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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensive reference on the design, characteristics, performance, and development potential of key components of PEMFC through electrospinning technologies
Electrospinning for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells discusses the use of electrospun materials in preparing next-generation fuel cell proton-conducting membranes, comprehensively reviewing the essential parts of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) components including the catalyst layer, gas diffusion layer, and proton exchange membrane. The book covers both electrochemical methods and hands-on experimental processes and provides a perspective of hydrogen fuel and PEMFC vehicles in the transformation of low-carbon energy.
Electrospinning for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells includes information on:
- Working principles, current state of research, and existing obstacles of PEMFC components, as well as the role of electrospinning and nanofibers in PEMFC
- Physical properties and electrochemical polarization of the nanofiber catalyst layer prepared by electrospinning
- Water management ability of fuel cells under high inlet humidity
- Cold starting ability and performance aging of PEMFC through the electrospun microporous layer under high current density
- Experimental devices for the study of the electrospun proton exchange membrane and composite proton exchange membrane
Electrospinning for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells is an excellent reference on the subject for materials scientists, catalytic chemists, polymer chemists, electrochemists, and electronics engineers.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgment
1 Introduction to Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
1.1 Overview of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Technology
1.2 Key Components of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
References
2 Classification of Catalyst for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
2.1 State-of-the-Art Electrocatalysts
2.2 Fabrication of Catalyst Layers (CL) in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
2.3 Conclusion
References
3 Electrospun Catalyst Layer for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials Preparation
3.3 Preparation and Electrochemical Characterization
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Analysis of Nanofiber Catalyst Layers Performance Under Various Temperature and Humidity Conditions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials Preparation
4.3 Result and Discussion
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 The Role and Performance of Gas Diffusion Layers in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Research on Gas Diffusion Layer and Water/Gas Transport Mechanisms
5.3 Conclusion
References
6 Preparation of Gradient Gas Diffusion Layer Process and Their Performance in Fuel Cell
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials Preparation
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Impact of Optimizing the Thickness Direction of Gradient Gas Diffusion Layer on Water-Gas Management Capability of the Fuel Cell
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Materials Preparation
7.3 Results and Discussion
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 Study on the Effect of Gradient Hydrophobic Treatment of Gas Diffusion Layer on Water Management Performance in Fuel Cells
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials Preparation
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.4 Comparison of Membrane Electrodes
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Fundamentals of Proton Exchange Membranes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Conclusion
References
10 Design of Proton Exchange Membrane
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design of Molecular Structure
10.3 Physical and Chemical Cross-Linking Modification
10.4 Enhancing Stability and Performance Through Chemical Cross-Linking
10.5 Modulating the Structure of Ordered Microporous Materials
10.6 Construction of Novel Proton Transport Channels
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Highly Sulfonated Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) Nanofibers Constructed Plasmonic Transport Channels
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Materials Preparation
11.3 Results and Discussion
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Polydopamine-Modified Halloysite Nanotube/Sulfonated Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) Cross-Linked Composite Membrane
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials Preparation
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.4 Conclusion
References
13 Construction of Ordered Proton Transport Channels with Phosphotungstic Acid Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials Preparation
13.3 Result and Discussion
13.4 Conclusion
References
14 Chemical Covalent Bonding of Silicotungstic Acid Proton Exchange Membrane
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Materials Preparation
14.3 Results and Discussion
14.4 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Approximate cost of platinum content in PEMFC vehicles b...
Table 1.2 Associative and dissociative mechanisms of ORR in acid a...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The related parameters of three-generation MEA.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The composition of electrospinning solution.
Table 3.2 Experimental parameters of electrospinning nanofibers ca...
Table 3.3 The measurement conditions of polarization curve.
Table 3.4 The measurement conditions of cyclic voltammetry.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Pore content in different spatial intervals.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 GDL pore size distribution statistics in different inter...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Degree of sulfonation and IEC values of the synthesize...
Table 11.2 The water uptake and swelling ratio of different salt-...
Table 11.3 The IEC of thermal cross-linked composite SPEEK membra...
Table 11.4 Oxidative stability of the prepared cross-linked SPEEK...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Mechanical properties of as-prepared membranes.
Table 12.2 The IEC of pristine composite SPEEK membranes.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Mechanical properties of as-prepared membranes.
Table 13.2 Basic properties of the composite membranes.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Residual weight of the membranes after 48 hours immers...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Hydrogen and fuel cell technology timeline.
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of electrospinning device.
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of key components in FCEVs.
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of GDL.
Figure 1.5 (a) Hopping mechanism and (b) vehicle mechanism.
Figure 1.6 Structural formula of (a) Nafion and (b) BAM-3G.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Current status and target of Pt group metal catalyst on...
Figure 2.2 Proposed ORR mechanism pathway on FeN
4
/C and adjacent F...
Figure 2.3 ORR pathway of N-doped carbon electrocatalyst.
Figure 2.4 Schematic of the CNL with the sputtered Pt particles fo...
Figure 2.5 The ideal electrode of fuel cell.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic presentation for the fabrication mechanism of...
Figure 3.2 Schematic presentation for the fabrication mechanism of...
Figure 3.3 The typical CV curve for Pt.
Figure 3.4 The typical EIS for fuel cell.
Figure 3.5 Polarization curve of two catalyst layers with a platin...
Figure 3.6 Schematic measurements during the preconditioning proce...
Figure 3.7 The EIS of conventional catalyst layer with a platinum ...
Figure 3.8 The EIS of electrospinning nanofibers catalyst layer wi...
Figure 3.9 The equivalent electrical circuit for fitting the EIS d...
Figure 3.10 The equivalent fitting data for electrospinning nanof...
Figure 3.11 (a) and (c) represent CV curves of conventional CL an...
Figure 3.12 (a) and (c) represent EIS curves of conventional CL a...
Figure 3.13 Experimental hypothesis.
Figure 3.14 PAA detection experiment.
Figure 3.15 Water treatment process for thermal gravimetric sampl...
Figure 3.16 Thermal gravimetric analysis (a) PAA, Nafion, Pt/c (b...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The polarization curve of two catalyst layer with a pla...
Figure 4.2 (a) The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy curve of...
Figure 4.3 The polarization curve of two catalyst layer with a pla...
Figure 4.4 (a) The typical polarization curve. (b) Voltage losses ...
Figure 4.5 The polarization curves and voltage losses of two catal...
Figure 4.6 The polarization curves and voltage losses of two catal...
Figure 4.7 The polarization curves and voltage losses of two catal...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of the influence of different content...
Figure 5.2 Polarization curves at different compression levels usi...
Figure 5.3 Scanning electron microscope images of carbon paper abo...
Figure 5.4 Comparison of physical properties and polarization curv...
Figure 5.5 The effect of layered carbon paper and traditional carb...
Figure 5.6 Electrospinning technology is used to prepare gas diffu...
Figure 5.7 The influence of microporous layer prepared from differ...
Figure 5.8 Surface morphology and corresponding fuel cell performa...
Figure 5.9 SEM images of the microporous layer (MPL) surface prepa...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The preparation and testing process of gradient pore si...
Figure 6.2 The water contact angle test results of gradient pore s...
Figure 6.3 GDL's water permeability and electrical conductivity te...
Figure 6.4 Comparison of gradient GDL pore size distribution inter...
Figure 6.5 GDL porosity distribution.
Figure 6.6 GDL surface roughness test results under different ultr...
Figure 6.7 GDL activation obtained by ultrasound for 30 minutes.
Figure 6.8 The surface topography of self-made GDL.
Figure 6.9 The cross-sectional morphology of self-made GDL.
Figure 6.10 GDL29BC surface and cross-section topography.
Figure 6.11 Comparative GDL141 and GDL42 polarization curve and p...
Figure 6.12 Polarization curve and power density in contrast abou...
Figure 6.13 Polarization curve and power density comparison of GD...
Figure 6.14 Comparison with polarization curves and power density...
Figure 6.15 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy test results o...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of preparation process of GDL with di...
Figure 7.2 (a) GDL's in-plane resistance and water contact angle. ...
Figure 7.3 SEM test results of GDL and GDL29BC of different thickn...
Figure 7.4 Polarization curve test results.
Figure 7.5 The power density test results when the cell temperatur...
Figure 7.6 Schematic diagram of water transport in the microporous...
Figure 7.7 (a) Schematic representation of the electrochemical int...
Figure 7.8 Repeated polarization test results of fuel cells using ...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Polarization curve test results of three samples (The t...
Figure 8.2 The power density test results of three samples under d...
Figure 8.3 EIS test results of three samples under different humid...
Figure 8.4 Hydrophobicity and coarseness test results. (Samples 1,...
Figure 8.5 Surface topography and in-plane resistance test results...
Figure 8.6 Polarization curve test results of two samples. Among t...
Figure 8.7 Power density test results of the two GDLs.
Figure 8.8 The EIS test result of the sample when
I
= 2.5 A/cm
2
. ...
Figure 8.9 (a) Test results of GDL29BC when using membrane electro...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 (a) Chemical structural formula of BAM3G membrane, (b) ...
Figure 9.2 Water channel formed by phase separation of PVDF-g-PSSA...
Figure 9.3 Chemical structure of polysulfone polymers.
Figure 9.4 PSU/PPSU synthesis and sulfonation process.
Figure 9.5 Chemical structure of polyaryletherketone polymers.
Figure 9.6 Schematic of cross-linking of N-methyl tallow bis2-hydr...
Figure 9.7 Chemical structure of polymerize polymer.
Figure 9.8 Schematic diagram of the reaction between GSC and SPI....
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Sulfonated long side-chain polymer structures.
Figure 10.2 Structures of proton exchange membranes containing de...
Figure 10.3 Structural formulas of hydrophilic/hydrophobic block ...
Figure 10.4 (a) Sulfonated polyarylethersulfone polymer with amph...
Figure 10.5 Sulfonated polyethersulfone crosslinking via glycol/p...
Figure 10.6 Sulfonated polyimide cross-linking through the sulfon...
Figure 10.7 Phosphotungstic acid-filled carbon nanotube Nafion co...
Figure 10.8 Functionalized graphene oxide 3D mesh arrangement of ...
Figure 10.9 Inorganic nanofiber SO
4
2−
/SnO
2
composite proton...
Figure 10.10 Synthesis of UiO-66-NH2 and Its Post-Synthetic Modi...
Figure 10.11 Preparation of self-supported sulfonated covalent o...
Figure 10.12 Schematic representation of membranes with varying ...
Figure 10.13 Multilayer directionally aligned fiber stacking and...
Figure 10.14 Proton exchange membrane with a cracked, self-adjus...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Illustration of preparation process of nanofiber comp...
Figure 11.2 Structure of SPEEK molecular structure (
x
+
y
=
n
,
x
/...
Figure 11.3 SEM micrographs of electrospun SPEEK nanofibers (a) N...
Figure 11.4 SEM micrographs of the cross-section of pristine and ...
Figure 11.5 SEM micrographs of the cross-section of pristine and ...
Figure 11.6 (a) FT-IR spectra, (b) enlarged part of FT-IR spectra...
Figure 11.7 (a) Stress–strain and (b) TGA curves of thermal cross...
Figure 11.8 (a) Water uptake and (b) swelling ratio of Nafion, th...
Figure 11.9 Temperature dependence of (a) conductivity and (b) Ar...
Figure 11.10 Schematic illustration of the proton transport of t...
Figure 11.11 Nyquist plots from impedance data of thermal cross-...
Figure 11.12 (a) Proton conductivity of membranes at 80 °C with ...
Figure 11.13 (a) H
2
/air PEMFC single-cell performance of MEAs us...
Figure 11.14 Linear sweep voltammograms for hydrogen crossover o...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 (a) Schematic representation of the synthesis of DHNT...
Figure 12.2 SEM and TEM images of (a, b) HNTs, (c, d) DHNTs.
Figure 12.3 Elemental mapping of C, N, O and Al in DHNTs nanohybr...
Figure 12.4 (a) TGA curves, (b) FT-IR spectra and (c) XRD pattern...
Figure 12.5 Structure and
1
H NMR spectra of SPEEK.
Figure 12.6 SEM images of the cross-section of (a, d) pristine SP...
Figure 12.7 Elemental mapping of C, S, Si, Al, and N in SP/DHNTs-...
Figure 12.8 (a) FT-IR spectra, (b) XRD patterns, (c) TGA curves a...
Figure 12.9 (a) Water uptake and (b) swelling ratio of composite ...
Figure 12.10 The number of water molecules adsorbed per unit of ...
Figure 12.11 (a) Temperature dependence of proton conductivity a...
Figure 12.12 Schematic illustration for the proton transportatio...
Figure 12.13 SAXS of pristine SPEEK and SP/DHNTs-8 composite mem...
Figure 12.14 H
2
/O
2
PEMFC single-cell performance of MEAs using p...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Structure and
1
H NMR spectra of SPEEK.
Figure 13.2 Optical photographs of (a, b, c) magnetic field gener...
Figure 13.3 Schematic illustration of the preparation of HPW-func...
Figure 13.4 (a) FT-IR spectra (b) XRD patterns of MNPs, DMNPs and...
Figure 13.5 SEM micrographs of (a) MNPs, (b) DMNPs and (c) DMNPs@...
Figure 13.6 XPS spectra of DMNPs@HPW.
Figure 13.7 TEM images of (a, b) MNPs, (c, d) DMNPs and (e, f) DM...
Figure 13.8 SEM images of the cross-section of (a, b) pristine SP...
Figure 13.9 SEM images of the cross-section of (a, e) SP/DMNPs@HP...
Figure 13.10 (a) FT-IR spectra, (b) XRD patterns, and (c) TGA cu...
Figure 13.11 (a) Water uptake and (b) swelling ratio of composit...
Figure 13.12 (a) Temperature dependence in-plane conductivity an...
Figure 13.13 (a) Through-plane conductivity and (b) proton condu...
Figure 13.14 Schematic illustration for the proton transportatio...
Figure 13.15 (a, b) H
2
/O
2
PEMFC single-cell performance of MEAs ...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Synthetic route of (4-phenoxyphenyl)phosphonic acid....
Figure 14.2 Optical photographs of POP-PA, K
8
SiW
11
O
39
and POP-SiW...
Figure 14.3 The process of covalently immobilized silicotungstic ...
Figure 14.4 (a, b)
1
H NMR and
31
P NMR spectra of POP-PA and POP-S...
Figure 14.5 XRD patterns of K
8
SiW
11
O
39
and POP-SiWA.
Figure 14.6 Schematic of activation barriers and possible cross-l...
Figure 14.7 Optical images of SPEEK-based membranes before and af...
Figure 14.8 SEM images of the cross-section of (a, b) pristine SP...
Figure 14.9 Optical images of SPEEK-based membranes before and af...
Figure 14.10 SEM images of the cross-section of (a, b, c) pristi...
Figure 14.11 Elemental mapping of C, O, S, P, Si, and W in the c...
Figure 14.12 Residual mass of membrane after different times of ...
Figure 14.13 (a) FT-IR spectra, (b) XRD patterns, (c) TGA curves...
Figure 14.14 (a) Water uptake and (b) swelling ratio of membrane...
Figure 14.15 The number of water molecules adsorbed per unit of ...
Figure 14.16 Oxidative stability of the prepared cross-linked me...
Figure 14.17 Proton conductivity properties of pristine SPEEK an...
Figure 14.18 SAXS of pristine SPEEK and SP/PSiW membranes.
Figure 14.19 H
2
/O
2
PEMFC single cell performance of MEAs employi...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Electrospinning for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Yong Liu and Mohideen Meerasahib Mohamedazeem
Authors
Prof. Yong LiuBeijing University of Chemical Technology15, Beisanhuan East RoadChaoyang DistrictBeijing100029 China
Dr. Mohideen Meerasahib MohamedazeemBeijing University of Chemical Technology15, Beisanhuan East RoadChaoyang DistrictBeijing100029 China
Cover Image: Courtesy of the authors
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-35462-7ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-85020-4ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-85019-8oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-85021-1
© 2026 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages, text and data mining and training of artificial technologies or similar technologies). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
The manufacturer's authorized representative according to the EU General Product Safety Regulation is WILEY-VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany, e-mail: [email protected].
While the publisher and the authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, including a review of the content of the work, neither the publisher nor the authors make any representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
About the Authors
Prof. Yong Liu is a full professor in the College of Materials Science and Engineering at Beijing University of Chemical Technology, China. His research spans a wide array of fields, including the development and application of special high-performance plastics and rubber products, electrospinning of ultrafine fibers for formaldehyde purification, PM2.5 air filtration, as well as the fabrication of fiber composite for fuel cell, solar cell, and biomedical devices. Prof. Liu's significant contributions to research have earned him prestigious accolades, including a National Science and Technology Progress Award, Beijing Science and Technology Award, two awards in Technological Invention at the provincial/ministerial level, and two Patent Excellence Awards. Recognized as an exceptional scientific and technological worker in the National Petroleum and Chemical Industry, he was honored as a Wiley Distinguished Author in 2022. Prof. Liu has an impressive publication record of 215 journal articles. He has published six academic books in Chinese or English. Prof. Liu been authorized 68 China or international patents, including nine transferred to companies.
Dr. Mohideen Meerasahib Mohamedazeem is an expert in Materials Science, with a deep focus on sustainable energy solutions. He completed his Master's degree in Materials Science from Anna University, India, in 2018. He later pursued his doctoral research and is currently working as a Postdoctoral Researcher at the College of Materials Science and Engineering at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (BUCT), China. His research primarily focused on the development of novel non-precious electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reactions, using biomass, MXene, metal-organic frameworks (MOF) for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Dr. Mohamedazeem is passionate about advancing research aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and carbon neutrality. His work aims to contribute to the global shift toward more sustainable energy solutions. He has received an International Scientist funding award from the Beijing Natural Science Foundation, where he will lead a project from 2024 to 2026. To date, Dr. Mohamedazeem has authored over 20 scientific articles, both as a first and co-author, in top Q1 SCI journals, and has published one book.
Preface
“Thinking is an endless flow of energy and understanding that connects everything to the universe. The universe is always speaking to us; all we need to do is pause and truly listen. When we do, we catch pieces of its story, woven seamlessly into our own thoughts. In those moments, we realize we're not just thinking, we're sharing in something infinite.”
Tackling the ever-growing challenge of climate change requires immediate and innovative approaches to transitioning energy systems toward a low-carbon future. Transportation, which accounts for nearly one-fifth of global CO2 emissions, remains a key focus area. Passenger vehicles alone contribute approximately 75% of the sector's emissions, further exacerbating environmental and public health concerns due to particulate matter (PM2.5) and other harmful pollutants, as noted by the World Health Organization. Transitioning to clean, zero-emission transportation technologies is no longer optional, and it is essential.
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have emerged as a leading solution for net-zero transportation. However, their widespread deployment is constrained by the high costs associated with manufacturing key fuel cell components, particularly the catalyst layers, gas diffusion layers (GDL), and proton exchange membranes. Overcoming these barriers demands innovative, scalable, and cost-effective fabrication methods. Electrospinning—a highly versatile and relatively low-cost nanofiber production technique has demonstrated significant potential in addressing these challenges. Recent research highlights the application of electrospinning to create critical PEMFC components, achieving noteworthy performance enhancements and paving the way for more affordable, efficient systems.
This book, Electrospinning for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, provides a detailed exploration of how electrospinning can drive innovation in PEMFC technology. Drawing on extensive research and practical expertise, the book offers a comprehensive examination of PEMFC components fabricated through electrospinning. Key topics include:
Catalyst Layers:
The fabrication of electrospun catalyst layers with unique morphological structures, their electrochemical performance under various operating conditions, and strategies for maximizing catalyst utilization and reducing costs.
Gas Diffusion Layers:
An in-depth discussion on the water management, gas transport mechanisms, and structural properties of electrospun GDLs, focusing on enhancing overall fuel cell efficiency and durability.
Proton Exchange Membranes:
Insights into the development of electrospun proton exchange membranes, including advances in proton conductivity, water uptake, swelling behavior, and thermal stability. The text highlights the benefits of solution and centrifugal electrospinning techniques in creating high-performance, cost-effective membranes.
This book is designed to serve as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and professionals in the energy and materials fields. By delving into the most recent advancements and practical applications of electrospinning technology, this volume aims to inspire innovation, encourage collaboration, and ultimately accelerate the transition to sustainable energy solutions.
Beijing
13 May 2025
Prof. Yong Liu
Dr. Mohideen Meerasahib Mohamedazeem
Acknowledgment
Embarking on this book was an exciting challenge, taking years of dedicated research, countless experiments, and hard-earned insights and shaping them into a clear and compelling narrative. Our aim has always been to translate complex discoveries into chapters that not only tell the story of our journey but also make a meaningful impact in the field. In this process, many of the insights and findings presented in this book are grounded in the innovative work of students passed through our lab: Shaopeng Zhang, Han Ding, Chaoming Li, Xin Li, Tianya Li, Dingbo Han, Caihan Zhu, Jingyi Sun, Jihao Wang, and Jinghui Song, whose research and experiments contributed significantly to our understanding and approach. We're also immensely grateful to Professor Jianbo Zhang of Tsinghua University, who support several postgraduate students studied in his lab. Thanks the Beijing University of Chemical Technology for the unwavering support, which has allowed us to push boundaries, pursue bold ideas, and bring this vision to life.
Prof. Yong Liu
Dr. Mohideen Meerasahib Mohamedazeem
1Introduction to Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
1.1 Overview of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Technology
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are at the forefront of clean energy innovation, offering a sustainable and efficient means of power generation that is pivotal in addressing the challenges of global energy demands and environmental sustainability. PEMFCs work by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen directly into electrical energy through an electrochemical process, with water and heat as the only by-products. PEMFCs have widespread attention among clean energy technologies, renowned for their high efficiency, low operating temperatures, and rapid start-up times, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, from automotive and stationary power generation to portable power devices [1, 2]. As the world increasingly shifts toward renewable energy sources, PEMFCs provide a compelling alternative to traditional fossil fuel–based energy systems. Their ability to generate power with zero-greenhouse-gas emissions makes them an essential component in the global efforts to combat climate change and reduce the carbon footprint of energy production.
1.1.1 Brief History and Development of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
The concept of fuel cells dates back to the nineteenth century when Sir William Grove first demonstrated the “gaseous voltaic battery” in 1839. However, it wasn't until the mid-twentieth century that significant advancements were made in fuel cell technology, primarily driven by the need for efficient power sources in space missions. While PEMFCs are a distinct type of fuel cell, their development is intrinsically linked to hydrogen as the primary fuel source. The exploration of hydrogen as a clean energy carrier has paralleled the advancement of PEMFC technology [3]. This synergy is crucial for the widespread adoption of fuel cell technologies, as hydrogen provides the necessary energy source that powers PEMFC systems. However H2 as a low-carbon-energy system is not new; the wave of enthusiasm for hydrogen began in the early 1970s due to the first global energy demand and environmental crisis; thus, many hydrogen energy-based research programs were launched. For instance, the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974, the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy launched in 1976, and the IEA Hydrogen and Fuel-Cell Technology Collaboration Programme in 1977. Since then, a growing number of researchers, international organizations, and companies have supported the hydrogen-based economy to address the fossil fuel demand and control greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [4]. The historical key milestone of hydrogen and fuel cells is depicted in Figure 1.1.
Today, hydrogen and fuel cell technologies offer a promising path toward sustainable energy. Ongoing research and development aim to overcome current challenges, such as reducing the reliance on precious metals and improving system efficiency and durability. Continued investment in research and infrastructure is essential to realizing the full potential of hydrogen as a clean energy carrier. Moreover, hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier, not an energy source, having potential applications to provide energy services across all sectors: transportation, power, building, and industry. Hydrogen is itself a carbon-free carrier, but a significant amount of carbon footprint occurs during its production [1, 4]. Presently, hydrogen is produced from various primary energy sources such as fossil fuels, biomass, and renewables. Low-carbon technological options like carbon capture and storage (CCS) and electrolyzers require extensive development to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions during hydrogen production. As an energy carrier, hydrogen can overcome the variable renewable energy flexibility issue on the energy supply-and-demand side by enabling the linkage between them by connecting various transmission and distribution networks [5]. Hydrogen and fuel cell technologies are an excellent solution to decarbonize the transport sector. Green hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power could be integrated into fuel cell vehicles as a promising alternative to internal combustion engines [1, 5].
1.1.2 Need for H2-Powered Fuel Cell Technology in Today's World
In the face of addressing global environmental challenges and an urgent need for sustainable energy solutions, hydrogen-powered fuel cell technology has emerged as a critical component in the global energy transition. The pressing issues of climate change, air pollution, and energy security have highlighted the necessity of moving away from fossil fuel dependency and toward cleaner, renewable energy sources [6]. The transport sector is one of the fast-growing and key driving forces of anthropogenic environmental pressure, contributing nearly 20% of GHG emissions, with fossil fuels accounting for almost 90% of total energy consumption. One-quarter of all energy-related GHG emissions are related to transportation, with around 72% of these overall emissions generated from road transport. Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic decreased global transport emissions by 10%, or 7.2 gigatonne (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in 2020, compared to 8.5 Gt of CO2 in 2019, due to the pandemic-related restrictions on domestic and international travel. However, in 2022, the CO2 emissions associated with the transport sector began to rebound with the lifting of travel restrictions around the world [1, 4].
Figure 1.1 Hydrogen and fuel cell technology timeline.
Source: Mohideen et al. [4]/with permission of Elsevier.
Today, a well-to-wheel passenger vehicle generates an average of 300 g of CO2 per kilometer. According to the IEA, achieving a net-zero-emission transport sector requires a further drop in carbon emissions by 20% to 5.7 Gt by 2030 from the current level. Achieving such a drastic emission drop highly depends on the policies driving the revolutionary shift from fossil-fuel-based vehicles to clean and green mobility. Today, several low-carbon road transport technologies are readily available in the market, including plug-in hybrid vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). However, all these technologies are at various commercialization phases, and the significance of each in the sustainable future transport sector is a topic of discussion. Hydrogen-powered FCEV has the potential to decarbonize the transport sector compared to other low-carbon transport technologies. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell stack is mostly used in FCEVs, offering high power density, high efficiency, and cold-start capabilities. In addition, hydrogen-powered FCEVs have widespread advantages, including high range and short refueling time (∼500 km and 3 min), high well-to-wheel efficiency, smooth operation (low noise), and quick start-up. Owing to such overwhelming benefits, hydrogen-powered FCEVs will be a competitive edge in future transportation, especially for heavy-duty vehicles, trucks, buses, maritime shipping, and aviation sectors. However, compared to gasoline-powered and electric-powered vehicles, the number of FCEVs on the road is comparatively small, due to its high production cost of materials and infrastructure.
On the road to net-zero-emission scenario, it is anticipated that the hydrogen demand will reach almost 2.6% of the total transport sector energy demand by 2030 and over one-quarter by 2050. Nevertheless, in the current scenario, the use of hydrogen in the transport sector is much lower than that in other sectors, accounting for <0.01% of the energy consumed. For instance, if all the 1 billion cars, 25 million buses, and 190 million trucks on the road are replaced by FCEVs in the future, then the demand for global green hydrogen will be fourfold higher than the current level. From 2017 to 2020, the global share of FCEVs stock skyrocketed by an annual average of 70%, and as of June 2021, more than 40,000 FCEVs were on the road, mostly in the United States and Japan. The United States accounts for the second largest FCEV fleet, with more than 9,200 vehicles sold at the end of 2020. Japan presently has 4100 FCEVs on the road and is targeted to manufacture 800,000 passenger light-duty vehicles (PLDVs) by 2030. It was followed by Korea, which took the lead in the FCEVs market between 2019 and 2020, and by the end of June 2020 alone, 4400 PLDVs had been registered, and the government targeted 200,000 and 2.9 million light-duty FCEVs by 2025 and 2040, respectively.
Although FCEVs hold tremendous advantages in decarbonization transport sector, the cost of fuel cell components is a key barrier that hinders the widespread commercialization of FCEVs. For instance, the high cost of the expensive platinum metal used as a cathode catalyst in a fuel cell stack itself is responsible for 56% of its total cost of ownership. As shown in Table 1.1, for mid-sized passenger FCEVs, 25–35 g of Pt is required, which is 10-fold higher than a diesel autocatalyst. Therefore, reducing the platinum loading of the catalyst in the fuel cell stack is critical for the economic viability of FCEVs. In this direction, Daimler has significantly reduced platinum usage in their FCEVs by nearly 90% of platinum by ∼8 g to just 5 g per vehicle [8]. Similarly, Toyota's Mirai FCEV cuts platinum utilization by 50% through alloying with cobalt (Pt/Co), an approach that plays.
Table 1.1 Approximate cost of platinum content in PEMFC vehicles based on current target platinum loading.
Source: Banham et al. [7]/Elsevier/CC BY 4.0.
Stack power (kW)
Application
Example
Total Pt (g)
Total cost of Pt (USD)
1–25
Portable power and scooters
0.3–8
10–240
25–75
Range extenders, buses, and trucks
8–25
240–750
>75
Passenger vehicles
25–35
750–1050
In this context, electrospun nanofibers, prepared via the electrospinning technique, have garnered considerable attention to reduce the cost of the key components as well as improve the performance of fuel cell. The concept of electrospinning experienced a resurgence in the 1990s as nanomaterials became a research priority. The technique has since found diverse applications in biotechnology, filtration, energy storage, medicine, aerospace, and electronics [9]. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, a typical electrospinning setup includes a high-voltage power supply, a spinning apparatus (composed of a feed pump and syringe), and a collector. The process involves generating a strong electrostatic field between the spinning apparatus and the collector. When the electrostatic force acting on the polymer solution overcomes its surface tension and viscosity, a charged jet forms at the apex of the Taylor cone. This jet stretches, undergoes solvent evaporation and solidification, and finally deposits on the collector as nanofibers. The resulting fiber diameters typically range from tens of nanometers to several microns [11].
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of electrospinning device.
Source: Yong et al. [10]/with permission of Elsevier.
1.2 Key Components of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
PEMFCs are complex systems that rely on the seamless integration of several critical components to convert hydrogen into electrical energy efficiently. Each component plays a vital role in ensuring the effective operation of the fuel cell, with maximum efficiency and durability. A deeper understanding of these components is crucial for advancing PEMFC technology and optimizing its performance across various applications. The core components of a PEMFC include the PEM, catalyst layer (CL), gas diffusion layer (GDL), bipolar plates, and the flow field. Together, these elements form a cohesive system that facilitates the electrochemical reactions necessary for power generation in FCEVs, as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
1.2.1 Catalyst Layer
The CL is typically a thin, porous structure consisting of catalyst particles, an ionomer, and a carbon support. The platinum or platinum alloy catalyst particles are dispersed on a high-surface-area carbon support to maximize the available catalytic surface area. The ionomer, often Nafion, is interspersed throughout the layer to aid proton conduction and ensure effective contact with the membrane [12–15]. The primary function of the CL is to accelerate the electrochemical reactions within the fuel cell, ensuring efficient conversion of hydrogen and oxygen into water and electrical energy. The efficiency and performance of the PEMFC are heavily dependent on the activity and stability of the CL. The catalysts must exhibit high catalytic activity to facilitate fast reaction rates while maintaining stability under the operating conditions of the fuel cell [16].
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of key components in FCEVs.
Source: Mohideen et al. [8]/with permission of Elsevier.
The thickness of the CL is a crucial factor influencing its performance. Thicker CLs provide a higher total catalytic surface area per geometric area, which can enhance performance by increasing reaction rates. However, they also introduce higher resistance to the transport of electrons, protons, reactants, and products, potentially negatively affecting overall fuel cell performance [17–19]. This trade-off between surface area and transport resistance necessitates careful optimization of the CL thickness. The porosity of the CL is approximately 30%, with a hierarchical pore structure that includes primary pores less than 10 nm and secondary pores less than 100 nm. This porosity facilitates the effective transport of reactants and products, as well as the distribution of gases across the catalyst surface. Achieving the optimal balance of porosity and pore size is critical for maintaining efficient mass transport and minimizing diffusion losses [20].
At the CL, two critical electrochemical reactions occur that convert chemical energy into electrical energy:
Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction (HOR)
: At the anode, hydrogen molecules (H
2
) are split into protons (H
+
) and electrons (e
−
) by the catalyst. The protons migrate through the PEM, whereas the electrons are directed through an external circuit, providing electric power. HOR reaction can be represented by the following equation:
Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR)
: ORR occurs at the cathode of the PEMFC, where oxygen molecules are reduced to form water. The ORR kinetics at the cathode is slower than that at the anode even though the Pt catalyst loading at the cathode was 10 times higher than those at the anode. The reason for sluggishness and high catalyst loading of the cathode is the grand challenges of ORR, namely, that (i) the cathode catalyst should withstand extreme corrosive circumstances and eventually be chemically active enough to activate O
2
, (ii) it should be noble enough to facilitate the facile release of by-product water at the end of the reactions from the surface of the catalyst, and, (iii) as a consequence, ORR at the cathode is responsible for half of the voltage loss in the PEMFC system, whereas the voltage loss of HOR is considerably small even with a very low Pt loading of 0.05 mg/cm
2
. As a consequence, the high loading of Pt accounts more than half of the total cost of the fuel cell
[8]
.
ORR is the most prominent reaction in PEMFCs and alkaline membrane exchange fuel cells, involving a series of electron transfer steps by undergoing electrochemical reduction of O2 molecules in an acidic or alkaline electrolyte. The general ORR catalytic reactions are either a four-electron pathway (4e−) or a two-step, two-electron (2e−) pathway, as shown in the following equations:
The direct 4e
−
pathway: It is a universally accepted reaction process that directly reduces the O
2
molecules to H
2
O in acid media, and to OH
−
in alkaline media.
4e− pathway in acid medium:
4e− pathway in alkaline medium:
The two-step, two-electron (2e
−
) pathway: The reaction process includes a series of steps by producing H
2
O
2
and then reduce to H
2
O.
2e− pathway in acid medium:
2e− pathway in alkaline medium:
However, in the 4e− pathway, two types of possible reaction kinetics were proposed, such as the dissociative and associative reaction pathways, as shown in Table 1.2.
It is essential to note that the dissociating energy barrier of the initial O2 adsorption molecule plays a crucial role in deciding whether the catalyst undergoes an associative or dissociative pathway. However, due to the high O2 dissociation barriers on metal-Nx moieties, the associative mechanism is more suitable for nonprecious metal catalysts in both acidic and alkaline environments [21]. Both mechanisms involve various intermediate species during the reaction pathways, including hydroxyl (OH*), oxygenated (O*), and super hydroxyl (OOH*), and their corresponding transformations during the reaction make the ORR mechanism more complicated. Initially, O2 molecule adsorption takes place, followed by weakening of the O–O bond and cleaving it to form two atomic species that leads to the direct formation of OH− without generating OOH− [22–25].
Table 1.2 Associative and dissociative mechanisms of ORR in acid and alkaline electrolytes.
Acid
Alkaline
4e
−
associative mechanism O
2
(g) + H
+
+ e
−
+
*
→ OOH
*
OOH
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
→ O
*
+ H
2
O O
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
→ OH
*
OH
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
→
*
+ H
2
O
4e
−
associative mechanism O
2
(g) + H
2
O + e
−
+
*
→ OOH
*
+ OH
−
OOH
*
+ e
−
→ O
*
+ OH
−
O
*
+ H
2
O + e
−
→ OH
*
+ OH
−
OH
*
+ e
−
→
*
+ OH
−
4e
−
dissociative mechanism O
2
(g) +
*
→ O
2
*
O
2
*
→ O
*
+ O
*
O
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
→ OH
*
OH
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
→ H
2
O +
*
4e
−
dissociative mechanism O
2
(g) +
*
→ O
2
*
O
2
*
→ O
*
+ O
*
O
*
+ H
2
O + e
−
→ OH
*
+ OH
−
OH
*
+ e
−
→
*
+ OH
−
2e
−
associative mechanism O
2
(g) + H
+
+ e
−
+
*
→ OOH
*
OOH
*
+ H
+
+ e
−
+
*
→ H
2
O
2
+
*
2e
−
associative mechanism O
2
(g) + H
2
O + e
−
+
*
→ OOH
*
+ OH
−
OOH
*
+ e
−
→ +
*
Concerning the above-mentioned ORR mechanisms, it is clear that the performance of the ORR pathway depends on the nature of the electrocatalyst and electrolyte. Therefore, to reduce Pt usage without compromising the stability, durability, and ORR performance of fuel cell [26], the appropriate electrocatalysts can be developed using the following strategies: (i) alloying Pt with other transition metal, (ii) replacing Pt with nonprecious transition metals, and (iii) metal-free carbon-based electrocatalyst.
1.2.2 Gas Diffusion Layer
GDL is a vital component of PEMFCs, ensuring effective transport of gases and water between the CL and the flow field channels. Situated between the CL and the bipolar plates, the GDL facilitates uniform reactant distribution, provides electrical conductivity, and optimizes water management—factors essential for reliable fuel cell operation (Figure 1.4) [27–30].
Typically made from porous carbon materials such as carbon paper or carbon cloth, the GDL offers high permeability and excellent electrical conductivity. Carbon cloth, being more porous and less tortuous than carbon paper, exhibits greater compressibility. However, its higher compressibility can cause material to intrude into flow field channels, leading to uneven gas flow and performance variations [31, 32]. In contrast, carbon fiber paper is often preferred to the macroporous layer due to its superior mechanical strength. Its natural brittleness ensures higher compressive strength, supporting uniform gas flow and stable mechanical integrity within the fuel cell.
Water management is a critical function of the GDL, as it must maintain the membrane's hydration while preventing flooding at the CL. Effective water handling is key to achieving both high performance and long-term durability [33]. To this end, GDLs are frequently
