speaking about time travel but do involve a fundamental alteration of time or our understanding of it. Time Tales and Genre Crossovers asks whether there is such a thing as the time travel genre and examines the way the time travel plot has now found its way into the rom-com, horror movies and even westerns. The aim of The Science of Time and The Philosophy of Time is to explore in layman’s terms some of the scientific principles underlying the possibility of time travel and the philosophical ideas around time itself. We, however, are not scientists or philosophers and in these chapters we are greatly indebted to Paul J. Nahin’s indispensable book Time Machine Tales: The Science Fiction Adventure and Philosophical Puzzles of Time Travel and James Gleick’s remarkable history of the thinking around the very idea of time in his book Time Travel. We conclude with The Appeal of the Time Tale which reflects on the enduring popularity of time travel stories.

In Destination Time Travel our purpose is not to reveal, as it were, the man behind the curtain, but rather to enhance the appreciation of the magic of the time travel tale by offering an insight into the storytelling craft and the decisions which go with it. The book is aimed primarily at the children of the streaming era who prefer to find their stories on multiple platforms. Although reference is made to the works of classic SF authors such as Philip K. Dick and Robert Silverberg and, of course, the great H.G. Wells, the majority of examples in Destination Time Travel come from movies and television shows.

In putting this book together we have done our best to credit as many writers as possible, as no story can be written without them. We acknowledge that there are quite a few ‘spoilers’, but, wherever possible, we have tried to avoid giving too much away as to the actual endings. That said, we have assumed anyone interested in time travel stories has seen Back to The Future (many times) and probably Dark and Looper as well. We hope in our plot summaries we have offered just enough of the story to encourage readers and viewers to seek out those Time Tales with which they are unfamiliar.

The idea for the book came as I (Steve Nallon) was putting together THE SWIDGERS, my own time adventure book series. I found it curious just how many options there were in creating a time travel story world, plus, of course, the various narrative choices concerning how the tale could be told. Many decisions would have to be made before starting to plan or write. And those option choices became the inspiration for this book. Our examples are far from exhaustive but we hope they will be enough to prompt readers to recognise some of the same story principles and tropes in their own favourite Time Tales.

The history and analysis that follows is by no means complete, nor is it meant to be an assessment of the merit of one Time Tale over another, though inevitably some observations are made on what works well and what does not. The aim is simply to offer a flavour of the many creative and dramatic choices available to the writer, plus the many scientific and philosophical ideas that can be explored when telling the tales of time.

It’s Story Time!

We all have our time machines, don’t we.

Those that take us back are memories…

And those that carry us forward, are dreams.

H.G. Wells

STORIES ARE AN essential part of our human survival kit. When we’re very young, our need for story is like an unquenchable thirst and that’s because it’s stories that help us to understand ourselves and the world around us.

Story is the playground of the mind where we can imagine a place beyond the one we live in, but it’s also in a way an emotional gym, for it’s in the world of story that we can explore and develop feelings and passions. And related to this is the idea that story offers a safe environment for human beings to examine and reflect on emotional conflicts and complex moral dilemmas.

One of the key reasons then why human beings tell stories is that they give us the ability, as it were, to ‘walk in another’s shoes’ and so see how people who aren’t like us perceive the world. And for that we don’t just need imagination, we need empathy (from em-pathos, meaning ‘in feeling’), that is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Story then encompasses the entire spectrum of human experience, from the cerebral and the intellectual to the psychological and the emotional. But let’s now examine some specific purposes of story in more detail and see how they play out within the framework of a Time Tale.

In his series of lectures on the novel, E.M. Forster defined a story as ‘a narrative of events in their time-sequence.’ Forster then went on to say that ‘The king died and then the queen died’ could be said to be a story, but that ‘The king died, and then the queen died of grief’ was/is a plot. His point was that the phrase ‘and then’ added what he called a ‘sense of causality’. The time-sequence was still there but ‘and then’ added reason and consequence, for when you say ‘The king died, and then the queen died of grief’ you are constructing a connecting relationship between one event and another. Causality and learning how life events connect could then be said to be another key reason why human beings tell stories.

And the point here is that causality is often the most crucial element of a time travel story. In fact, no other genre or type of story draws attention to the nature of causality more than a Time Tale. Why? Because a Time Tale often by its nature has knowledge of the future and so has already seen how events of the past have played out. There are many Time Tales that depend on the concept of consequence and causality for their plotting to work. Think here of TV series and movies such as Travelers (2016–18), Dark (2017–20), Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) and Groundhog Day (1993). Some here might want to add 12 Monkeys, except that in 12 Monkeys (1995) the main character assumes a causality which turns out to be incorrect. No problem with that because going right back to the philosopher David Hume, there have been those whose thinking has always been suspicious of making too many assumptions about the nature of causality and consequence. The point is that there is no right or wrong answer. Some have the philosophy of life that everything connects and has purpose, others that the universe is random, amoral and meaningless. And the Time Tale you tell is likely to reflect which end of that philosophical axis you stand.

It should be said that the power of story doesn’t end on the last page or the final reel. After we have read a book or seen a movie we may think about it, mull it over, consider it, question it – and in so doing the tale it has told stays with us and becomes part of how we think. In other words, we assimilate its meaning in such a way that story becomes part of how we perceive the world and feel about life. Just follow the debates on any fan website, or go to any science fiction convention and listen to the legion of enthusiasts of such series as Doctor Who or Star Trek discuss and argue the meanings, purposes and intentions of the episodes they love.

Another reason we like reading or watching stories is that they allow us to escape into another world – and don’t mock escapism if you’ve never lived a life where you needed to escape. People have difficult domestic situations and so a book or movie with a captivating tale to tell offers a few hours in another world, where the reader or cinemagoer can forget the cruelty of their own. And it’s often such people who become the storytellers of the future, who, psychologically, develop a need to share their vision of the world. So what might we say about the philosophy and psychology of the teller of Time Tales? Well, many time travel stories offer would-be fixers and dreamers the opportunity to change the past by altering timepaths – and usually this is done in the hope of making the world a happier place. Foolish to generalise, of course, but might ‘optimistic idealists’ be a fair summary of the thinking of many time travel writers? Perhaps. Yet Time Tale writers often assume a dystopian world worse even than our own, so maybe ‘realistic idealists’ might be a better tag. And here we’d offer Ray Bradbury’s 1984 short story The Toynbee Convector as the archetypal time travel story. Why? Because the time traveller is revealed to be a liar, there’s no such thing as time travel and there never will be, but the idea of time travel as it is presented in the story is to ‘weave dreams’. As the fraudulent time traveller says, ‘What seems a lie is a ramshackle need, wishing to be born.’ And perhaps no one has ever summed up the nature of the time travel tale better than that.

If the psychological purpose behind the concept of plot can be summed up as change through conflict, then one of the reasons stories exist could be said to be to recognise the personal developments that that dramatic conflict brings about. In other words, story becomes, at least in part, a way of understanding the importance of change in our lives. Transition. Maturation. Evolution. And witnessing and reading stories about what we might call ‘becomings’ in others can prepare us for potential transitions in our own lives. And this is where certain types of Time Tales have something unique to offer, for not only can the time era change for the time traveller, so can the physical body they find themselves in. Just ask Dr Sam Beckett.

Stories offer us as well moral codes by which to live. In simple terms, stories act as morality tales, guiding us to understand what is right and what is wrong. Morals need a habitat and stories are a perfect home. The Bible is full of such tales, as is One Thousand and One Nights, Mahabbarata, and the works of Homer. But of course morality depends on the ideology of a particular society. Some stories affirm moral codes and conventions, others question them or even undermine them in an attempt to have them altered. Here again, the Time Tale offers something no other genre can because alternate histories, utopias and dystopias, and befores and afters – that can often exist within the same story – give you the opportunity to compare and contrast.

But in all this talk about the writer’s psychology, moral codes and transformational becomings, let’s not forget the more vibrant and colourful end of the story spectrum – and that’s the idea of what we might call the ‘Story Funfair’. Here is where story’s primary purpose is to divert, entertain, make us laugh, arouse sensations and even sometimes, with horror and ghost tales, scare us to death! And it’s interesting that so many writers of different genres have recently embraced the Time Tale and developed its appeal way beyond science fiction. Think here of the comedy Palm Springs or the slasher horror movie Triangle. Both time loop tales, but so, so different in intention and purpose.

*****

So those are some of the purposes of story, but when writers make up a tale, what ‘building blocks’ do they use to construct it? Well, one way of exploring that question is to ask: What are the main elements of a story that you couldn’t do without if it is to be a story? In reply you might say a protagonist and an antagonist; a sudden change in the status of things; an event from the past which still haunts the main character; a puzzle or question that needs answering; a goal or quest of some sort; an action or strategy to alter the way things are or have become, plus maybe a problem within the main character that needs to be rectified before that final goal can be reached and achieved. All of these will probably lead to conflicts of various types, a crisis, a battle or confrontation and ultimately a climax and resolution. And we might add three aspects of story that are not strictly speaking building blocks of plot but which are integral to story construction and they are the setting, the theme and the image system.

But of course no storyteller treats any of these elements of story as if they are some sort of blueprint that must be strictly adhered to, for it’s the variations, deviations and exceptions that make a tale truly original, engaging and entertaining. Yet these fundamental story building blocks are essential in understanding how a tale works, so let’s now consider each in turn, plus other important story elements that can often be added to enhance a tale. And as we go along, we’ll look at two classic but contrasting Time Tales: Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol and Bob Gale and Robert Zemeckis’ Back to the Future. And as we go through our story building blocks, let’s ask how the writers of each took these principles and made from them unique and perfect Time Tales.

Protagonist and Antagonist – the writer John le Carré once said that ‘The cat sat on the mat’ is not the beginning of a story, but ‘The cat sat on the dog’s mat’ is. What he was perhaps hinting at was that as soon as the dog comes along and sees his mat occupied by the cat, there’s bound to be trouble. Most stories then have a central character (the protagonist) who is trying to do something and another character (the antagonist) whose aim is to stop them doing it – and it’s usually that conflict which is the main dynamic of the tale. There are other terms it is possible to use in this context, including ‘hero’ and ‘villain’ (or sometimes ‘nemesis’ or ‘shadow’), but strictly speaking the instigator of the plan is technically the protagonist and that character is not always the same as the ‘hero’. It’s also worth noting that protagonist and antagonist are gender neutral terms and so often preferred in contemporary story theory.

So how does the plot of Back to the Future fit in with the protagonist–antagonist dynamic? We would say that Marty and Doc Brown are essentially joint protagonists for the simple reason that they share the action and the tasks. Biff could be said to be the main antagonist for Marty, whereas it is the circumstances and the environment, what some story theorists such as Robert McKee call ‘forces of antagonism’, that primarily work against the Doc. Psychologically you might call Marty the ‘hero’ of the story, because that’s who we, the audience, are rooting for. However, without the plan and task action of the Doc, Marty would never get back to 1985, which is the key action drive of the story.

What about protagonist–antagonist dynamic in A Christmas Carol? The main character is clearly Scrooge, but he isn’t the one who comes up with the plan, and the ones who do – the Spirits – are on his side. So where’s that protagonist–antagonist conflict? Scrooge is initially reluctant to go along with the plan or indeed go with the phantoms, but this unwillingness soon changes. Hmm. Little quarrel or argument there. No, most of the conflict in A Christmas Carol is internal in the sense that it’s Scrooge’s belief that he is unable to change that is the main struggle of the tale. Inner struggle then can make you your own antagonist.

Back-Story – this is what has happened before the story began but which is still relevant to what is going on right now. The back-story is also sometimes called ‘The Ghost’, because what happened in the past is still ‘haunting’ people in the present. Often there is a literal scar, as with Henry in Audrey Niffenegger’s The Time Traveler’s Wife. And Time Tales are unique in the respect that back-story, unlike in any other genre, can be visited and witnessed first-hand, as is the case with Henry and Scrooge. And in some cases the back-story can even be changed.

Back to the Future has a plot where Marty’s family back-story is altered in such a way that puts his very existence in jeopardy and so Marty has to put right what he himself put wrong in order to keep himself and his family in 1985 alive. What we have here is back-story being used to create a literal existential crisis. Other Time Tales have done the same, but arguably none better than Bob Gale and Robert Zemeckis with Marty McFly.

In A Christmas Carol, the Ghost of Christmas Past takes Scrooge back to his back-story and this is possible because we have entered the world of the supernatural. And the creation of such a happening in an era when time travel tales were almost unknown shows us Dickens’ remarkable powers of imagination and inventiveness.

The Day of Change – when something occurs that creates an imbalance in the life of a character. The day of change is often referred to by writers as the ‘catalyst event’ because it’s what upsets the apple cart and the status quo but isn’t necessarily integral or directly connected with the action that follows. The crucial point is that the day of change is not enough on its own, it must incite a need to alter things or return them to what they were.

There are various elements to the day of change in Back to the Future, all of which are integral to the plot. There is the discovery that the flux capacitor works and time travel is possible, but that is then immediately followed by the arrival of the Libyans and their attack, which results in the shooting of Doc Brown. However, the key event which alters everything dramatically for Marty, is him accidentally travelling back in time to 5 November 1955. Of course Marty could just stay in the past and live out his days there, as many time travellers do when they by chance find themselves in their past. But on the same day as he arrives, there is another accident, a collision, which alters his own family history in such a manner that it puts his future life at risk – and if the time track he has lived up until now disappears, so will he.

Back to the Future then has multiple imbalances and alterations in the status quo, all of which need to be fixed in some way. It’s worth mentioning here that one of the golden rules of storytelling is that a coincidence or an accident can be the catalyst event which starts off a chain of events, but it’s never a coincidence or accident that should bring those events to an end. In good storytelling that is always down to the protagonists alone.

The day of change in A Christmas Carol is simply the arrival of Marley. Marley first manifests himself in the knocker, but his appearance is foreshadowed in the opening line. Marley is essentially the herald of the tale and as such has three main functions. The first is to tell us what will happen – three Spirits will visit Scrooge. Second, Marley acts as a call-to-action to Scrooge to change his ways and to this end shows Scrooge what would happen if he does not. Third, Marley offers the reader an early glimpse into the unknown supernatural world into which they are about to journey.

The Trigger for Action – an incident in the tale that incites the desire in a character to change things or correct something that has gone wrong. And that’s why this event is often referred to by writers as the ‘inciting incident’. It is the action that follows this trigger that drives the story forward, where action can be defined as the purposeful intent of the character to achieve their goal. That’s why the ‘action’ of any tale is always a verb such as to win, to find, to make, to sell, to escape, to discover…

The title Back to the Future isn’t a verb as such but one of the key actions of the tale is to get back to the future. But crucially that isn’t the only action of the tale, for Marty’s parents must kiss for the first time at the dance, which will eventually lead to Marty being born. And making this happen is Marty’s main purposeful intent or action. But the time travelling DeLorean is Doc Brown’s problem and so his action is to work out how to utilise the energy from the electrical strike on the clock tower and get it into the DeLorean. Essentially there are two separate actions and that’s why Marty and the Doc should really be seen as joint protagonists. But there’s a subplot action too and that’s to somehow save the Doc’s life in 1985 when he is shot and apparently killed by the Libyan terrorists.

The Puzzle – in any story, especially a mystery, there is usually a secret to be uncovered or revealed. The mystery element of a tale raises curiosity and this is important because one of the reasons why people keep on reading a story is that they want to know what happens next. As Lee Child has said, ‘You ask or imply a question at the beginning of the book and you absolutely self-consciously withhold the answer. It does feel cheap and meretricious but it absolutely works.’

However, neither Back to the Future nor A Christmas Carol are mystery stories as such. There is a puzzle of sorts in Back to the Future – where to get 1.21 gigawatts of power – but that is soon solved by the knowledge that in a few days’ time there is to be a lightning strike on the clock tower. There is the question in A Christmas Carol as to who the dead man is in Stave Four, but the reader surely knows it is Ebenezer Scrooge himself, even if he doesn’t. Scrooge is ‘in denial’, is how perhaps a psychiatrist might put it. But there are of course many well-plotted Time Tales that are mysteries, notably the Spanish murder whodunit Mirage (Durante la tormenta 2018) and indeed most of the Doctor Who plots.

The Inner Flaw or Problem – what is lacking or missing in a character that requires putting right in order to make that character a more complete and better person. The Greek word for this, which Aristotle uses in his Poetics, is hamartia. It’s a term incidentally which in Greek times was used in archery and meant ‘just missing’. The story guru John Truby usefully divides the idea of the flaw or problem into psychological need – those aspects of a character’s nature that are lacking within her or him, for example, a need to be more self-confident – and moral need – how a character must learn to act differently towards others, for example, be kinder or less bossy. And often in a story what a character learns about themselves and why they must change becomes part of how they ultimately achieve their goal.

Scrooge’s problem in A Christmas Carol is pretty obvious: he’s cut himself off from the world like an oyster in its shell (‘It’s enough for a man to understand his own business, and not to interfere with other people’s’). Scrooge’s moral need is that he must reconnect with that world and the people in it. His psychological need is that he must believe that it is possible for him to change.

But where’s the character defect in Marty McFly? Well, there’s the don’t-call-me-chicken issue and Marty’s weakness in succumbing to dare challenges, but that does not come up until the sequels. You could say then that in the first of the series Marty doesn’t have a character issue that needs fixing. However, there is someone who does, for the problem-need in Back to the Future belongs to his father George, who needs to become more self-confident. And it’s Marty’s task action to make sure that happens.

Motivation and Desire – there is always a reason behind a character’s actions and this usually comes from a want or desire in that character. However, what someone wants at the start of a tale isn’t always the same as what they want by the end – and this is because the story journey can alter how a character sees themselves and the world.

There is plenty of motivation in Back to the Future, but as it’s primarily an action movie, what you might call ‘the desire line’ doesn’t change that much. A Christmas Carol is very different, for it begins with little motivation on Scrooge’s part – quite the opposite in fact because he really doesn’t want to be bothered by the Spirits – but his story ends with a passionate desire for life and a new beginning.

The Character Arc – this is what writers call the internal change that occurs in the character as the story progresses. An arc in geometry is a curve between two points, and storytellers use the term ‘character arc’ because as the character moves through a story there is a transition between what they were like at the beginning point and what they are like by the end point. The ‘arc’ can be many shapes – smooth and gradual or rapid and acute – depending on the story you’re telling.

The character arc in A Christmas Carol is arguably one of the biggest and most spiritual in literature. And it’s this arc of redemption that is key to the story’s enduring appeal. But why is this so? Well, perhaps we all need to believe in the possibility that we can change for the better and, of course, the concept of redemption runs through Judaeo-Christian philosophy and much of Western thought and culture.

The character arc in Back to the Future is nowhere near as big as that in A Christmas Carol, and, as said, it doesn’t belong to the protagonist but rather to young George, Marty’s father. He is the one who grows in confidence across the story and it’s George who ultimately saves Lorraine from Biff. But it’s a character arc that is long-lasting, for what is achieved in 1955 alters what George becomes by 1985.

The Task and the Strategy – in a story the main character is sometimes given a task to complete or they have to come up with some sort of action plan in order to achieve their goal. Either way, the character needs to find the right strategy and tactics to attain what they want.

The tasks and strategies in Back to the Future are very clear and practical. Marty has to create a situation where George has the confidence to ask Lorraine to the dance and then kiss her on the dance floor, which will lead to their romance and marriage. At the same time, Doc Brown has the challenge of finding a way to transfer the power of the lightning strike into the car.

In A Christmas Carol, Marley is the one who tells Scrooge that he must change his ways and, to help bring this about, he informs Scrooge that he will be visited by three Spirits. Later, the Ghost of Christmas Past is more specific about his task when he says that his aim is Scrooge’s welfare and ‘reclamation’. And to help make this happen the Ghost of Christmas Past shows Scrooge his past, including his lonely school days and the happy time he had working for Mister Fezziwig. The strategy then in A Christmas Carol is also clear, but it’s in the hands of the three Spirits. If this is so, what is Scrooge’s own action task?

Scrooge is what you might call a passive character in that he does not initiate the actual plan. However, that doesn’t mean that Scrooge hasn’t got things going on inside him. The key to Scrooge’s internal action can be found all through the tale, but particularly in the scene at his nephew’s Christmas party where Dickens writes,

When this strain of music sounded, all the things that Ghost had shown him, came upon his mind; he softened more and more; and thought that if he could have listened to it often, years ago, he might have cultivated the kindnesses of life for his own happiness with his own hands, without resorting to the sexton’s spade that buried Jacob Marley.

Scrooge is made to think and to feel (both verbs) and so it’s thought and feeling brought together that become Scrooge’s action. You might here make a comparison with Phil in Ground-hog Day. Ultimately Scrooge’s task action is to change and it’s these acts of contemplation as he observes each scene that accumulatively leads to his reclamation or redemption.

Helping Hands and Opposing Forces – usually in a story there are numerous forces and obstacles which work against the main character and their plan. Apart from the antagonist (sometimes called villain), these opposing forces can include the weather, objects that go wrong and gateways or thresholds that the character can’t get past. But usually as well there are allies, helpers and gifts that can assist the protagonist on their way.

Doc Brown in Back to the Future is more than a helping hand as one of the key actions is his and his alone. But Doc Brown does have opposing forces to the action. In fact, the sequence on the clock tower, as Doc Brown tries to make a connecting circuit direct to the DeLorean, is a masterpiece of the action/counteraction dynamic. So many things go wrong and Doc Brown has to be incredibly inventive in how he puts them right.

As said, in A Christmas Carol, the central ‘action plan’ is in the hands of Marley and the Phantoms, and so technically this makes them collectively the protagonists, with Scrooge the one resisting their offer of help (compare here perhaps the angel Clarence and George Bailey in the movie It’s a Wonderful Life). However, as A Christmas Carol is essentially a redemption story, the central conflict and toil is mainly within Scrooge himself. And in a way it’s this aspect of the tale which makes it still so relevant to today, as we live with our own internal struggles to do the best we can in this world.

Time Limit – often a story will have a deadline to be met which means that the main character must complete the task within a fixed period of time. This increases the jeopardy and the story stakes. In storytelling this is usually referred to as ‘The Clock’.

On this point, Back to the Future has one of the best ‘clocks’ in movie history. And a literal one at that! 10.04 pm is when the lightning strikes and everything has to be in place at precisely that moment. So iconic did this exact moment become that it is referenced in the movie Mirage (2018) which also has a tower struck by lightning when the clock was at 10.04.

But what of A Christmas Carol? There doesn’t seem to be a ‘clock’ at all, and in some ways the opposite. In this magical tale, time in its most literal sense collapses, for the hours that Scrooge is away with the Spirits is not one long night measurable by a clock. For a start, the Fezziwig Christmas Eve party takes up an entire evening in itself and on top of that Dickens makes it clear that Scrooge’s visitation by the Ghost of Christmas Present lasts the whole Christmas season of 12 days. His time with the Spirits cannot be measured simply by the turning of a dial, but that’s exactly how Scrooge does think of time – as something that should and can only be quantified by the ticking of time-pieces and the clanging of bells. Yet Fred, Scrooge’s nephew, offers Scrooge a different perspective. He sees Christmas Time ‘as a good time: a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time: the only time I know of, in the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one consent to open their shut-up hearts freely.’ And that’s the whole point of A Christmas Carol – Scrooge must learn to see time not as something measurable but as something to be part of. And by the end of the story, Scrooge understands that to be a complete human being, he must live in the past, the present and the future. What his journey in time teaches him is that to live in the past is to be alive to memory, to live in the present is to know your fellow Man, and to live in the future is to be open to hope. So when Scrooge says, ‘The Spirits of all Three shall strive within me’ what he is really expressing is the importance of connecting with all aspects of ourselves, plus, as Fred puts it, our ‘fellow-passengers to the grave.’ Achieve this and ‘time’ will be always be measured by love and not by the turning of dials of a clock on the wall.

The Unexpected Outcome – this is when a character thinks something will go one way but instead it goes another and sometimes even in a diametrically opposed direction. The Greek word for this kind of change to the opposite, which Aristotle uses in his Poetics, is peripeteia. The general point here is that stories aren’t just built on ‘What happens next?’ but also ‘What could happen next!’ – for it’s those unpredictable or unforeseen happenings and surprises that keep people turning the pages.

Back to the Future uses the plot device of the unexpected outcome to its opposite in the scene where Marty saves his father from an on-coming car but in this process not only prevents his father from meeting his mother but ends up being hit by the car himself, taken into the house and looked after by his mother who then begins to fall for him. And it’s this bizarre and extreme change in the family history which Marty must then reverse. A Christmas Carol has its own unexpected outcome to the opposite – a sudden and dramatic change from Life to Death – in the crisis moment when Scrooge seeks to discover the identity of the dead man in the cemetery, only to be shown the name on the grave and realise that it is himself. But, as said, surely by then Scrooge must know deep down that the man who lay abandoned under that sheet and now lies beneath that ‘unkept grave’ is one ‘Ebenezer Scrooge’?

From Ignorance to Knowledge – the moment of realisation when a character discovers, for example, that someone they thought they knew well is not what they seemed or said they were. The Master in Doctor Who, for example, has had several incarnations where The Doctor only discovered his/her true identity after already knowing them as someone else. The Greek word for this, which Aristotle again uses in his Poetics, is anagnorisis. It’s worth saying here that in story terms the idea of ignorance to knowledge doesn’t just involve people, for it can apply to objects and places too. And that includes another time world.

Sometimes one of the frustrations of a Time Tale is how long the accidental time traveller takes to realise they are now in a completely different time era. In Back to the Future Marty McFly does take a while to realise he’s no longer in 1985 but rather 1955. It’s the date on the newspaper Marty finds in the trash which finally swings it. But let’s cut the writers some slack here, for in a Time Tale, movie or otherwise, creatives need to properly establish the new time world, and as this is usually done through the point of view of the time traveller, that character needs to keep up their bewilderment for as long as possible. And what this means is that expositional necessity sometimes triumphs over character credibility. To borrow an old movie expression, it sometimes takes a while to realise that ‘we ain’t in Kansas anymore’.

The key ignorance-to-knowledge moment is much clearer and more crucial to character development in the plot of A Christmas Carol. And it’s that the true identity of the man Scrooge saw earlier laid out dead is in fact himself and it’s he who now lies under the gravestone that reads ‘Ebenezer Scrooge’. It is this knowledge or recognition which leads to Scrooge’s existential crisis.

The Hour of Despair – this is the lowest point that the character faces in the story. The rock bottom, you might say. This part of a story is sometimes referred to by writers as the ‘nadir’ (the word nadir comes from the Arabic naḍhīr meaning ‘opposite’— the opposite, that is, of the ‘zenith’, the highest point of the celestial sphere). The nadir is the moment in the tale where the character is at maximum remove from their goal. A plot can have several low spots, but the one where all seems lost and unwinnable is the most important. Writers also use the term ‘crisis point’ for this part of the tale – and importantly it nearly always comes just before the climax.

In both A Christmas Carol and Back to the Future the hour of despair is an existential crisis where Marty and Ebenezer are confronted by their own non-existence. With Marty it’s literally a fading hand that is disappearing right in front of him to the tune of Earth Angel (Will You Be Mine) and for Scrooge it’s the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come indicating Scrooge’s own grave. And, as said, it’s here in the graveyard that Scrooge comes to realise that he was the abandoned body he saw earlier, wanted only by rats gnawing at the door. Oddly enough, the scene with the laid-out corpse is rarely included in movie versions, which as a result means Scrooge never sees his own corpse. Perhaps the grave is enough, but the abandoned dead body scene offers a powerful moment in the lead-up to the cemetery. This is what Dickens writes as Scrooge stares at the body under the sheet,

Scrooge glanced towards the Phantom. Its steady hand was pointed to the head. The cover was so carelessly adjusted that the slightest raising of it, the motion of a finger upon Scrooge’s part, would have disclosed the face. He thought of it, felt how easy it would be to do, and longed to do it; but had no more power to withdraw the veil than to dismiss the spectre at his side.

The Impossible Choice – nothing in a story is ever easy for a character. Often a drama is based on a situation where there is a difficult dilemma that must be faced and a choice made. Scrooge is seen in his back-story choosing the security of money over his love for Belle, yet, though it’s a decision he comes bitterly to regret, it’s a choice he makes freely without too much of a struggle. George perhaps knows that standing up to Biff could make his life worse, so there’s an internal conflict there, but frankly neither A Christmas Carol nor Back to the Future are stories where the impossible choice is central. This is a good excuse to briefly mention Yesterday’s Enterprise (1990), a greatly admired episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, written by Trent Christopher Ganina and Eric A. Stillwell. The Enterprise encounters a ‘temporal rift’ in space and from it emerges the USS Enterprise-C from its past, 22 years ago to be precise, and as soon as this happens the present-day Enterprise changes its timeline. Only Guinan, played by Whoopi Goldberg, notices this and Data theorises that this might be because her species (she’s an El-Aurian) has a perception that goes beyond linear time. Anyway, in the alternate timeline the Enterprise is at war, but sending the Enterprise-C back where it came from would mean it would face destruction. It’s one of those classic ‘for the greater good’ dilemmas where the certain death of a few might (or indeed might not) save the lives of thousands, if not millions. It’s a well-regarded episode not only because of the finely balanced choices it presents but also because of the way it explores, in the case of Lieutenant Natasha Yar, the idea of an ‘empty death’ as opposed to one with purpose. Impossible choice digression over.

The Confrontation or Battle – this is the final encounter between the protagonist and the antagonist. The outcome of this meeting decides how the story action will end.

From this point of view Marty’s father George McFly is in charge of his own destiny, for it is George, without any direct intervention from Marty, who belts Biff in the face and knocks him out. Likewise George reclaims with some force his dance with Lorraine when some oik briefly takes her from him. As for the clock tower scene, Doc’s battle is primarily with the elements, which, at the very last moment, he overcomes and so achieves his task of getting the power of the lightning strike to the time travelling DeLorean. As said, there isn’t really a protagonist–antagonist relationship in A Christmas Carol, but Scrooge’s final confrontation with the Ghost of Christmas Future is crucial in how Scrooge changes. As Ebenezer says, pleadingly, ‘Men’s courses will foreshadow certain ends, to which, if persevered in, they must lead. But if the courses be departed from, the ends will change. Say it is thus with what you show me.’

The Reversal of Fortune – the change of fortune in story can be slow and gradual but more often it goes from the worst situation to the best situation in a matter of moments and this is simply because that sort of dynamic is exciting to read or watch. This is certainly the case in A Christmas Carol, where Scrooge believes he is dead but suddenly finds himself very much alive and in his own bed. Likewise, Marty goes from fading into near nothingness to being a dazzling rock’n’roll virtuoso. Yet how that reversal of fortune is achieved shouldn’t be too obvious. The key to all story endings, according to screenwriter William Goldman, ‘is to give the audience what it wants, but not in the way it expects.’

The Climax – this is when the protagonist reaches their goal. It may or may not be that they achieve or complete the task, but whatever happens, the important point of the climax is that there is no turning back and things can never be the same again. The climax is often described as the apex/top/pinnacle/zenith of your tale.

The climax in A Christmas Carol is a reversal of fortune, for Scrooge is no longer a corpse in a forgotten grave but a man alive and bursting with energy. In Back to the Future there are two actions and therefore there are two climaxes. The first is when George kisses Lorraine on the dance floor and so changes the future and the second is when the power of the lightning enters the car and as a result Marty is successfully returned to 1985.

The Rebirth – this is when the protagonist changes inside and becomes different in some way and grows as a person. This often relates back to the inner flaw or what was missing or lacking in the character at the beginning of the tale but has now been fixed as a result of what has happened in the story. And often here there is what appears to be a physical rebirth of some kind. In A Christmas Carol, Scrooge becomes a changed man from what he was, and furthermore, on waking up, he’s born anew – ‘I don’t know how long I’ve been among the Spirits. I don’t know anything. I’m quite a baby. Never mind. I don’t care. I’d rather be a baby. Hallo! Whoop! Hallo here!’ There’s no real internal change within Marty, there rarely is in an action hero, but he does have a symbolic rebirth when he goes from fading and fainting on the college stage to becoming immediately revitalised to the extent that he gives a performance that might even have been the spark that created rock’n’roll. And that is one heck of a rebirth.

The Resolution – this is the final element of a story or narrative in which the strands of the plot are drawn together, loose ends are reconnected, and matters that need to be explained are cleared up. The resolution could be said to be the aftermath or breathing space following the climax, and in theatre plays this part of the story is traditionally called the dénouement (from the French word dénouer meaning ‘unknot’). It’s that part of the tale that gives you a sense of what may come next for the characters and the world they live in. If the opening of a story starts with ‘Once upon a time…’, then it’s the resolution that says ‘And they all lived happily ever after.’

Scrooge, Dickens tells us in the final Stave, ‘had no further intercourse with Spirits, in that respect, but lived upon the Total Abstinence Principle, ever afterwards; and it was always said of him, that he knew how to keep Christmas well, if any man alive possessed the knowledge.’

Back to the Future has a more complex resolution in that after the return to 1985 it is revealed that Doc Brown’s death by shooting at the hands of the Libyan terrorists has been reversed as a result of the Doc taking note of the letter Marty gave the Doc in 1955. This subplot involves another rebirth in that Doc is seen apparently lying dead on the ground but then his eyes open and he sits up. We also see in the resolution the change in the dynamics of Marty’s family in 1985 that Marty’s intervention in 1955 has now brought about. George and Lorraine are happier and more successful, and the bullying Biff didn’t crash the car but is now in fact waxing it. There is also the beginning of what seems to be a new story involving Marty and Jennifer’s children.

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Every analogy or comparison breaks down eventually but, we might say, if what we’ve looked at so far are the building blocks of story, then setting, the image system and theme could be said to be the cement which helps bind the ‘story bricks’ together into a coherent whole.

Setting – this is the world of your story and includes not only the physical space and that world’s moral and political culture, but also the time period or era. World building is the phrase that writers use for creating an environment and world laws that are believable and credible, even if it is a fantasy, a dystopia or has a supernatural setting. A key issue for time travel stories is how time travel rules operate in that universe. Is the time traveller able to interact with those in the past or future? Can there be dual existence? Is time travel one way? Is the past changeable? All these questions must be thought through and decided upon before the writer can begin.

Back to the Future brilliantly creates two time settings, the one contemporaneous to the film’s creation, 1985, and a stylised version of 1955, but the key to their construction is to show how they contrast in terms not only of their physical spaces, but also the cultural, political and moral values of their respective eras. Think here of Mayor Goldie Wilson, rock’n’roll music, President Ronald Reagan and Lorraine’s attitude to sex. The film’s Oscar nominated script was written by Bob Gale and the film’s director Robert Zemeckis, two men born in the early 1950s, who logically set the film in a nostalgic version of the era they grew up in, as well as present-day 1985. And in his new world of 1955 Marty can not only interact with those he finds there but do so in such a way that alters the past and his family history.

In A Christmas Carol there are very different time rules for the Spirits impose a key stricture which is adhered to and that is that Scrooge cannot interact with the worlds in which he finds himself, he can only observe. Yet this is a supernatural story and so the locations in these worlds can change and be replaced by another in an instant. One location in Dickens’ era stood out to readers above all others and that was the home of the Cratchitts on Christmas Day, for the description of their Christmas dinner is said to have set a blueprint for all urban families in Victorian England and to a degree that pattern can still be seen in homes today. In contrast, the Christmas Eve celebration of the Fezziwigs was Dickens’ way of recreating the 18th century rural tradition of having a village party in one of the barns of the lord of the manor. Ultimately, of course, it’s the mental juxtaposition of the merry Christmas dinner scene with the Cratchitt’s home in mourning in a Christmas of the future which packs the big emotional punch. Scrooge sees that the world of joy and laughter has now become a world of sorrow and black ribbons.

Image System – essentially a strategy of symbols and images, physical or metaphorical, that are used to explore themes, create aesthetic emotional responses and increase intellectual awareness. The term itself originates with Robert McKee but other story gurus have come up with other expressions. For example, John Truby calls it the symbol web and Caroline Spurgeon’s 1935 pioneering study on the use of images in William Shakespeare’s plays, Shakespeare’s Imagery and What it Tells Us, is worth a particular mention here. An image system can incorporate physical objects, but equally it can include the use of language and names. Another term that is often used in this area is motif, where the motif is a recurring element within the story, the ultimate aim and purpose of the storyteller being to create a certain atmosphere or to convey, sometimes subliminally, a particular thematic idea or even moral. Another expression is mise-en-scène, which literally means ‘what is put into the scene’. Although the term is used mainly in film criticism, its principles can also apply to narrative descriptions of place and setting in a novel.

The idea that the world, and the life one lives in it, can be a prison is a repeating metaphor in the work of Dickens. John Dickens, Charles Dickens’ father, spent several months in 1824 in the Marshalsea Debtors Prison and during part of this time Charles, then aged only 12, was sent to work in a shoe-blacking factory. The literal imprisonment of his father combined with Charles’ own sense of entrapment in the factory left huge psychological scars that never truly healed and the prison metaphor is a reoccurring image throughout his writing. In A Christmas Carol Scrooge lives an isolated and lonely existence and the language and metaphors of the story constantly reiterate the sense of enclosed entrapment. According to the narrator, Scrooge is as ‘solitary as an oyster’ and even Scrooge’s final resting place is a kind of prison – ‘it was a worthy place. Walled in by houses; overrun by grass and weeds, the growth of vegetation’s death, not life; choked up with too much burying.’ But the most famous image of entrapment in A Christmas Carol is the chains of Jacob Marley – ‘Oh! captive, bound, and double-ironed!’ But Dickens’ imagery often works in counter-point and antithesis, and the descriptions of entrapment are alternated and balanced by images of freedom, especially in the description of the appearance and clothes of the Ghost of Christmas Present. Words and phrases such as ‘loose’, ‘free’, ‘disdaining to be warded or concealed’, ‘ample folds’, ‘open hand’, ‘unconstrained’ are all the very opposite of confinement. What these prison/freedom motifs do is set a tone that helps in our understanding and feeling for the characters. They’re subtle and not always that obvious, but perhaps all the better and more powerful for it.

In time travel stories an obvious motif would be a clock or watch. In Back to the Future,