Drone Development from Concept to Flight E-Book

Sumit Sharma

• Herausgeber: Packt Publishing
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 380

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Unlock opportunities in the growing UAV market where drones are revolutionizing diverse sectors like agriculture, surveying, and the military. Using the vast experience of the author in drone domain, this book provides step-by-step guidance through the complete drone development life cycle, from concept to pilot stage, prototyping, and ultimately, a market-ready product, with domain-specific applications.
Starting with an introduction to unmanned systems, principles of drone flight, and it's motion in 3D space, this book shows you how to design a propulsion system tailored to your drone’s needs. You’ll then get hands on with the entire drone assembly process, covering airframe, components, and wiring. Next, you’ll enhance drone connectivity and navigation with communication devices, such as RFD900, Herelink, and H-16 Pro GCS and hardware protocols like I2C, and UART. The book also guides you in using the open-source flight software Ardupilot and PX4, along with firmware architecture and PID tuning for advanced control. Additionally, you’ll go learn about AeroGCS, Mission Planner, and UGCS ground control stations, tips for maiden flight and log analysis for optimizing performance while building a custom survey drone with a 60-min endurance, 10km range, live video feed, and photography options.
By the end of this book, you’ll be equipped with all you need to build and fly your own drones and UAVs.

Leseprobe

Drone Development from Concept to Flight

Design, assemble, and discover the applications of unmanned aerial vehicles

Sumit Sharma

Drone Development from Concept to Flight

Copyright © 2024 Packt Publishing

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To my parents and family, for their support and motivation and for exemplifying the power of determination. To my teachers and mentors, for being my torchlight and guide throughout the journey of life.

– Sumit Sharma

Contributors

About the author

Sumit Sharma is experienced in unmanned systems with a specialization in drone architecture development and testing for different applications. He is experienced in drone mechanics, avionics, design, and manufacturing. In his early career, he was involved in the development and testing of the first approved agriculture drone and later getting it approved by the DGCA. Along with this, he has contributed to the development of a survey drone for aerial surveys. He was also involved in the development of high-speed and long-range surveillance drones for defense tenders. He has been involved in early agriculture spraying pilot projects and was a part of the project that aerial sprayed the locusts that hit Rajasthan in 2020.

I want to thank my parents, mentors, colleagues, and subordinates who have worked closely with me and always supported me to grow.

About the reviewers

Justin Starr, Ph.D., is the endowed professor of advanced technology and the mechatronics program coordinator at the Community College of Allegheny County (CCAC). He works to integrate advanced technology into CCAC’s course offerings, including augmented reality, unmanned aerial vehicles, electron microscopy, and collaborative robots. Previously, Dr. Starr served as CTO of RedZone Robotics, a manufacturer of water and wastewater inspection robots. He holds 14 U.S. patents for inventions in robotics, artificial intelligence, and automation. Justin earned his A.S. in general studies from CCAC, his B.S. in engineering science from the University of Virginia, and his M.S. and Ph.D. in materials engineering from the University of Florida.

Garvit Pandya is the founder of the drone manufacturing firm Innovative Unmanned Systems and a qualified engineer with a master’s degree in aeronautical engineering with a specialization in unmanned aerial vehicles. He has been working on drones for the last 7+ years, during which he has worked on various projects for army and DRDO units (ADRDE, Agra, and CHESS, Hyderabad) and conducted more than 250 fixed-wing flight operations for a DRDO unit. He has developed various UAV systems for defense and service sector requirements. He has authored a book on drones titled Basics of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, which is available worldwide. The book is listed as a reference book on the curriculum for the Ph.D. in drone technology program at IIT, Guwahati, India.

I am thankful to all the friends, colleagues, and other connections that were directly or indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly, involved in the reviewing process. May God richly bless you all!

I am also thankful to my whole family for all their support, tolerating my busy schedule, and sticking by my side.

Ravi S Shukla is the project manager of a defense electronic manufacturing firm named Alpha Design Technologies Pvt Ltd. His last job was as a technical manager and project associate for IoTechWorld Avigation and IIT Roorkee. He has been active in the UAV industry since 2017. He has rich experience in all types of UAS, such as copter, plane, and rover. Ravi was also involved in forming drone regulations in India. He has great experience in managing different types of projects, such as R&D, design and development, and the full line of production.

I truly believe all of us in the technical world are standing on the shoulders of giants. The giants for me are the open communities, such as CubePilot, ArduPilot, Discord, Mission Planner, and QGCS, where access to information is unrestricted and people are interested in helping one another. I am deeply indebted to all the communities and the people running them. I am also thankful to my whole family for their support.

Table of Contents

Preface

Part 1: Fundamentals of Flight Engineering

1

Getting Started with UAV and Drone Engineering

Introduction to unmanned systems – unmanned ground, air, and water vehicles

Various unmanned vehicles

History and evolution of drones

Need for an unmanned system

What are unmanned aerial systems?

Types of drones and their relevance to applications

Types of drones and their specifications

System composition of a UAV

Major mechanical and structural components of a drone

Airframe

Avionics systems and subsystems of drones

The propulsion system or drive train of a drone

The power system of drones

Command and control system

Summary

2

Understanding Flight Terminologies and the Physics of Motion

Introduction to thrust, weight, lift, drag, and cruise

Thrust

Weight

Lift

Drag

Cruise

Introduction to the flight axis and its terminologies

Roll movement

Pitch movement

Yaw movement

Throttle

Thrust-to-weight ratio (TWR)

Introduction to the flight physics of a quadcopter

Engineering to achieve movements across all three axes of rotation

Hover motion

Horizontal movements

Pitch movement or forward-backward movement

Summary

3

Learning and Applying Basic Command and Control Interfaces

Introduction to GCS hardware and software

GCS hardware

GCS software

Types of GCS

Introduction to MAVLink and other open source telemetry protocols

Introduction to RCs and the different available options

Components of the RC transmitter system

Modes of working of an RC controller

Major RC protocols

Transmitter protocols

Receiving protocols

SBUS protocol

Summary

4

Knowing UAV Systems, Sub-Systems, and Components

Technical requirements

Understanding and conceptualizing the system

Designing the propulsion system

Selection criteria for motor and propeller combination

Characteristics of motors to be used

Motor specifications and thrust charts

Motor and propeller selection

Battery selection

Calculating the flight time (endurance)

Designing and developing the airframe

Developing the control system

Electronic speed controllers and flight controllers

Flight controller

Selecting the navigation and communication systems

Communication systems

Integrated GCS system with communicating devices

Selection of GPS and navigation system

Summary

Part 2: System Conceptualization and Avionics Development

5

The Application of Sensors and IMUs in Drones

The inertial measurement unit and its role

Composition of an IMU

Use of IMUs in unmanned systems

The barometer and its role

How does it work?

GPS and magnetometer and their roles

How does GPS work?

The use of GPS in drones

Voltage and current sensors and their roles

Sensor fusion and state estimation

Summary

6

Introduction to Drone Firmware and Flight Stacks

Technical requirements

Introduction to firmware

Components of firmware and their roles

Firmware example

Tools used to develop firmware

Differences between software and firmware

Introduction to drone firmware

How it is different from general firmware

The structure of drone firmware

Introduction to drone flight stacks

Open source drone flight stack

Closed source (proprietary) drone flight stack

Basic PX4 controller loop diagram

PX4 flight stack

The ArduPilot flight stack

Summary

7

Introduction to Ground Control Station Software

Technical requirements

Introduction to GCSs

Major GCS software that is available on the market

Mission Planner or APM Planner

QGroundControl

UgCS

AeroGCS software overview

AeroGCS main dashboard

AeroGCS home menu

Methods of connecting a drone

RPA or drone configuration

Autonomous mission planning

Waypoint planning

Survey planning

Summary

8

Understanding Flight Modes and Mission Planning

Technical requirements

Flight modes and types

Types of fight modes

Assigning flight modes via remote control

How it works

Assigning and changing flight modes in a GCS

Configuring the flight modes of the remote controller switch

Planning and executing an autonomous waypoint mission

Summary

Part 3: Configuration, Calibrations, Flying, and Log Analysis

9

Drone Assembly, Configuration, and Tuning

Technical requirements

Components and tools required to build a drone

Assembling the components of a drone

Airframe assembly

Motor assembly

Assembling and configuring the ESCs

Installing the flight controller

Mounting a PDB on a drone

Installing the battery

Configuring the RC transmitter and receiver

Telemetry connection

Setting up and configuring avionics

Firmware flashing

Configuring the flight controller

Understanding calibration and failsafes

Calibrating sensors

Failsafe setup and configuration

Setting up a maiden flight

Performing a maiden flight

Summary

10

Flight Log Analysis and PIDs

Technical requirements

Introduction to flight logs and their applications

Types of logs stored

Working with GCS software on logs and their graphs

Steps to download logs from the flight controller using QGC as the GCS

Analyzing download logs

Interpreting graphs

Understanding PID controllers and their uses

Methods to detect bad PIDs in drones and how to fix them

Rate controllers in a drone and tuning PIDs

Summary

11

Application-Based Drone Development

Technical requirements

Survey-based drones

Why aerial surveying is required

The role of drones in aerial surveying

Payloads used in survey missions

Integrating the payload with the drone

The Real-Time Kinematics (RTK) and Post-Processed Kinematics (PPK) positioning systems

Mission planning for a survey mission

Image stitching and post-processing

Final deliverables

Agricultural spraying drones

Spray tank integration with a drone

Agriculture spraying flight planning

Precautions and safety

Aerial delivery drones

Payload release mechanism

Safety regulations in the drone ecosystem

System redundancy

Summary

12

Developing a Custom Survey Drone

Technical requirements

Geospatial surveys

The use of geospatial surveys in the industry

Setting up the requirements for a survey drone

High-quality imaging sensors

GPS

Autonomous flight planning

Long flight time

Real-time monitoring and telemetry

Durability and weather resistance

Payload capacity

All-up weight or gross weight

Selecting the drone’s components

Airframe

Propulsion system or power trail

Flight stack selection

GPS module selection

Camera or payload

Telemetry system and selection considerations

Wiring and assembly

Drone configurations

Motor and ESC calibration

ESC calibration

Summary

References

Index

Other Books You May Enjoy

Preface

Hello readers! Welcome to the exciting world of drone development! Drone Development from Concept to Flight is a comprehensive guide that takes you on a journey from the initial concepts of drone technology to the exhilarating experience of launching your own unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) into flight. Whether you are a hobbyist, a student, or a professional seeking a deeper understanding of drone technology, this book is designed to be your companion every step of the way.

In the pages that follow, we will delve into various aspects of drone development, covering essential topics such as drone physics, the fundamental components utilized in drone construction, and the intricacies of flight control systems such as ArduPilot and PX4 flight stacks. Understanding the physics behind drone flight is crucial for anyone aiming to design and build their own UAV, and this book provides a solid foundation in this realm.

The core of any successful drone project lies in the selection and integration of components. From motors and propellers to sensors and communication modules, we explore the diverse range of hardware that brings a drone to life. Moreover, we delve into the sophisticated software systems that govern drone behavior, with a particular focus on the widely used ArduPilot and PX4 flight stacks. These systems form the brains of your drone, enabling it to navigate, stabilize, and execute missions with precision.

To empower you further, we guide you through the intricacies of mission planning using popular ground control software such as Mission Planner, AeroGCS, and QGroundControl. These tools play a pivotal role in defining the trajectory, waypoints, and overall mission parameters of your drone, ensuring successful and controlled flights.

Assembling and configuring a drone can be a challenging yet immensely rewarding task. This book provides step-by-step guidance on the assembly process, accompanied by tips for optimal configuration to suit your specific requirements. From connecting the electronic components to tuning the flight controller, we cover the entire process to help you achieve a successful drone build.

The thrill of witnessing your drone take its first flight is unparalleled. We walk you through this momentous occasion, offering insights into troubleshooting common issues and ensuring a smooth and controlled inaugural flight. Whether you are a novice or an experienced enthusiast, the information provided will guide you toward mastering the art of drone piloting.

In the latter part of the book, we explore specialized applications of drones, with a focus on agriculture and surveying. You will discover how drones are revolutionizing these industries, providing valuable data and insights that were once difficult or impossible to obtain.

Embark on this educational and practical journey with us as we demystify the process of developing drones, turning your concepts into reality and propelling you into the exciting realm of autonomous flight. Happy droning!

Who this book is for

This book is for beginner-level drone engineers, robotics engineers, hardware and design engineers, and hobbyists who want to enter the drone industry and enhance their knowledge of the physics, mechanics, avionics, and programming of drones, multicopters, and UAVs. A basic understanding of circuits, assembly, microcontrollers, and electronic instruments such as multimeters and batteries, along with fundamental concepts in physics and mathematics, will be helpful for reading this book.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Getting Started with UAV and Drone Engineering, serves as the foundational chapter in our comprehensive guide. This chapter provides an accessible introduction to the exciting world of unmanned vehicles and drone engineering. The chapter further introduces the key components used in drone construction, paving the way for a hands-on understanding of hardware integration. Whether you are a novice or an enthusiast, this chapter is your gateway to the thrilling journey of developing drones from concept to flight.

Chapter 2, Understanding Flight Terminologies and Physics of Motion, unveils the critical elements of drone flight. This chapter decodes the intricate language of aviation, clarifying terms essential for any drone enthusiast. You will delve into the physics of motion, gaining insights into lift, thrust, drag, and gravity—the fundamental forces shaping UAV dynamics. With a focus on clarity, this chapter lays the groundwork for comprehending the intricacies of drone movement and sets the stage for successful flight control system implementation.

Chapter 3, Learning and Applying Basic Command and Control Interface, is a pivotal chapter introducing readers to ground control station (GCS) software and hardware. Delving into the remote controller interface, the chapter provides hands-on guidance for users to master the crucial aspects of controlling roll, pitch, and yaw. This essential knowledge empowers enthusiasts to navigate and manipulate their drones with precision, making it an indispensable resource for beginners and those seeking to enhance their drone piloting skills.

Chapter 4, Knowing UAV Systems, Sub-Systems, and Components, is a comprehensive chapter unraveling the intricacies of UAVs. You will explore the diverse landscape of propulsion systems, power systems, and navigation systems, gaining a nuanced understanding of each crucial component. From delving into the mechanics of propulsion to understanding the intricacies of power distribution, this chapter provides essential insights for enthusiasts and professionals alike. Elevate your comprehension of UAV technology with this in-depth exploration of systems, sub-systems, and components.

Chapter 5, Sensors and IMUs with Their Application in Drones, is a vital chapter exploring the world of sensors and inertial measurement units (IMUs) in drone technology. You will uncover the significance of GPS and compass integration, gaining insights into how these sensors contribute to precise navigation and orientation. This chapter serves as a guide for understanding the role of these critical components in enhancing a drone’s capabilities, making it an indispensable resource for enthusiasts, engineers, and professionals seeking to optimize their UAVs for accurate and reliable performance.

Chapter 6, Introduction to Drone Firmware and Flight Stacks, unveils the core of drone intelligence. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of drone firmware, focusing on popular flight stacks such as ArduPilot and PX4. You will gain insights into the intricate software systems that govern navigation, stabilization, and mission execution, laying the foundation for successful drone development. Whether you’re a novice or an enthusiast, this chapter is your gateway to understanding the brains behind your drone’s operations.

Chapter 7, Introduction to Ground Control Station Software, provides a comprehensive overview of various GCS software, which is essential for effective drone mission planning and execution. You will explore popular tools such as Mission Planner, AeroGCS, and QGroundControl, gaining insights into their functionalities and applications. Through real-world examples, this chapter equips enthusiasts with the knowledge needed to navigate and harness the capabilities of different GCS software, ensuring a solid foundation for successful drone operations. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced user, this chapter is your gateway to mastering the tools that facilitate seamless communication and control between the operator and the UAV.

Chapter 8, Understanding Flight Modes and Mission Planning, is an important chapter that dives into the different flight modes essential for drone operation, such as manual, position, and hold modes. You will gain insight into the functionalities of each mode, empowering you to tailor your drone’s behavior to specific needs. This chapter not only covers the intricacies of flight modes but also introduces the key principles of mission planning, providing a comprehensive guide for enthusiasts to execute precise and automated UAV missions. Whether you’re a beginner or an experienced pilot, this chapter is your gateway to mastering the dynamic capabilities of drone flight.

Chapter 9, Drone Assembly, Configuration, and Tuning, helps guide you through the intricate process of assembling and wiring drone components. From motors and propellers to sensors and flight controllers, the chapter provides step-by-step instructions for seamless integration. You will also delve into the art of configuration, ensuring optimal settings for your specific drone requirements. This comprehensive guide is essential for both beginners and enthusiasts seeking to master the technical intricacies of bringing a drone to life.

Chapter 10, Flight Logs Analysis and PIDs, helps in exploring the post-flight analysis of drone performance through flight logs. You will gain insights into interpreting and utilizing proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) controllers to fine-tune your drones. This chapter equips enthusiasts with the tools to optimize flight characteristics, making it an indispensable resource for enhancing drone control and performance.

Chapter 11, Application-Based Drone Development, is a focused chapter catering to the diverse needs of survey, agriculture, and delivery drone enthusiasts. You will gain insights into tailoring drone technology to specific applications, from optimizing surveying missions to enhancing agricultural practices and efficient delivery operations. This chapter serves as a valuable resource for harnessing the full potential of drones in various real-world scenarios.

Chapter 12, Development of Custom Survey Drone, is a specialized chapter focused on tailoring drones for surveying applications. You will gain insights into selecting and integrating components specifically suited for surveying tasks, enhancing data collection precision. This chapter serves as a practical guide for enthusiasts and professionals alike, providing the knowledge needed to design and deploy custom survey drones for diverse applications.

To get the most out of this book

Before diving into this book, you should have a basic understanding of physics principles related to drone flight. Familiarity with electronic components and their functions is recommended, along with reading the datasheets, as the book extensively covers component selection and assembly. Additionally, a cursory knowledge of ArduPilot and PX4 flight stacks, mission planning tools such as Git and GitHub, as well as a general grasp of drone assembly, configuration, and flight procedures will enhance your experience. Enthusiasts seeking insight into agriculture and survey drones will find the book more accessible with a foundational understanding of these concepts.

Software/hardware covered in the book

Operating system requirements

AeroGCS

Windows, macOS, or Linux

Mission Planner

Windows

QGroundControl

Windows, macOS, or Linux

If you are using the digital version of this book, we advise you to type the code yourself or access the code from the book’s GitHub repository (a link is available in the next section). Doing so will help you avoid any potential errors related to the copying and pasting of code.

It is recommended to read, study, and understand the breadth of knowledge that the book covers. Try developing your own drone after going through this book.

Conventions used

There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

Code in text: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example: “Mount the downloaded WebStorm-10*.dmg disk image file as another disk in your system.”

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen. For instance, words in menus or dialog boxes appear in bold. Here is an example: “A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) graph is used to visualize signals. In log analysis, this is used to convert vibration into amplitudes and display it as a frequency in the frequency domain.”

Tips or important notes

Appear like this.

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Part 1: Fundamentals of Flight Engineering

This part provides an introduction to unmanned aerial systems, that is, drones, including the different types and the engineering behind them. It also introduces the basic terminology that is used in the field of aerial system development and how it is important in deciding the attitude of the system in 3D air space.

This part has the following chapters:

Chapter 1, Getting Started with UAV and Drone EngineeringChapter 2, Understanding Flight Terminologies and Physics of MotionChapter 3, Learning and Applying Basic Command and Control InterfaceChapter 4, Knowing UAV Systems, Sub-Systems, and Components

1

Getting Started with UAV and Drone Engineering

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) systems have become a buzzword globally, as the new technology is revolutionizing every sphere of life from civil to defense and from small photography companies to big industries and security. In this chapter, we will understand the various unmanned systems available with a special focus on UAV systems, their anatomy, and their uses in different domains. By going through this chapter, we will understand the major systems, subsystems, and components of a drone and their function, which will help us understand the system as a whole and also its parts. By the end of this chapter, you will be well versed in the types of drones that are available and their major components with applications, which will give you a push to understand later aspects of the book.

In this chapter, we are going to cover the following main topics, which will help us to bifurcate the chapter and understand it in a better way:

Introduction to unmanned systems – unmanned ground, air, and water vehiclesTypes of drones and their relevance to applicationsMajor mechanical and structural components of a droneAvionics systems and subsystems of drones

Introduction to unmanned systems – unmanned ground, air, and water vehicles

As the world is going through innovations and new developments, technology has risen and things have scaled down to a major extent. Any new technology that arises comes from security and defense requirements and is later integrated into the civil world, and unmanned technology is no different.

Manned systems were too big for intelligence gathering and too risky to be used in gathering intelligence from the enemy. Also, a huge price of man and machine was paid if engaged in combat or ambush. To avoid this situation, unmanned technology was born to cater to this purpose on land, air, and sea, now known as unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), UAVs, and unmanned water vehicles (UWVs), respectively.

Various unmanned vehicles

UAVs have evolved over time and have taken shape, as we are seeing with day-to-day vehicles. As we have cars and trucks for land, submarines and ships for the sea, and airplanes for the air, similarly, we have unmanned systems for all three domains – land, water, and air – described as follows:

UWVs: UWVs are uncrewed submarines that are used to travel deep inside the water. They travel up to long ranges deep inside water and are operated by ground crews from far away. These unmanned submarines are autonomously driven water vehicles that travel on a predefined path at a predefined depth and return after completing missions.

These are used for underwater surveillance using RGB cameras or doing bathymetric surveys using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). The same is being used in defense for reconnaissance and monitoring sea waters.

UGVs: UGVs are similar to UWVs, with the difference that these vehicles travel on the earth’s surface rather than in air and water. These are operated with the crew members sitting far from the base stations. These are operated in manual and autonomous modes on a predefined path, speed, and route and come back to their original place.UAVs: UAVs are vehicles that fly in the air without onboard crews and with the help of onboard sophisticated sensor systems. These unmanned systems are controlled by ground-based controlled systems crews controlled by long-range antennas. These systems are used for civil and military applications such as crowd monitoring, aerial surveys, and agriculture. We will understand more about these systems in the coming chapters.

History and evolution of drones

The history of UAVs, or drones, is quite interesting. The idea of pilotless flying machines dates back to the early 1900s when humans began imagining the chances of an unmanned flight. In their early days, drones were primarily used for military purposes, such as reconnaissance and surveillance, and they proved valuable in situations where sending human pilots was risky.

As development went through advanced phases, drones became smaller and more sophisticated, and various new applications evolved. The evolution of UAVs rose dramatically in the 2000s with the introduction of consumer drones, whose applications were beyond military use. Suddenly, drones became popular among hobbyists, photographers, and filmmakers, offering a new perspective from the sky.

In recent years, drones have been introduced to various other applications as well, where they are now employed in diverse fields, including agriculture for crop monitoring, search and rescue operations, environmental monitoring, and even delivery services. The history of UAVs reflects a journey from military-focused beginnings to becoming versatile tools with widespread civilian applications, showcasing the remarkable evolution of unmanned aerial technology.

Need for an unmanned system

As the era advances, the demand for different datasets and intelligence is growing. Earlier, due to non-availability of the technology, such things were done with the help of man and machines. Now, as technology is rising, drones can reach where man and machine cannot via the ground with less cost and less effort.

The following are key reasons why UAVs have become a key requirement over manned aircraft:

Easy reach: UAVs have reached remote areas that man or ground vehicles failed to reach easily with less cost and effort.Easy transportation: Unmanned systems are highly scalable and available in all shapes and sizes for a variety of work as compared to manned aircraft. Due to their extremely small shape and size, they can be easily transportable in a small form factor, which makes them smaller, simpler, and smarter.Less power consumption and easy maintenance: Being small and rough, these devices consume less power, which makes them more economical.Economical: Drones prove to be an economical solution for many aerial applications such as surveys and surveillance as compared to other applications.

What are unmanned aerial systems?

An unmanned aerial system (UAS) is an uncrewed aerial platform being operated by an avionics system over a wireless network by a remote crew. It comes in all weights, sizes, and performances. It comes with different types of vehicles that are used for different types of applications. UAVs are also known as remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS). In the next section, we will understand the various applications for which UASs are used.

A few of the applications of UAVs in current scenarios include the following:

Civilian uses of drones:Aerial photography: The use of drones has enabled filmmakers and cinematographers to capture high-quality video from different angles and heights, which was once very difficult and expensive. We can see the use of drones for videography in functions and weddings due to their small size, easy handling, and cost efficiency.Asset inspection: Earlier, the inspection of huge assets such as windmills, pipelines, power transmission lines, bridges, and the like was difficult as the reach of humans was limited and the execution of tasks was costly and time-consuming. After the evolution of drones and their capacity to carry payloads such as Lidar and cameras, the inspection of these assets has become easy and cost-efficient due to the small size of the drones and their reach to places humans can’t. This helps to inspect assets closely and take measures in a timely manner.Wildlife conservation: Drones help to keep an eye on wildlife spread across a larger area within minutes. They give a real-time video feed to the operator of the landmass and aid monitoring in the area. This saves a lot of time and effort compared to when people have to physically monitor the area. Drones also can issue warnings, take a closer look at areas of wild animals, and report if any critical incident has taken place.Agriculture surveys: Special multispectral and hyperspectral camera-equipped drones help to take geotagged imagery of crop fields. These images are later used by software to extract the chemical composition of leaves and provide data about the lack of critical minerals in the plants. The data can be used and analyzed to predict crop health at a particular geolocation and take protective measures against it.Aerial surveys: Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras take geotagged imagery of landmass from the air, and later, these images are used to make high-quality accurate maps to understand the earth’s surface. Drones have made this task easy and time efficient due to their small size and require less human effort.Mosquito repellent: Heavy lift drones are also used to spray mosquito repellent in areas that require efficient mosquito control. Since it’s difficult for humans to spray these insecticides evenly across areas where reach is impossible, drones have made this efficient and cost-effective.Cargo drones: Nowadays, drones are also used in the delivery of goods, which is termed aerial deliveries. Major companies are looking at this as the future of deliveries. Use cases for delivering heavy cargo across remote areas are also being developed.Defense use cases of drones:Crowd monitoring: Drones equipped with speakers and cameras have played a pivotal role in crowd monitoring. A drone gives a live feed of the situation, and a person can instruct the crowd with the help of speakers and investigate the situation with the help of a camera without actually going there.Surveillance: Drones equipped with day-night cameras help defense forces keep an eye on critical assets during the day and night. These cameras are equipped with tracking capabilities and lasers to accurately get the geolocation of the target. This helps forces keep a large area under surveillance without any human intervention.Aerial warfare: As we are seeing in the world, drones have become crucial equipment in warfare. This helps to be more lethal without risking human life.Radio relaying: Drones are also used as radio signal boosters and repeaters in remote areas where communication is the key tool. Such drones are used in mountain ranges where line of sight (LOS) is not possible, and a tethered drone is used as a tower for amplifying signals and establishing communications.

The aforementioned are some use cases where drone technology is being used to help reduce the cost and risk of manpower and also reduce the time taken for project completion. We are seeing that different types of drones are being built and used to cater to different application needs. As a fighter plane cannot work as a passenger plane and vice versa, one type of drone does not fit into all applications, hence any system is designed completely from scratch as per the requirements/application/purpose, and so on.

Types of drones and their relevance to applications

As we have gone through use cases that are catered for by the use of drone technology, here, we will study different types of drones that have been built for the sake of different application requirements such as high endurance, long range, high altitude, and so on. By doing this, we will get to know about the different kinds of drones and later build an understanding of their development. A glimpse at various kinds of drones is covered in the following section.

Types of drones and their specifications

In this section, we will study the various types of drones, their key functionality, and how they are different from each other.

Multirotor

A multirotor is a motor-propeller-based drone. The major elements to produce force and lift in the air are motors and propellers attached to them. This produces thrust in the drone and helps to lift the system’s load.

Based on the number of motors, these drones are classified as follows:

Two motors or bi-copter: A bi-copter is a multirotor with two rotors placed on each side of the center. These systems are unidirectional systems and capable of lifting less load with low endurance and control. Hence, these systems are not used much:

Figure 1.1 – A bi-copter

Three motors or tri-copter: A tri-copter has three arms and lift-generating elements at the end of each arm, placed at 120 degrees to each other. These types of drones are small and not load-carrying but can be used for short distances in inspection and surveillance:

Figure 1.2 – A tri-copter

Four motors or quadcopter: Quadcopters are the most famous drone configurations, used across the world. These are considered the most stable and easy-to-control drones. The dynamics of the drones make them easy to maneuver across the 3D space and give them stability and speed across long ranges and high altitudes. These configurations are also used to carry up to a few kilograms of payload with them:

Figure 1.3 – A quadcopter

Six motors or hexacopter: Hexacopters are one of the most famous configurations after quadcopters. As the name suggests, they have 6 arms placed at 60 degrees to each other. These configurations are used for more stable flight and are able to carry more load. Eventually, they offer less endurance under the same power than a quadcopter:

Figure 1.4 – A hexacopter

Eight motors or octocopter: An octocopter, as the name suggests, has 8 arms placed at 45 degrees to each other. It is an extended version of a hexacopter that can lift more weight and comes in large sizes. These are aerodynamically more stable but also more heavy and power-hungry vehicles:

Figure 1.5 – An octocopter

Eight motors (in Quad) or octa-quad: The octa-quad model is not very famous in the commercial market. It is a good configuration carrying more weight in the small configurations. It’s a quadcopter with four arms and two motors placed on the top and bottom of each arm for producing more thrust in less form factor. These types of drones are mainly used to maintain a good size-to-weight ratio:

Figure 1.6 – An octa-quad

12 motors (in Hexa) or deca-hexa copter: The deca-hexa, as the name suggests, has 12 motors on 6 arms placed upside down. These configurations are used for larger drones, such as passenger-carrying drones or heavy cargo drones. These have bigger-sized motors and bigger load capacity and form factor:

Figure 1.7 – A deca-hexa copter

The preceding configuration is used as per the decided payload, load-carrying capacity, and applications.

Fixed-wing drone

A fixed-wing drone, as the name suggests, is a standard airfoil wing-based design where the wing serves as a key lift generator for the system and a single motor (push/pull) helps to cruise in the air. The cruise speed helps to generate adequate lift via wings to travel in the air, and control surfaces work to give direction in the air:

Figure 1.8 – A fixed-wing drone

Fixed-wing VTOL or hybrid drone

Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, also called hybrid aircraft, is assisted by four motors to lift off in the air and later transition into a fixed-wing aircraft. This type of drone does not require a long runway unlike fixed-wing drones. It take off and land like a multicopter from a single place and cruises like a fixed-wing aircraft:

Figure 1.9 – A fixed-wing VTOL

Tilt-rotor drone

A tilt-rotor drone comes under the category of fixed-wing VTOL hybrid drones that take off and land like a multirotor and cruise like a fixed-wing drone. The only difference between these drones and fixed-wing VTOL drones is that these drones work on the principle of differential thrust and have common motors for cruise and take-off. The same motors are used as take-off lifter motors, change their angle from 90 degrees to 180 degrees during transition, and are used as cruise motors.

These drones give much more efficiency than a fixed-wing VTOL since the number of motors is reduced and power consumption is also reduced:

Figure 1.10 – A tilt-rotor hybrid drone

Hence, we have seen different types of drones. These drones can be built in different weight and size categories, but to differentiate them based on their weight profile, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) in India has classified drones into five categories:

Nano: Any drones less than or equal to 250 grams come under the category of nano dronesMicro: Any drones between 250 grams and 2 kilograms come under the category of micro dronesSmall: Any drones between 2 kilograms and 25 kilograms come under the category of small dronesMedium: Drones that are greater than 25 kilograms and less than or equal to 150 kilogramsLarge: Drones that are greater than 150 kilograms

We have now studied different types of drones based on their structure and application, but we haven’t yet studied what’s actually inside the drone and the systems it contains. In the following sections, we will understand the composition of a drone and bifurcate it into different categories.

System composition of a UAV

A UAV has many systems and subsystems that enable it to fly in the air and do missions automatically with safety and precision. These systems are a combination of hardware and software that perform their respective tasks to keep the system under control and stable in the air:

Figure 1.11 – Overview of a drone system

Now that we have seen the system composition of a UAV, let us look at the major mechanical and structural components of drones.

Major mechanical and structural components of a drone

A drone system is a robotic system that is composed of electro-mechanical systems for all its functions. A mechanical system is called a skeleton, the drone under which all the avionics system works. The mechanical system holds the avionics system firmly with it with appropriate strength so that it can take maneuver forces upon it to its limits.

We will study here the major mechanical and structural components of a drone, which are required to hold different parts and have their independent functionalities.

Airframe

The airframe is the main skeleton of a drone, which holds all avionics components in position and helps them to be mounted and fit firmly without any vibrations and loose fitting during the flight. It works as the main body of the drone, which gives the system a proper shape and size, confines all modules, and protects them from direct exposure to the external environment:

Figure 1.12 – A hexacopter carbon fiber airframe

A complete airframe is composed of the following subcomponents:

Motor mounts: Places to hold the motors using screws or other materials:

Figure 1.13 – A motor mount

Arms: Tubes/pipes between the main body and motor mounts are called arms. These are used as a stiff mechanical structure to lift the main body and wiring between motors and the main body:

Figure 1.14 – An arm set

Hub: The hub is the place where the main avionics, such as flight controllers, the Global Positioning System (GPS), and other components, are placed with due interfacing and connection, which helps the system to get the necessary data to process. Arms are attached to the hub and extended outside:

Figure 1.15 – A drone hub

Landing gear: This is also attached to the hub extending downward. This helps the drone to land on different terrains and also keeps adequate ground clearance for the safety of the payload:

Figure 1.16 – A landing gear

In terms of the features of a mechanical airframe, the following is recommended:

The airframe should be symmetrical from all aspects on the x, y, and z axesManufacturing of the airframe is to be done from lightweight materials such as carbon fiber, glass fiber, and the likeA screwless design would be even more helpful for stability and performance

Avionics systems and subsystems of drones

Post the mechanical system comes the avionics system, which is fitted into the mechanical system at appropriate required places to exert thrust and other forces, keeping the center of gravity balanced. These avionics systems include sensors and actuators powered by the power system to exert the necessary force where required and get the necessary task done by the drone:

Figure 1.17 – Avionics components

In the following sections, we will have a glance at the major avionics systems and subsystems of a drone that are interrelated.

The propulsion system or drive train of a drone

The propulsion system is responsible for creating the necessary force to lift the system into the air, maintaining the ratios of lift to weight. This is also a reason to maintain stability in the air, fly at high altitudes, and provide speed to the system. This is the most important part and initial building block of drone systems. It also helps in maintaining electrical stability in the system:

Figure 1.18 – A power train

It consists of the following primary parts:

Motors: These are the primary components of the propulsion system. These are brushless DC (BLDC) motors, which are far more efficient and lower-power-consumption motors with a long life. These motors rotate at high speed with propellers and produce the necessary thrust to lift the system in the air. Most of the power of the battery is consumed by these motors. These motors are the primary actuators to create motion in the 3D space, travel from one position to another, and lift loads:

Figure 1.19 – A BLDC motor

Propellers: Propellers are key thrust generators in the multirotor. These are mounted on the motors using screws or other mechanisms. Propellers are manufactured with lightweight materials in such a way that when rotated at high speed, they push the air downward, produce thrust, and lift the system upward. Each propeller produces a set amount of thrust when rotated at a desired RPM, which we will see in the coming chapters:

Figure 1.20 – Propellers

The power system of drones

The power system is the system that is responsible for powering the whole drone