English Grammar For Dummies E-Book

Geraldine Woods

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Seitenzahl: 547

Beschreibung

Get the last word on English grammar Grasping the intricacies of the English language doesn't need to be tricky, and this down-to-earth guide breaks everything down in ways that make sense--Revealing rules, tips, and tricks to eliminate confusion and gain clarity, English Grammar For Dummies gives you everything you need to communicate with confidence! Good grammar lays the foundation for speaking and writing clearly. This easy-to-follow book will help you become a more articulate, effective communicator. Covering everything from the building blocks of a sentence to those pesky rules of punctuation, it offers the practical guidance you need to communicate in a way that would make any English teacher proud. * Improve your speaking skills * Clearly compose written communications * Get the latest techniques for continuous improvement * Write a winning college entrance exam or compelling business presentation Stop worrying about the grammar police and become more confident with your words!

Leseprobe

English Grammar For Dummies®, 3rd Edition

Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, www.wiley.com

Copyright © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935002

ISBN 978-1-119-37659-0 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-119-37661-3 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-119-37660-6 (ebk)

English Grammar For Dummies®

To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and search for “English Grammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.

Table of Contents

Cover

Introduction

Foolish Assumptions

Icons Used in This Book

Beyond the Book

Where to Go from Here

Part 1: Building a Firm Foundation: The Parts of the Sentence

Chapter 1: Using the Right Words at the Right Time

What This Year’s Sentence Is Wearing: Understanding Grammar and Style

Distinguishing Between the Three Englishes

Thumbing Your Way to Better Grammar

Probing the Limits of Grammar-Checking Software

What's Your Problem? Solutions to Your Grammar Gremlins

Chapter 2: Verbs: The Heart of the Sentence

Expressing Meaning with Verbs

Meeting the Families: Linking and Action Verbs

Calling the Help Line for Verbs

Pop the Question: Locating the Verb

Chapter 3: Who’s Doing What? How to Find the Subject

Who’s Driving the Truck? Why the Subject Is Important

Pop the Question: Locating the Subject–Verb Pairs

What’s a Nice Subject Like You Doing in a Place Like This? Unusual Word Order

Find That Subject! Detecting You-Understood

Searching for the Subject in Questions

Don’t Get Faked Out: Avoiding Fake Verbs and Subjects

Subjects Aren’t Just a Singular Sensation: Forming the Plural of Nouns

Chapter 4: When All Is Said and Done: Complete Sentences

Completing Sentences: The Essential Subjects and Verbs

Complete Thoughts, Complete Sentences

Joining Forces: Combining Sentences Correctly

Boss and Employee: Joining Ideas of Unequal Ranks

Choosing Subordinate Conjunctions

Using Pronouns to Combine Sentences

Understanding Fragments

Reaching the End of the Line: Endmarks

Chapter 5: Handling Complements

Getting a Piece of the Action: Complements for Action Verbs

Completing the Equation: Subject Complements

Pop the Question: Locating the Complement

Pop the Question: Finding the Indirect Object

Pronouns as Objects and Subject Complements

Part 2: Clearing Up Confusing Grammar Points

Chapter 6: Relax! Understanding Verb Tense

Simplifying Matters: The Simple Tenses

Using the Simple Tenses Correctly

Not Picture Perfect: Understanding the Perfect Tenses

Using the Perfect Tenses Correctly

Reporting Information: Verbs Tell the Story

The Rebels: Dealing with Irregular Verbs

Chapter 7: Nodding Your Head: All About Agreement

Agreeing Not to Disagree

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

Matching Subjects and Verbs in Some Tricky Situations

Reaching an Agreement with Pronouns

Agreeing in Tricky Situations

Dealing Sensitively with Pronoun Gender

Chapter 8: Pronouns and Their Cases

Me Like Tarzan: Choosing Subject Pronouns

Using Pronouns as Direct and Indirect Objects

Are You Talking to I? Prepositions and Pronouns

Attaching Objects to Verbals

Knowing the Difference Between Who and Whom

Pronouns of Possession: No Exorcist Needed

Dealing with Pronouns and “-Ing” Nouns

Chapter 9: Small Words, Big Trouble: Prepositions

Proposing Relationships: Prepositions

The Objects of My Affection: Prepositional Phrases and Their Objects

A Good Part of Speech to End a Sentence With?

Chapter 10: Two

Real

Really Good Parts of Speech: Adjectives and Adverbs

Clarifying Meaning with Descriptions

Adding Adjectives

Stalking the Common Adverb

Choosing Between Adjectives and Adverbs

Creating Comparisons with Adjectives and Adverbs

Breaking the Rules: Irregular Comparisons

Part 3: Conventional Wisdom: Punctuation and Capitalization

Chapter 11: Punctuation Law That Should Be Repealed: Apostrophes

The Pen of My Aunt or My Aunt’s Pen? Using Apostrophes to Show Possession

Possession with Proper Nouns

Ownership with Hyphenated Words

Possessive Nouns That End in

S

Common Apostrophe Errors with Pronouns

Shortened Words for Busy People: Contractions

You Coulda Made a Contraction Mistake

Chapter 12: Quotations: More Rules Than the Internal Revenue Service

And I Quote

Punctuating Quotations

Who Said That? Identifying Speaker Changes

Germ-Free Quotations: Using Sanitizing Quotation Marks

Punctuating Titles: When to Use Quotation Marks

Chapter 13: The Pause That Refreshes: Commas

Distinguishing Items: Commas in Series

Using “Comma Sense” to Add Information to Your Sentence

You Talkin’ to Me? Direct Address

Using Commas in Addresses and Dates

Getting Started: The Introductory Comma

Punctuating Independently

Chapter 14: Useful Little Marks: Dashes, Hyphens, and Colons

Inserting Information with Dashes

H-y-p-h-e-n-a-t-i-n-g Made Easy

Creating a Stopping Point: Colons

Chapter 15: CAPITAL LETTERS

Knowing What’s Up with Uppercase

Capitalizing (or Not) References to People

Capitalizing Geography: Directions, Places, and Languages

Marking Seasons and Other Times

Schooling: Courses, Years, and Subjects

Writing Capitals in Titles

Concerning Historic Capitals: Events and Eras

?4U: Cn U AbbreV8?

Chapter 16: Rules of Thumb: Adapting Grammar to Electronic Media

Thumb Wrestling with Grammar: Texts, Tweets, and Instant Messages

Emailing Your Way to Good Grammar

Handling Grammar on the Internet

PowerPoint to the People

Part 4: Polishing Without Wax: The Finer Points of Grammar and Style

Chapter 17: Fine-Tuning Verbs

Giving Voice to Verbs

Actively Seeking a Better Voice

Getting Your Verbs in the Proper Mood

Adding Meaning with Strong Verbs

Chapter 18: No Santas but Plenty of Clauses

Understanding the Basics of Clause and Effect

Chapter 19: Spicing Up Sentence Patterns

Getting Verbal

Choosing the Correct Tense

Sprucing Up Boring Sentences with Clauses and Verbals

Mixing It Up: Changing Sentence Patterns

Chapter 20: Staying on Track: Parallelism

Constructing Balanced Sentences

Shifting Grammar into Gear: Avoiding Stalled Sentences

Seeing Double: Conjunction Pairs

Avoiding Lopsided Comparisons

Chapter 21: Meaning What You Say: Clarity

On Location: Placing Descriptions Correctly

Finding the Subject When Words Are Missing from the Sentence

Comparatively Speaking: Incomplete and Illogical Comparisons

Steering Clear of Vague Pronouns

Chapter 22: Grammar Devils

Deleting Double Negatives

Scoring D Minus

Distinguishing Between Word Twins and Triplets

Close, But Not Close Enough: Words That Resemble Each Other

Roaming Descriptions

Pairs of Trouble: Complicated Verbs

Two Not for the Price of One

Four for the Road: Other Common Errors

Part 5: The Part of Tens

Chapter 23: Ten Ways

Two

to Improve Your Proofreading

Reread

Wait a While

Read It Aloud

Check the Commas

Swap with a Friend

Let the Computer Program Help

Check the Verbs

Check the Pronouns

Know Your Typing Style

The Usual Suspects

Chapter 24: Relax Already! Grammar Rules You Can Stop Worrying About

To Not Split an Infinitive

A Good Part of Speech to End a Sentence With

What Can or May I Do?

Formal Greetings in Emails and Texts

Addresses and Dates in Electronic Communication

Periods and Commas in Some Electronic Messages

The Jury Are Out on This Rule

That? Who?

Who/Whom Is Correct?

Hopefully This Rule Has Faded

About the Author

Advertisement Page

Connect with Dummies

End User License Agreement

Guide

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Table of Contents

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Introduction

Emoticons. Gifs. Instagram photos. Selfies. Snapchat. With these and so many other visual ways to communicate, you might think that grammar is as extinct as a dodo bird. You’d be wrong. In fact, texts, tweets, social media posts, and online comments have actually increased the amount of writing people do each day. Plus, pen-and-paper writing is still around. When writing is involved, grammar is involved, too.

In English Grammar For Dummies, 3rd Edition, I address all your grammar questions about written and spoken language, including a few you didn’t know you had. I do so without loading you up with obscure terminology, defining terms only when you need them to understand what you’re supposed to do as well as why you’re supposed to do it. In this book, I also explain which rules of formal English you can ignore — sometimes or even all the time. The goal of English Grammar For Dummies, 3rd Edition, is to ensure that the language you use conveys your ideas accurately and makes a good impression on your reader or listener.

This book also has another, very practical purpose. Those who express themselves in proper English have a better shot at getting a job, keeping it, and moving into high-salary positions. If you're at a desk and not getting paid (in other words, you’re in school), you also need good grammar. No matter what subject you're studying, teachers favor proper English. So do the designers of standardized tests. The SAT — that loveable exam facing college applicants — contains a substantial writing section, as does the ACT (another fun hurdle of the college-admissions process). Whether you’re aiming for a great job or a good grade, English Grammar For Dummies, 3rd Edition, will help you reach your goal.

Foolish Assumptions

I wrote the third edition of English Grammar For Dummies with a specific person in mind. I assume that you, the reader, already speak English to some extent and that you want to speak it better. I also assume that you’re a busy person with better things to do than worry about the pronouns in your profile for a dating app. (Though perhaps you should. One survey revealed that men who use the word whom in their profiles attract more “clicks” than those who don’t.)

This book is for you if you want

Better grades

Skill in communicating exactly what you mean

A higher-paying or higher-status job

Speech and writing that presents you as an educated, intelligent person

A good score on the SAT, the ACT, and other standardized exams

The ability to create polished reports and presentations at work or at school

Texts, tweets, and posts that get the job done within tight word-limits

Stronger skills in English as a second language

Icons Used in This Book

Wherever you see this icon, you’ll find helpful strategies for understanding the structure of the sentence or for choosing the correct word form.

Not every grammar point has a built-in trap, but some do. This icon tells you how to avoid common mistakes as you construct a sentence.

Think you know how to find the subject in a sentence or choose the correct verb tense? Take the pop quizzes located throughout this book to find out what you know and what you may want to learn.

Are you hoping to spend some time behind ivy-covered walls? To put it another way: Are you aiming for college? Then you should pay special attention to the information next to this icon because college-admissions testers love this material.

This icon identifies key grammar points to deposit in your memory bank.

Beyond the Book

Need crucial information, fast? Check out the English Grammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet. Simply go to www.dummies.com and type “English Grammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.

Where to Go from Here

Every reader is different, and you don’t want to waste time in a chapter that explains something you already know or will never use. Of course, you’re welcome to read every single word I’ve written. If you do, you’ll be my favorite person. But realistically, I know that you want to dip into English Grammar For Dummies, 3rd Edition, as efficiently as possible. Try these strategies:

Look through the Contents at a Glance at the beginning of the book so you have an idea what’s where. If you see something that has often puzzled you — commas or verb tense or something else — put that section on your “to read” list.

Now get more specific. Zero in on the sections you may need in the detailed Table of Contents, which follows the Contents at a Glance. Again, choose whatever you like.

Check out the last section of

Chapter 1

, where I present some grammar questions and the chapters that answer them. Read the chapters that correspond to the questions that stump you.

Also keep an eye out for pop quizzes. Try the questions, and if you know the answers, skip that section. If you make a mistake, spend some quality time in that chapter.

You can also ignore everything in the preceding bullets and simply flip through the book. If something catches your eye, stop. Read, learn, and have fun!

Part 1

Building a Firm Foundation: The Parts of the Sentence

IN THIS PART …

Become familiar with the conventions of formal and informal language when speaking, texting, and writing.

Figure out how sentences are constructed, starting with verbs.

Identify the subjects in sentences.

Learn how to build complete and coherent sentences.

Explore an important building block of sentences: the complement.

Chapter 1

Using the Right Words at the Right Time

IN THIS CHAPTER

Distinguishing between grammar rules and style guidelines

Choosing language to suit your audience, message, and medium

Using grammar-checking apps and programs effectively

In the Middle Ages, grammar meant the study of Latin, the language of choice for educated people. In fact, grammar was so closely associated with Latin that the word referred to any kind of learning. This meaning of grammar shows up when people of grandparent-age and older talk about their grammar school, not their elementary school. The term grammar school is a leftover from the old days. The very old days.

These days the word grammar refers to the nuts and bolts of language, specifically, how words are put together to create meaning. Most people also apply the term to a set of rules you have to follow in order to speak and write better. However, the definition of better changes according to situation, purpose, and audience.

In this chapter, I show you the difference between formal and informal English and explain when each is called for. I also tell you what apps, speech-to-text, and word-processing programs can and can’t do to help you write proper English. I also give you some pointers about generally accepted grammar for texting, tweeting, emailing, and other forms of electronic communication.

What This Year’s Sentence Is Wearing: Understanding Grammar and Style

Fresh from the shower, you’re standing in front of your closet. What should you select? Some options aren’t open to you. You can’t show up at work wearing nothing — not if you want to keep your job and, in addition, stay out of jail. That’s a law (in the real world) and a rule (in the world of grammar). You can choose a bright purple jacket and a fluorescent green scarf. The fashion police may object, but real cops will leave you alone. In both the real world and Grammar Land, this sort of decision is a matter of style. A style point is more flexible than a grammar rule. Take that jacket-scarf selection. Your friends may stare and suggest a subtler color combination, or they may praise you for team loyalty if your school colors are purple and green and you’re cheering at a pep rally.

The grammar rules of proper English can and do change, but not often — maybe a few times every 500 years. (Sometimes people break grammar rules on purpose. See the next section, “Distinguishing Between the Three Englishes,” for more information.) Style, on the other hand, shifts much more frequently. A sentence from the early 20th century may look odd to 21st century readers, and a sentence from the 19th century will seem even stranger. Style also changes with context. Science publications and literary journals, for example, capitalize titles differently. Geography matters, too. In the United States, a comma often appears before and in a list of three or more items. British writers generally omit that comma.

In English Grammar For Dummies, 3rd Edition, I discuss the most common style points. If I tackled every situation, though, you’d be reading a thousand-page book. For your most important writing projects, you may want to consult a manual of style. Many institutions publish this sort of book, listing their preferences for punctuation, capitalization, and a whole bunch of other -ations you’ve never heard of. A few popular style manuals are the Modern Language Association Handbook (for academic writing in the humanities), The Chicago Manual of Style (for general writing), the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, and the MIT Guide to Science and Engineering Communication (for science writing).

These examples illustrate the difference between grammar and style:

SENTENCE: Am going basketball game I to the.

WHAT’S WRONG: The word order is scrambled.

GRAMMAR OR STYLE? Grammar.

CORRECTED SENTENCE: I am going to the basketball game.

SENTENCE: She was born on March 18 2009.

WHAT’S WRONG: Most writers would insert a comma after

18.

GRAMMAR OR STYLE? Style. Some writers prefer a completely different format for the date.

CORRECTED SENTENCE: She was born on March 18, 2009. Or, She was born on 18 March 2009.

SENTENCE: Them enjoy playing baseball.

WHAT’S WRONG: The word

them

isn’t appropriate for that spot in the sentence. (Why? Check

Chapter 8

.)

GRAMMAR OR STYLE: Grammar.

CORRECTED SENTENCE: They enjoy playing baseball.

SENTENCE: Ann spends too much time surfing the Internet.

WHAT’S WRONG: When it was first invented, “Internet” was generally capitalized. These days, many publications prefer lowercase

(internet).

GRAMMAR OR STYLE: Style.

CORRECTED SENTENCE: Ann spends too much time surfing the internet.

When you’re speaking or writing, you should take care not to break any grammar rules. You should also follow the style guidelines of the authority figure who’s judging your work. However (there’s always a however in life, isn’t there?), your surroundings, audience, and purpose affect the grammar and style choices you make. For more information, read the next section, “Distinguishing Between the Three Englishes.”

Distinguishing Between the Three Englishes

Good grammar sounds like a great idea, but good is tough to pin down. Why? Because you know several “Englishes,” and the language that works in one situation is not suitable in another. Here’s what I mean. Imagine that you’re hungry. What do you say or write?

Wanna get something to eat? or c u in caf?

Do you feel like getting a sandwich?

Will you accompany me to the dining room?

These statements illustrate the three Englishes of everyday life. I call them friendspeak, conversational English, and formal English.

Before you choose, you need to know where you are and what’s going on. Most important, you need to know your audience.

Wanna get something to eat? Friendspeak

Friendspeak is informal and filled with slang. Its sentence structure breaks all the rules that English teachers love. It’s the language of I know you and you know me and we can relax together. In friendspeak, the speakers are on the same level. They have nothing to prove to each other, and they’re comfortable with each other’s mistakes. In fact, they make some mistakes on purpose, just to distinguish their personal conversation from what they say on other occasions. Here’s a conversation in friendspeak:

Me and him are going to the gym. Wanna come?

He’s like, I did 60 push-ups, and I'm like, no way.

I doubt that the preceding conversation makes sense to many people, but the participants understand it quite well. Because they both know the whole situation (the guy they’re talking about gets muscle cramps after 4 seconds of exercise), they can talk in shorthand. They can write in shorthand, too, in texts such as c u in caf (which means “see you in the cafeteria”), tweets, instant messages, and similar communications between close friends.

For the most part, I don’t deal with friendspeak in this book. You already know it. In fact, you’ve probably created a version of it with anyone who’s your bff (best friend forever). In Chapter 16, I do explain some factors you should consider when you’re writing online — to your friends or to anyone else.

FLEEK GRAMMAR

Want to be in the in-crowd? Easy. Just create an out-crowd and you’re all set. How do you create an out-crowd? Manufacture a special language (slang) with your friends that no one else understands, at least until the media picks it up or someone earjacks you. (Earjack is slang for “secretly listen to.”) Slang is the ultimate friendspeak. You and your pals are on the inside, talking about a sketchy neighborhood (sketchy means “dangerous”). Everyone else is on the outside, wondering what fleek (awesome, exactly right) means. Should you use slang in your writing? Probably not, unless you’re dealing with a good friend. The goal of writing and speaking is communication, and slang may be a mystery to your intended audience. Also, because slang changes quickly, even a short time after you’ve written something, the meaning may be obscure. Instead of cutting-edge, you sound dated.

When you talk or write in slang, you also risk sounding uneducated. In fact, sometimes breaking the usual rules is the point of slang. In general, you should make sure that your readers know that you understand the rules before you start breaking them (the rules, not the readers) safely.

Do you feel like getting a sandwich? Conversational English

A step up from friendspeak is conversational English. Although not quite friendspeak, conversational English includes some warmth and informality. Conversational English doesn’t stray too far from English class rules, but it does break some. You can relax, but not completely. It’s the tone of most everyday speech, especially between equals. Conversational English is — no shock here — usually for conversations. Specifically, conversational English is appropriate in these situations:

Chats with family members, neighbors, and acquaintances

Informal conversations with teachers and co-workers

Friendly conversations (if there are any) with supervisors

Conversational English also shows up in writing, where it creates a “just us friends” or “no big deal” tone. I’m using conversational English in this book because I’m pretending that I’m chatting with you, the reader, not teaching grammar in a classroom situation. Look for conversational English in these communications:

Notes, emails, instant messages, tweets, and texts to acquaintances and friends

Posts or comments on social media, blogs, and so on

Friendly letters to relatives

Letters to acquaintances who enjoy a warm, friendly tone

Conversational English has a breezy sound. Letters are dropped in contractions (don’t,I’ll,would’ve, and so forth). In written form, conversational English breaks punctuation rules, too. Sentences run together, and commas connect all sorts of things. Multiple punctuation marks (two or three exclamation points, for example) show strong emotion, especially in social media posts and texts.

Will you accompany me to the dining room? Formal English

You’re now at the pickiest end of the language spectrum: formal, grammatically correct speech and writing. Formal English displays the fact that you have an advanced vocabulary, a knowledge of etiquette, and command of standard rules of English usage. You may use formal English when you have less power, importance, and/or status than the other people in the conversation to demonstrate that you respect them. You may also speak or write in formal English when you have more power, importance, and/or status than the audience to create a tone of dignity or to provide a suitable role model for someone who is still learning. Situations that call for formal English include:

Business letters or emails (from or between businesses as well as from individuals to businesses)

Letters or emails to government officials

Online comments posted to publications or government websites

Office memos or emails

Reports

Homework

Communications to teachers

Speeches, presentations, oral reports

Important conversations (for example, job interviews, college interviews, parole hearings, congressional inquiries, inquisitions, sessions with the principal in which you explain that unfortunate incident with the stapler, and so on)

Think of formal English as business clothing. If you’re in a situation where you want to look your best, you’re also in a situation where your words matter. In business, homework, or any situation in which you’re being judged, use formal English.

Can you adapt your writing to suit the situation and audience? Try this quiz. Which note is correct?

A. no hw — ttyl

B. Hi, Ms. Smith. Just a note to let you know I didn’t do the homework. I’ll explain later! Ralph

C. Dear Ms. Smith,

I was not able to do my homework last night. I will speak with you about this matter later.

Sincerely,

Ralph

Answer: The correct answer depends upon a few factors. How willing are you to be stuck in the corner of the classroom for the rest of the year? If your answer is “very willing,” send A, a text written in friendspeak. (By the way, hw is short for “homework” and ttyl means “talk to you later.”) Does your teacher come to school in jeans and sneakers? If so, note B is probably acceptable. Note B is written in conversational English. Is Ms. Smith prim and proper, expecting you to follow every rule ever created, including a few she made up? If so, note C, which is written in formal English, is your best bet.

Thumbing Your Way to Better Grammar

I live in New York City, and I seldom see thumbs that aren't tapping on very small screens — texting (sending written notes over the phone), IMing (instant messaging), tweeting (sending 140-character notes), posting comments on social media, or simply jotting down ideas and reminders. I can't help wondering what sort of grammar will evolve from these forms of communication. Perhaps the 19th edition of English Grammar For Dummies will be only ten pages long, with “sentences” like u ok? lmk — bbl. (Translation for the techno-challenged: “Are you okay? Let me know. I'll be back later.”)

At present, however, match the level of formality in electronic communication to your situation, message, and audience. If you're dealing with a friend, feel free to abbreviate and shorten anything you like. If you're communicating with a co-worker or an acquaintance or a general audience on social media, conversational English is probably fine, and it may even be the best choice. Formal English, on some websites, comes across as stiff and artificial. In general, the more power the recipient has, the more careful you should be. When you're unsure of your audience or writing to someone you want to impress with your level of knowledge, play it safe and opt for formal English.

Before you post or tweet, skim what others have written. Chances are you’ll identify a preferred level of formality. If you want to fit in, match that style. Or be a rebel, if you wish! (Check out Chapter 16 to see more guidelines for electronic communication.)

Probing the Limits of Grammar-Checking Software

Learning grammar in the 21st century is irrelevant because grammar-checking apps, autocorrect functions, and word-processing programs make human knowledge obsolete. Right? Wrong!

English has a half million words, and you can arrange those words trillions of ways. No app or device can catch all of your mistakes, and many programs identify errors that aren’t actually wrong. Worse, some apps automatically guess what you mean and make changes automatically. A friend of mine tried to sign up for an online writing course, which her phone changed to a worrying vise. (On second thought, writing does sometimes cause so much worry that you feel you’re trapped in a vise! Maybe the phone was accurate after all.) Other programs show you a few choices in a tiny space, where it’s all too easy to hit the wrong word. Imagine what happens when you type or tap “garage” and it shows up as “grave” in answer to the question “Where’s Pam?” (Speech-to-text programs that try to capture your words on a screen frequently make mistakes like this one.)

True, some apps find some problems and sometimes suggest good alternatives. But some is not the same as all. Often, computers can’t tell the difference between homonyms — words that sound alike but have different meanings and spelling. For example, if I type

Eye through the bawl at hymn, but it went threw the window pain instead.

my word-processing program is perfectly satisfied. However, I was actually trying to say

I threw the ball at him, but it went through the window pane instead.

Machines aren’t as smart as people (especially people who’ve already shown their intelligence by reading English Grammar For Dummies). Take a look at the words your device inserts, changes, or identifies as wrong. Then use your knowledge of spelling and grammar to say exactly what you mean, correctly.

What's Your Problem? Solutions to Your Grammar Gremlins

I love to stroll around my neighborhood pondering the meaning of life, my grocery list, and other important topics. With my head in the clouds, I sometimes stub my toe. Once I know where the sidewalk cracks are, though, I can avoid them. If you can figure out where the cracks are in your grammatical neighborhood — the gremlins likely to trip you up — your sentences will roll along without risk of falling flat. Table 1-1 shows common usage problems and the location of their solutions. Skim the first column until you recognize something that stumps you. Then turn to the chapter listed in the second column.

TABLE 1-1 Problems and Solutions

Problem

Solution Chapter

The winner is he? Is he the winner?

2

We may? might? be right.

2

Here is? are? five pencils.

3

Three deers? deer? Two dogcatchers-in-chief? dogcatcher-in-chiefs?

3

You used too much chocolate sauce, nevertheless, you can have a cherry. Correct? Incorrect?

4

The superhero is. Complete sentence? Incomplete?

4

The IRS apologized? had apologized? in your dreams apologizes?

6

You was? were? my first choice.

6

Mary, in addition to Sam, has? have? a little lamb?

7

Everyone needs their? his? your? this? grammar book.

7

She told he? him? an incredibly ridiculous story.

8

Keep this secret between you and I? me? me and the tabloids?

8

Getting on? in? over? the plane.

9

Jack feels bad? badly? about climbing.

10

More clear? Clearer?

10

The mayor was better than any public official. Correct? Incorrect?

10

Bagels' ? Bagels are on sale.

11

Bo declared that he was “tired.” Correct? Incorrect?

12

Say it isn't so Joe. Comma needed?

13

Grammatically correct sentence? Grammatically-correct sentence?

14

The pigeon flew East? east?

15

Are you and the boss bff? or best friends forever?

16

The window was broken by me. Correct? Incorrect?

17

While combing my hair, the world ended. Correct? Incorrect?

18

Down the hill tumbled Jill. Correct? Incorrect?

19

I like grammar, ice cream, and to be on vacation? vacations?

20

Being fifteen, the video game is great fun. Correct? Incorrect?

21

The way life is suppose? supposed? to be.

22

A good part of speech to end a sentence with?

22

Chapter 2

Verbs: The Heart of the Sentence

IN THIS CHAPTER

Finding the verb and understanding its function

Distinguishing between linking verbs and action verbs

Using helping verbs correctly

Think about a sentence this way: A sentence is a flatbed truck. You pile all your ideas on the truck, and the truck takes the meaning to your audience (your reader or your listener). The verb of the sentence is a set of tires. Without the verb, you may get your point across, but you’re going to have a bumpy ride.

Every sentence needs a verb, so you start with the verb when you want to do anything to your sentence — including correct it. Verbs come in all shapes and sizes, and grammarians have come up with a few dozen names for every single one. In school, you may have learned about predicates, modals, transitive, intransitive, and other sorts of verbs. Don’t worry about terminology. It’s not as important as understanding what verbs add to your sentence.

In this chapter, I explain how to distinguish between linking and action verbs and how to sort helping verbs from main verbs. Then I show you how to choose the correct verb for all your sentences, including questions and negative statements.

Expressing Meaning with Verbs

What time is it? You can find out by checking a clock, your watch, your phone, or a verb. Surprised by that last one? Verbs express states of being (what is, was, or will be) and action (what someone or something does, did, or will do). In other words, a verb is a part of speech that expresses time, which grammarians call tense. Check out the italicized verbs in these example sentences. Notice what the verb tells the reader or listener about time:

Mark

spilled

ink on the quilt. (

spilled —

past)

Mark’s mom

is

upset. (

is —

present)

Mark

will wash

the quilt, or his mom

will murder

him. (

will wash

and

will murder

— future)

These are just three simple examples, but you get the point. The verb puts the action or state of being on a time line. (Don’t tense up about tense. You can find everything you need to know about this topic in Chapter 6.)

One more important thing you should know about verbs: In a sentence, the verb must match the subject, the person or thing performing the action or existing in the state of being. (See Chapter 3 for the lowdown on subjects.) If the subject is singular (just one), the verb is singular. If the subject is plural (more than one), the verb is plural. In these example sentences, the subject is in bold type and the verb is italicized:

The

poster

is

on the wall of Sam’s bedroom. (

poster

and

is —

singular)

Sam’s

pets

hate

the poster. (

pets

and

hate —

plural)

Sam’s

cat

has chewed

one corner of the poster. (

cat

and

has chewed —

singular)

My well-behaved

dogs

do

not

chew

posters. (

dogs

and

do chew

— plural)

In the last example sentence, did you notice that the word not isn’t italicized? Not changes the meaning of the verb from positive to negative, but it isn’t an official part of the verb. It’s an adverb, if you really want to know. (Turn to Chapter 10 for more about adverbs.)

For help with matching singular subjects to singular verbs and plural subjects to plural verbs, read Chapter 7.

Calling the Help Line for Verbs

You’ve probably noticed that some of the verbs I’ve identified throughout this chapter are single words and others are made up of several words. The extra words are called helping verbs. They don’t carry out the trash or dust the living room, but they do help the main verb express meaning, usually changing the time, or tense, of the action. (For more on tense, see Chapter 6.)

Timing is everything: Creating a time frame with helping verbs

Helping verbs often signal when the action or state of being is occurring. Here are some sentences with helping verbs that create a time line:

Alice

will sing

five arias from that opera tomorrow evening.

(

Sing

is the main verb, and

will

is a helping verb.

Will

places the action at some point in the future.)

Gwen

had moved

the vase, but the baseball

hit

it anyway.

(

Moved

is the main verb, and

had

is a helping verb.

Hit

is a main verb without any helping verbs.

Had

places the action of moving sometime in the past.)

Bob and Ellen

are admiring

Lola’s new tattoo.

(

Admiring

is the main verb, and

are

is a helping verb.

Are

places the action in the present.)

Don’t ask! Questions and negative statements

To make your life more complicated, English often throws in a helping verb or two in order to form questions and negative statements. Usually the helping verb and the main verb are separated in this sort of sentence. In questions, the subject (the person or thing performing the action) comes between the helper and the main verb. Not, by the way, is NOT part of the verb. It’s an adverb. (Check Chapter 10 for more about adverbs.) In negative statements, not shows up between the helper and the main verb. In Chapter 6, I explain more about forming questions and negative statements in various verb tenses. For now, check out these examples of questions and negative statements with helping verbs:

Does

the ring in Lulu’s bellybutton

rust

when she showers?

(

Does

is a helping verb, and

rust

is the main verb.)

Do

Larry and Ella

need

a good divorce lawyer?

(

Do

is the helping verb, and

need

is the main verb.)

Did

Zoe

play

the same song for eight hours?

(

Did

is the helping verb, and

play

is the main verb.)

Did

the grammarians

complain

about that question?

(

Did

is the helping verb, and

complain

is the main verb.)

Will George remember

all the old familiar places?

(

Will

is the helping verb, and

remember

is the main verb.)

Larry does

not

drive

a sports car because he wants to project a wholesome image.

(

Does

is the helping verb, and

drive

is the main verb.)

The killer

bees do

not

chase

Roger because they are afraid of him.

(

Do

is the helping verb, and

chase

is the main verb.)

I will

not

learn

anything else about verbs ever again.

(

Will

is the helping verb, and

learn

is the main verb.)

You’ve probably figured out that the main verbs in these example questions and negative statements are action verbs, with the helpers do, does, did, or will. You can’t go wrong with did and will, because those helpers are the same for singular and plural subjects. Does and do, unfortunately, change according to the subject of the sentence. Does matches all singular subjects (when only one person is performing the action) and do works best in plural sentences, when more than one person is performing the action. Do is also the helper you want when the subject is I or you. (For more on matching singular and plural subjects and verbs, turn to Chapter 7.)

Questions or negative statements formed with the verb to be don’t need do or does. In these examples, the verb is italicized:

Is

grammar a popular subject?

Am

I a good grammarian?

Were

the grammarians

analyzing

that sentence?

Change this statement into a question:

Ella meets Larry’s parents today.

Answer: Does Ella meet Larry’s parents today? To form the question, add the helping verb does.

Now change this statement into a negative (opposite).

George gave me help during the grammar test.

Answer: George did not give me help during the grammar test. You form the negative with the helping verb did.

Adding shades of meaning with helping verbs

Helping verbs also change the meaning of a sentence by adding a sense of duty, probability, willingness, and so forth. Concentrate on the italicized verbs in these examples. All are add-ons, or helping verbs. The main verbs appear in bold type. Notice how the meaning changes:

Rita

may

attend

the party. Her boss

might

be

there.

(The helping verbs

may

and

might

expresses possibility: Rita will go if she’s in a good mood and stay home if she isn’t. Same thing for the boss.

May

takes on another meaning, too. The same helping verb can express permission: Rita’s father checked out the party and okayed it.)

Rita

should

attend

every official event. She

must

go

.

(The helping verbs

should

and

must

mean that attending is a duty or obligation. Even if Rita wants to sit on her sofa and knit socks, she has to attend.)

Rita

would

stay

home if she

could

do

so

.

She

can

sleep

during the show, though.

(Two helpers appear in the first sentence. The helping verb

would

shows willingness or preference. The helping verb

could

makes a statement about ability. In the second sentence,

can

also refers to ability.)

Find the helping verbs in this sentence. Decide how the helping verb affects the meaning.

Would you consider a campaign for president if Lamar must step down?

Answer: Would is a helping verb that adds a sense of possibility to the main verb, consider. Must is a helping verb the implies an obligation. It is attached to the main verb step.

Some grammarians are very strict about the difference between some pairs of helpers — can/may, can/could and may/might. They see can as ability only, and may as permission. Similarly, a number of grammarians allow can and may for present actions only, with might and could reserved for past tense. These days, most people interchange all these helpers and end up with fine sentences. Don’t worry too much about these pairs.

Distinguishing between helping verbs and main verbs isn’t particularly important, as long as you get the whole thing when you’re identifying the verb in a sentence. If you find only part of the verb, you may confuse action verbs with linking verbs. You want to keep these two types of verbs straight when you choose an ending for your sentence, as I explain in “Completing linking-verb sentences correctly” in the previous section.

To decide whether you have an action verb or a linking verb, look at the main verb, not at the helping verbs. If the main verb expresses action, the whole verb is action, even if one of the helpers is a form of to be. For example:

is going

has been painted

should be strangled

are all action verbs, not linking verbs, because going, painted, and strangled express action.