Distribution System Planning E-Book

Marie-Cecile Alvarez-Herault

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 649

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Distribution systems drive energy and societal transition. System planning enables investments to be made in the right place, at the right time and with the right technology. Distribution System Planning is centered on the evolution of planning methods that will best support this transition, and describes the historical context and concepts that enable planning, its challenges and key influencing factors to be grasped. It also analyzes the impact of the development of renewable and decentralized energy resources, government recommendations and distributor initiatives to promote their integration. Through the use of case studies, this book provides examples of how planning methodologies have evolved, as well as an overview of new and emerging solutions.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright Page

Foreword

List of Notations

List of Acronyms

Introduction

Chapter 1. Power Systems

1.1. Electricity: an essential and complex product

1.2. History of industrial power systems

1.3. Technical description of the power system

1.4. Distribution systems

1.5. Opening of the energy markets: appearance of new players

1.6. Roles of consumers and producers

1.7. Conclusion

1.8. References

Chapter 2. Principles of Power Distribution System Planning

2.1. Methods of power distribution system planning

2.2. Typical architectures of non-distributed neutral distribution

2.3. Typical architectures of distributed neutral systems (North American system)

2.4. Other architectures encountered in the world

2.5. Conclusion

2.6. References

Chapter 3. Integration of Distributed Energy Resources in Distribution System Planning

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Impact of distributed energy resources on the planning methods of distribution power systems

3.3. Phase 1: traditional “fit and forget” planning

3.4. Phase 2: planning with DERs

3.5. Conclusion

3.6. References

Chapter 4. Planning Case Studies

4.1. Introduction

4.2. State of the art of distribution systems with DERs

4.3. Dense urban interconnected systems

4.4. Rural interconnected systems

4.5. Off-grid systems

4.6. Conclusion

4.7. References

Chapter 5. Mathematical Tools for Planning

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Inputting data for the planning problem

5.3. Planning: a multi-objective optimization problem under constraints

5.4. Algorithms for optimizing the planning of distribution systems

5.5. Conclusion

5.6. References

Chapter 6. Mathematical Tools for Planning: Application to Case Studies

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Master-slave decomposition method with a feedback loop and use of metaheuristics: case study no. 1

6.3. Greedy decomposition method

6.4. Linear programming

6.5. Nonlinear programming

6.6. Integration of uncertainties

6.7. Conclusion

6.8. References

Chapter 7. New Trends and Challenges

7.1. Introduction

7.2. New architectures and new products

7.3. Integrated planning tools

7.4. New economic actors and new business models

7.5. Conclusion

7.6. References

Conclusion

Index

Other titles from ISTE in Energy

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Distribution System Planning

Evolution of Methodologies and Digital Tools for Energy Transition

Marie-Cécile Alvarez-HéraultVictor GouinTrinidad Chardin-SeguiAlain MalotJonathan CoignardBertrand RaisonJérôme Coulet

First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road

111 River Street

London SW19 4EU

Hoboken, NJ 07030

UK

USA

www.iste.co.uk

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2023The rights of Marie-Cécile Alvarez-Hérault, Victor Gouin, Trinidad Chardin-Segui, Alain Malot, Jonathan Coignard, Bertrand Raison and Jérôme Coulet to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022946208

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-791-0

Foreword

The energy transition is now a reality in France, Europe and the rest of the world. It responds to environmental protection objectives that require the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the preservation of natural resources, to the willingness of countries to secure their own supplies, and the aspirations of their citizens choosing to take control of their “energy destiny”, which are notably oriented toward solutions that favor shorter circuits, with production located as close as possible to consumers. International agreements, in particular the Kyoto agreement of 1997, then the Paris Agreement following the COP 21 in 2015, as well as the decisions of the European Union, such as the Green Deal, specify the objectives and measures to be taken. All of these lead to profound changes in the energy landscape and major developments in electricity systems. Renewable energies (RE), mainly wind and photovoltaic, are developing rapidly. The same is true of low-carbon usage solutions, such as electric vehicles and heat pumps. Decentralized storage systems are emerging. Local logics are developing with self- consumption or energy communities. In addition, support for the hydrogen industry is opening up complementary perspectives.

The integration of renewable energies and the charging requirements of electric vehicles compel network operators to develop new solutions. Renewable energy plants have different characteristics than the generation plants used previously: they are decentralized and their production is intermittent. Moreover, charging electric vehicles differs from other consumption, as it does not always take place in the same place and potentially requires high power. As most of the renewable energy plants (more than 90% in France) and, of course, all the charging stations for electric vehicles are connected to the distribution networks, the management of these networks must be radically transformed.

More intelligent, more dynamic and more flexible management of distribution systems is needed. In particular, we need to forecast production and consumption, develop observability and congestion detection capabilities, be able to quickly adjust power produced, consumed or network schemes, and evolve voltage control devices, automation and protection systems.

As part of their public service mission, electricity distribution networks have a fundamental role to play in facilitating the achievement of objectives set for the energy transition, in the best possible conditions of economy, security and quality of supply. They will be able to play this role to the full, provided innovative solutions are designed, industrialized and deployed. The deployment of smart meters, digital transformation and advances in artificial intelligence open up major prospects for improvement that will be used in the service of these ambitions.

The challenges are great, because we must not forget that the electrical system is generally considered to be the most complex system ever built by man: it is vast, comprising millions of kilometers of lines and cables with ramifications that go from local to international, a superposition of several voltage levels, numerous possibilities of reconfiguration, and a complex supervision and protection system. It is an essential infrastructure, essential for the functioning of our modern societies, whose integrity must be guaranteed in all circumstances.

Distribution network planning is a key step in their management. The stakes are high: a recent study conducted amongst European associations of distribution network operators estimates that the investment requirements for the networks of European Union countries and the UK amount to approximately 400 billion euros over the period 2020–2030. Effective planning is therefore essential for optimal allocation of the considerable resources that need to be mobilized.

The paradigm shift implied by the energy transition requires the renewal of distribution network planning methods. Indeed, traditional models have reached their limits and must be adapted to take into account a growing number of uncertainties, integrate flexibility levers and in particular decentralized storage means, take advantage of the large volumes of collected data or simulate the contribution of increased and distributed intelligence. Moreover, specific models must be imagined with the emergence of the microgrid concept, the creation of energy communities and the development of multi-energy networks. We must also consider the possible appearance of direct current or hybrid networks.

This book therefore aims to address the challenges of planning distribution networks that must facilitate the decarbonization of energy systems and meet the new expectations of citizens and various users, creating value for all of them, while continuing to guarantee a quality and resilient electricity supply.

After a general introduction on electrical networks and their operations, the fundamental principles of distribution network planning are described. Next, the impact from the introduction of distributed energy resources on the planning models is explained along with a presentation of the different possible solutions, followed by some case studies to better understand the evolution of these models. The book continues with a presentation on the mathematical modeling of the problem and possible resolution methods, detailing the resolution algorithms on the cases studied. Finally, the last part of the book is devoted to new trends and emerging concepts, such as the coupling of planning and operation tools, data-centric software solutions, network architectures enabled by direct current, multi-objective and multi-sectored approaches, and the multiplication of players and their interactions.

It is a rich and topical work. It is intended for all players in the field, whether they are decision-makers, engineers, researchers, teachers or students. Happy reading!

Nouredine HADJSAIDG2Elab, Grenoble INP, Grenoble

Pierre MALLETEnedis, Paris

September 2022

List of Notations

A notation can have several different definitions depending on the chapter and formula in which it is used and on its type (index or quantity).

Indices

Indices

Description

a

MV line

b

Type of conductor

c

Conductor (phases 1, 2, 3, neutral or earth)

d

MV distribution substation (in all chapters except in

Chapter 2

where it means fault)

f

MV feeder

g

LV feeder

h

Component requiring maintenance

i

Customer

j

Line

j

Electrical branch connecting two electrical vertices

k

Vertex of network graph

l

Edge of network graph

n

Year

p

Study period

s

Primary substation

t

Time step

u

Usage (conventional consumption, generation, storage, electric vehicles, flexibility, etc.)

z

Zone bounded by NOS

Greek letters

Notation

Description

Chapter(s)

α

temperature

Temperature coefficient of resistivity (°C

–1

)

1

α

works

Weighting coefficient for the cost of works on streets already used by the network (%)

4

α

simulated annealing

Coefficient of progression of simulated annealing

6

α

batteries

Weighting coefficient to ensure that batteries are not used more than necessary

6

ε

+

and

ε

−

Deviation variables

6

ϕ

Phase shift between current and voltage

1, 2

γ

Angle of currents

5

η

batteries

Battery performance

6

Ω

Lr

All reinforced or added lines

4

Ω

s

All sources

5

Ω

Cl

All clients

5

Ω

other

Set of intermediate vertices

5

Ω

branch types

Type of possible branches

5

Ω

taps on

Range of variation of the on-load tap changer

5

Ω

taps off

Range of variation of the off-load tap changer

5

Ω

type

All possible DER

6

Ω

τ

int

Set of functions

f

τ

int

allocating power and DER type to a vertex

6

ρ

resistivity

Resistivity of the material at 20°C (Ω·m)

1

ρ

n

Spearman’s rho

6

θ

Temperature (°C)

1

θ

k

Voltage angle

5

τ

DER

DER penetration rate (%)

4

τ

rebound

Curtailment rebound rate (%)

4

τ

deferral

Deferral rate of curtailment (%)

4

τ

fail

Electrical conductor failure rate (number of incidents/year/km)

2, 5

τ

avg

Annual rate of change in average consumption (%)

2, 5

τ

peak

Annual rate of change in consumption at the peak (%)

5

ω

Electrical pulsation of the three-phase sinusoidal system

1

Notations

Notation

Description

Chapter(s)

a

Rotation operator

1

C

Capacity (F)

1

c

Linear capacity (F/km)

1, 5

CU

Utilization coefficient

2

C

CAPES

Capital cost (€)

2, 5

C

OPEX

Operational cost (€)

2, 5

C

TOTEX

Total cost (€)

2

C

inv

Investment (€)

2, 5, 6

C

c

Cost of line (€/km)

2, 5

C

t

Cost of trench (€/km)

2, 5

CRCS

Cost of an RCS (€)

2, 5

C

peak

Cost of joule losses at peak (€/kW)

2, 5

CENS

Cost of energy not supplied (€/kWh)

2, 5

CPC

Cost of interruptions due to failures (€/kW)

2, 5

C

m

Maintenance cost (k€)

2, 4

C

reinforcement

Investment in the cost of changing/adding a line (k€)

4

C

flexibility

Investment related to the implementation of flexibility (k€)

4

C

losses

Cost of power losses (k€/kWh)

4

C

s

Total discounted cost of the solution no. s (k€)

4

C

ni

Cost of unproduced energy by a producer (k€/kWh)

4

C

lim

Maximum cost for storage remuneration (k€/kWh/an)

4

C

FF

Fixed remuneration cost of flexibility (k€)

5

C

VF

Variable cost of compensation of flexibility (k€/kWh)

5

C

annuity

Investment annuity (k€)

6

CU

Coefficient of use

2

ENS

Energy not supplied (kWh)

2, 4

E

losses

Energy lost through technical losses (kWh)

4

E

F

Total energy flexibility (kWh)

5

E

un

Total unproduced energy (kWh)

4

E

S2

Stored energy, both in charge and discharge in absolute value (in kWh)

4

E

G

Set of graph arcs

5

e

Graph arc

5

FP

conso

Power factor for consumption

5

FP

prod

Power factor for generation

5

∆

V

Voltage variation (drop or rise) (in V)

1

δ

V

Voltage gap (in V)

1

f

Power system frequency (Hz)

1

f

costs

Objective function of cost

5

f

CAPEX

Objective function of capital expenditure

5

f

OPEX

Objective function of operating expenditure

5

f

losses

Objective function of power loss costs

5

f

ENS

Objective function of the cost of energy not supplied

5

f

PO

Objective function of the cost of a power outage

5

f

PL

Objective function of the balancing of PL products

5

F

α

Average boundary between curtailment and reinforcement

6

G

Complex quantity that can represent either a voltage or a current

1

G

Non-oriented graph

5

Gain

OPEX

Difference between the operating expenditures of two solutions

2

H

max

Equivalent time of use at maximum power (hours)

2

HC

Hosting capacity (%)

4

i

Discount rate (%)

2, 4, 5

I

Current (A)

1

I

th

Maximum allowable thermal limit (A)

5

I

max

Maximum current (or “peak”) (A)

5

J

Current in a branch (A)

5

L

tot

Total length of the system (km)

2, 4, 6

L

zone

Zone length (km)

2

L

Length (km)

2

m

error

Margin of error (central limit theorem)

6

n

y

Year the work is initiated

2

N

S

Number of secondary windings

1

N

P

Number of primary windings

1

N

feeders

Number of network feeders

2

N

cust

Total number of customers

2

N

CCO

Number of customers cut off

2

N

d

Number of defaults in the year

2

N

M

Number of network components for which maintenance work is required

2

N

periods

Number of periods

2, 5

N

z

Number of zones to have the same PL

2, 5

N

RCS

Number of RCSs

2, 6

N

arc

Number of arcs

5

N

vertices

Number of vertices

5

N

years

Total study period in years

2,5

N

cond

Number of conductor types

5

N

PS

Number of primary substations

5

N

sf

Number of secured feeders

5

N

SS

Number of secondary substations

5, 6

N

max branches

Maximum number of branches on a single arc

5

N

branches

Number of branches

5

N

lines

Number of lines

5

N

transfo HV/MV

Number of HV/MV transformers

5

N

lines

Number of taps of the on-load tap changer

5

N

MV feeders

Maximum number of MV feeders per transformer

5

N

taps off

Number of taps of the off-load tap changer

5

N

LV feeders

Maximum number of LV feeders per transformer

5

N

CR

Number of checkerboard rows (architecture with loops)

6

N

CC

Number of checkerboard columns (architecture with loops)

6

n

loops

Number of loops (architecture)

6

N

lps

Number of loops (architecture)

2

N

trials

Number of trials in the Monte Carlo simulation

6

p

degradation

Probability of accepting a degradation of the objective function for the simulated annealing (%)

6

p

default

Probability of default (%)

6

P

Active power withdrawn or injected (kW)

1, 2, 4, 5, 6

P

losses

Technical losses by Joule effect (kW)

1, 6

PL

Product power × length (MVA.km)

2

P

lmax

Peak losses (kW)

2

P

cut

Power cut due to failures (kW)

2

P

allowed

Maximum power admissible (kW)

2, 6

P

feeder

avg

Average power of the feeder studied (in kW)

2

P

cut

avg

Average power cut

2

P

z

avg

Average power of zone z

2

P

max

Maximum power (kW)

2, 4

P

avg

Average power (kW)

2, 5

P

min

Minimum consumption (kW)

4

P

installed

Installed power (kW)

4

P

margin

Power margin (in W)

6

P

cur

Activated power curtailed (kW)

6

Q

Reactive power consumed or injected (kVAr)

1, 2, 4, 5, 6

r

transformation

Transformation ratio

1

r

Linear resistance (in Ω/km)

1, 2, 5

R

Resistance (in Ω)

1, 2

CBR

r

Cost–benefit ratio

2

S

Apparent power in complex (in VA)

1

Section

Useful conductor cross-section (mm²)

1

SAIDI

System Average Interruption Duration Index (minutes/year/customer)

2, 5

SAIFI

System Average Interruption Frequency Index (outages/year /customer)

2, 5

S

transfo HV/MV

Maximum permissible power per transformer (kVA)

5

S

max,feeders MV

Maximum power per MV feeders in normal operation (kVA)

5

S

transfo MV/LV

Maximum permissible power of the transformer (kVA)

5

S

max,feeders LV

Maximum power per LV feeders in normal operation (kVA)

5

S

rated

Rated power (or “connected power” for LV customers) (kVA)

5

S

cons

Maximum power consumed (kVA)

5

S

prod

Maximum power produced (kVA)

5

SOC

State of charge (%)

6

T

iso

Fault isolation time (in hours)

2, 5

T

rep

Fault repair time (in hours)

2, 5

T

LT

Lifetime of the structure (years)

2

T

co

Cut-off time (minutes)

2

T

AM

Amortization period (years)

4

T

activation

Curtailment activation time (minutes)

4

T

report

Duration of the curtailment deferral (minutes)

4

NDR

Network infrastructure development rate (%)

4

T

p

Duration of sub-periods (years)

5

T

s

Storage periodicity (hours)

6

T

annual

Simulated annealing temperature (°C)

6

U

Phase-to-phase voltage (V)

1, 2, 5

V

Single phase-to-neutral voltage (V)

1, 5

NPV

Net present value (€)

Vu

Use value (€)

2

V

N

Replacement value of the work (€)

2

V

F

Value of the reinforcement of the structure (in k€)

2

V

G

Set of graph vertices

5

v

Graph vertex

5

W

cur

Consumption curtailment vector

6

X

Reactance (Ω)

1, 2

X

Vector solution

5, 6

x

Linear reactance (Ω/km)

1, 2, 5

Y

Complex admittance (S)

5

y

Linear complex admittance (S/km)

5

Z

Complex impedance (Ω)

5, 1

z

Linear complex impedance (Ω/km)

5

z

Variable function of the confidence interval (central limit theorem)

5, 6

List of Acronyms

AC

Alternating Current

ACER

Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators

ACM

Avoided Cost Model

ADEeF

Association des distributeurs électriques en France

: Association of the Distributors of Electricity in France

ADEME

Agence de la transition écologique

: Ecological transition agency (formerly

Agence de l’environnement et de la maîtrise de l’énergie

: Agency for the environment and energy management)

ADMS

Advanced Distribution Management Systems

AEMC

Australian Energy Market Commission

AEMO

Australian Energy Market Operator

AFNOR

Association française de normalisation

: French standards association

AI

Artificial Intelligence

AMS

Active Management System

ANEEL

Agência Nacional de Energia ELétrica

: Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency

ANM

Active Network Management

ANROC

Association nationale des régies de services publics et des organismes constitués par les collectivités locales

: National association of public service boards and local government organizations

ANSI

American National Standards Institute

API

Application Programming Interface

BEV

Battery Electrical Vehicle

BTB

Back-To-Back

ACCM

Capacity Allocation and Congestion Management CAPEX CAPital EXpenditures (investment costs)

CBA

Cost–Benefit Analysis

CBR

Cost–Benefit Ratio

CCP

Climate Change Plan

CCRC

Communauté de communes de la région de Condrieu

: Community of communes of the Condrieu region

CEER

Council of European Energy Regulators (a non-profit association that allows a group of European regulators to exchange best practices and it produces comparative reports on reliability)

CEP

Clean Energy Package (document proposing measures to improve energy efficiency and the integration of renewable energy by 2030)

CIGRE

Conseil international des grands réseaux électriques

: International council on large electric systems (global community committed to collaborative development and sharing of power system expertise)

CIM

Common Information Model

CIRED

Conférence internationale des réseaux électriques de distribution

: International conference on electrical distribution systems

Co-Op

Cooperatives whose shareholders are the consumers themselves

CPP

Critical Peak Pricing (daily peak clearance)

CPUC

California Public Utilities Commission (Californian regulator)

CRE

Commission de régulation de l’énergie

: France’s energy regulatory commission

CSP

Curtailment Service Provider (aggregator)

CU

Coefficient of Use

CVRC

Centrales villageoises de la région de Condrieu

: Village power plants in the Condrieu region

DC

Direct Current

DCC

Demand Connection Code

DCP

Distribution Capacity Program

DER

Distributed Energy Ressource

DERMS

Distribution Energy Resource Management System (flexibility platform)

DGEC

Direction générale de l’énergie et du climat

: France’s energy and climate directorate

DIDF

Distribution Investment Deferral Framework (methodology to identify DER connection areas, evaluate their interest and select the most suitable ones)

DNDP

Distribution Network Development Plan DOEDepartment Of Energy

DRAM

Demand Response Auction Mechanism (mechanism allowing flexibility aggregators to offer their service to the DSO by going directly through the wholesale market and the CAISO)

DRP

Distribution Resources Plan

DSO

Distribution System Operator

DSR

Demand Side Response

EB

Electricity Balancing

EC

European Commission

EDSO

European Distribution System Operators

EFSI

European Fund for Strategic Investments (supports private investment projects in the fields of infrastructure, research and innovation, education, health and information and communication technologies)

EN

European Norm

ENS

Energy Not Supplied

ENTSO-E

European Networks of Transmission System Operators for Electricity

EPRI

Electric Power Research Institute

ER

Emergency and Restoration

ESCO

Energy Service Company (additional service providers such as gas and oil)

EU

European Union

EV

Electric Vehicle

FACTS

Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System

FCA

Forward Capacity Allocation

FCR

Frequency Containment Reserve (primary frequency control)

FERC

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (US national regulator)

FP7

Seventh Framework Programme of the European Community

FPL

Flexible Power Link

FRR

Frequency Restoration Reserve or Regulating Reserve

FSP

Flexibility Service Provider (aggregator)

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GDPR

General Data Protection Regulation

GIS

Geographical Information System

GOPACS

Grid Operators Platform for Congestion Solutions

HC

Hosting Capacity

HDI

Human Development Index

HEV

Hybrid Electric Vehicle

HV

High Voltage

HVA

High Voltage level A

HVB

High Voltage level B

HVDC

High Voltage Direct Current

ICA

Integration Capacity Analysis

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission (international organization for standardization in the fields of electricity, electronics, electromagnetic compatibility, nanotechnology and related technologies)

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (international association with more than 423,000 members with activities such as journal publishing, conference organization and standards writing)

IFA2

France–England Interconnection 2

IoT

Internet of Things

IOU

Investor-Owned Utilities

IPP

Independent Power Producer

IREC

Interstate Renewable Energy

IRENA

International Renewable Energy Agency

ISGAN

International Smart Grids Action Network (international platform to support governmental concerns and actions around the world to accelerate the development of clean and smart power systems)

ISO

Independent System Operator

IT

Information Technology

IT

earthing system – “I” means that the neutral point of the transformer is isolated from the earth and “T” means that the electrical device of the installation are directly connected to the earth but independently from the one of the transformer.

LBC

Loop Balance Control

LCOE

Levelized Cost Of Energy

LDC

Local Distribution Company

LED

Light-Emitting Diode

LIFO

Last In First Out

LNBA

Locational Net Benefit Analysis (optimal location of DER to defer or cancel an investment)

LTECV

Loi relative à la transition énergétique pour la croissance verte

: Law on the energy transition for green growth

LV

Low Voltage

LVAC

Low Voltage Alternating Current

LVDC

Low Voltage Direct Current

MAEP

Multi-Annual Energy Program

MILP

Mixed Integer Linear Programming

MINLP

Mixed Integer NonLinear Programming

MV

Medium Voltage

MVDC

Medium Voltage Direct Current

MYIP

Multi-Year Investment Plans

NF

Norme française:

French standard

NIZ

Non-Interconnected Zone (off-grid isolated network)

NP

Non-Polynomial

NPV

Net Present Value

NRA

National Regulation Authorities

NWA

Non-Wire Alternatives

OFGEM

Office of Gas and Electricity Markets

OLTC

On-Load Tap Changer

OPEX

OPerational EXpenditure

OPF

Optimal Power Flow

ORI

Offres de raccordement intelligentes

: Flexible non-firm connection

OT

Operational Technologies

PAC

Préfabriqués à couloir de manœuvre

: Walk-in compact substation

PEP

Product Environmental Profile

PFR

Primary Frequency Response

PHES

Pumped Hydro Energy Storage

PHEVs

Plug-in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

PL

Product of the total power of a given area as per the cumulative total length of conductors in that area

POU

Publicly Owned Utilities

PRCS

Préfabriqués ruraux compacts simplifiés

: Simplified compact rural substations

PS

Poste source

: Primary substation or HV/MV substations

PSS A

Préfabriqués au sol simplifié de type A

: Ground-mounted substation type A

PSS B

Préfabriqués au sol simplifié de type B

: Ground-mounted substation type B

PUIE

Postes urbains intégrés à son environnement

: Low visual impact urban compact substation

PURPA

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act

PV

Photovoltaic

PWM

Pulse Width Modulation

QoS

Quality of Service

RCS

Remote-Controlled Switch

RE

Renewable Energy

REMIT

Regulation on wholesale Energy Market Integrity and Transparency

RESCoops

Renewable Energy Source Cooperatives

RFG

Request For Generators

RFO

Request For Offers

ROI

Return On Investment

RR

Reserve Replacement or Contingency Spinning Reserve

RSC

Regional Security Coordinator

RTO

Regional Transmission Organizations

S3RENR

Schémas régionaux de raccordement au réseau des énergies renouvelables

: Regional grid connection schemes for renewable energies

SAIDI

System Average Interruption Duration Index (average annual outage duration per LV or MV customer)

SAIDI

EPXE

SAIDI

hors événements planifiés et exceptionnels

: SAIDI excluding planned and exceptional events

SAIFI

System Average Interruption Frequency Index (average annual outage frequency per LV or MV customer)

SAPS

Stand-Alone Power Systems

SB

Standard Bill (California laws)

SCADA

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCORE

Schéma d’orientation des réseaux électriques

: Power system master plan

SDR

System infrastructure Development Rate

SFCL

Superconducting Fault Current Limiter

SICAE

Société d’intérêt collectif agricole d’électricité

: Agricultural electricity collective interest company

SMAP

SMArt grid in natural Parks

SMEs

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

SMIs

Small and Medium-sized Industries

SMOP

Soft Multi-state Open Point

SNOP

Soft Normally Open Point

SOP

Soft Open Point

SRCAE

Schémas régionaux du climat de l’air et de l’énergie

: Regional climate, air and energy plans

SWER

Single Wire Earth Return

SYS

SYStem

TCFM

Télécommande à fréquence musicale

: Ripple control communication system

TEPCV

Territoire à énergie positive pour la croissance verte

: Positive energy territory for green growth

TN-C

earthing system diagram – “T” means that the neutral point on the transformer is directly earthed, and “N-C” means that the earth of the installation is directly connected to the earthed point of the supply via the neutral conductor

TN-S

earthing system diagram – “T” means that the neutral point at the transformer is directly earthed, and “N-S” means that the earth of the installation is directly connected to the earthed point of the supply via a conductor that is separate from the neutral conductor

TOTEX

TOTal EXpenditures (the sum of CAPEX and OPEX)

TSO

Transmission System Operator

TSP

Traveling Salesman Problem

TT

earthing system diagram – the first “T” means that the neutral point on the transformer is directly earthed and the second “T” means that the earth of installation is directly connected to an earth connection that is electrically independent of the supply

TURPE

Tarifs d’utilisation des réseaux publics d’électricité

: Tariffs for the use of public electricity networks

TYNDP

Ten-Year Network Development Plan

UCTE

Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity

URD

Underground Residential Distribution

VSC

Voltage Source Converters

VVC

Volt Var Control

WEEE

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Introduction

The first power system appeared in 1882, when Edison started the public lighting system in a New York district. As technological discoveries and advances were made, the power system continued to develop as a global electrification; however, as of 20171 there were almost 1 billion people still without access to electricity. Each country has developed planning rules for its systems according to a technical and regulatory framework depending on its history, its geographical specificities, and the socioeconomic and political context. In most cases, electricity is produced from high-powered power plants, most of which are polluting (64% of the world’s electricity is based on the fossil fuel power plant2). It is then exported to consumer areas through the transmission and distribution system. The definitions and roles for the generation, transmission, distribution and consumption sectors were clearly defined, and the solutions applied for the development of the systems were based on technical and economic optimizations of the investments throughout the entire chain. In recent years, this highly structured electricity landscape has become more blurred as it is at the heart of the energy and societal transition, sustainable development, technological developments and deregulation. Operation and investment rules must be reviewed to keep up with and support these developments. We can mention, in a non-exhaustive way, the multiplication of small power production, generally renewable, and generally intermittent (from 1 kW, or even 1 W in some non-electrified regions), the electrification of means of transport, heat and cooling technology, the will to consume clean and ethical energy locally (the development of local energy communities, self-sustaining mechanisms), the development of information and communication technologies, access to electrical data (development of smart meters and other sensors) and the development of flexibility services by different actors (modulation of production and/or consumption, storage, etc.).

Power systems are at the heart of all of these changes. However, the power distribution system is undergoing particularly important changes as its role evolves, from supplying end consumers, to a multi-directional logic with new services. Planning tools have not been systematically used for distribution systems up until now, and traditional investment methods are reaching their limitations within these new paradigms. This book specifically focuses on these systems since they are the ones from which the most diverse and innovative solutions are emerging.

The work is intended for readers with some basic knowledge of electricity, but also for researchers working in the field of power system planning. It provides recommendations on the evolution of planning methods being applied now. It is divided into seven chapters and offers two levels of reading: an intermediate level (Chapters 1–4 and 7) and an advanced level (Chapters 1–6) for those seeking to study the theoretical aspects further, either for their scientific curiosity or to replicate in their own case study. We have tried, as far as possible and depending on the information available, to deal with planning from a general point of view, focusing on certain countries.

– Chapter 1 details the historical context for the development of power systems, and describes the fundamental notions of electrical engineering necessary to understand the choices made for this development and their operating modes, as well as their regulatory frameworks. Next, this chapter focuses on the distribution system (description of the distribution mode and its components) and presents the main factors motivating the evolution of planning methods.

– Chapter 2 defines the concept of distribution system planning, the commonly used indicators and typical architectures.

– Chapter 3 details the impact of the development of decentralized energy resources on distribution systems, as well as the latest regulatory developments to promote their integration. Alternative solutions to the classical solutions called flexibilities or non-wire alternatives will be listed as well as considerations for their application.

– Chapter 4