Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment E-Book

Daniel C. Miller

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Essentials of Psychological Assessment
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 785

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Written by a renowned expert in school neuropsychology, Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Edition is a practical resource presenting school psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and pediatric neuropsychologists with clear coverage and vital information on this evolving area of practice within school psychology. Filled with case studies and guidance for your practice, the Second Edition offers new coverage of major neuropsychological test batteries for children, including NEPSY ®-II; Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children®, Fourth Edition Integrated; and Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (TM). Like all the volumes in the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, this book is designed to help busy mental health professionals quickly acquire the knowledge and skills they need to make optimal use of major psychological assessment instruments. Each concise chapter features numerous callout boxes highlighting key concepts, bulleted points, and extensive illustrative material, as well as test questions that help you gauge and reinforce your grasp of the information covered. The accompanying CD-ROM provides helpful tools, including sample case studies and searchable databases of neuropsychological tests classified by processing area and conceptual model. Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Edition explores how to identify the need for testing, conduct a neurodevelopmental history, select appropriate assessment instruments, effectively evaluate students, and accurately interpret results.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

Series Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter One: The Emerging Specialization of School Neuropsychology

Reasons Why there is a Growing Interest in School Neuropsychology

The Need for Neuropsychological Assessment in the Schools

Definition of School Neuropsychology

Roles and Functions of a School Neuropsychologist

List of Recent School Neuropsychology Books

List of Journals that Publish School Neuropsychological Research

Chapter Summary

Chapter Two: Historical Influences of Clinical Neuropsychology and School Psychology

Historical Influences of Clinical Neuropsychology on School Neuropsychology

Historical Influences of School Psychology on School Neuropsychology

Summary of Historical Influences of School Psychology on School Neuropsychology

History of School Neuropsychology

Chapter Summary

Chapter Three: Training and Credentialing in School Neuropsychology

How does the Integration of Neuropsychological Principles Fit within the Broader Field of School Psychology?

Training and Credentialing Standards

Proposed Professional Guidelines to Train School Neuropsychologists

Chapter Summary

Chapter Four: When to Refer for a School Neuropsychological Assessment

Common Referral Reasons for a School Neuropsychological Evaluation

Consideration of Students with Special Needs

Chapter Summary

Chapter Five: An Integrated Model for School Neuropsychology Assessment

Prior Models of School Neuropsychological Assessment

Levels of Assessment Model

School Neuropsychological Assessment Model Overview

Chapter Summary

Chapter Six: School Neuropsychology Report Writing

Basic Principles of School Neuropsychological Assessment and Report Writing

Components of a School Neuropsychological Report

Chapter Summary

Chapter Seven: Major School Neuropsychological Test Batteries for Children

NEPSY-II: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition Integrated

Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS)

Chapter Summary

Chapter Eight: Clinical Interpretation Guidelines

Selecting a Test or Assessment Battery

Data Analyses and Interpretations

Clinical Interpretation Examples

Chapter Summary

Chapter Nine: Case Study Illustration

School Neuropsychological Evaluation

Comments from the Author

Chapter Ten: Sensorimotor Functions

Sensory Functions

Motor Functions

Chapter Summary

Chapter Eleven: Visuospatial and Auditory Cognitive Processes

Visuospatial Processes

Chapter Summary

Chapter Twelve: Learning and Memory Cognitive Processes

Theories of Learning and Memory

A Conceptual Model of Learning and Memory for School Neuropsychologists

Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory Processes

When to Assess for Learning and Memory Processes

Identifying Learning and Memory Concerns

Assessing Learning and Memory

Stand-Alone Tests of Learning and Memory

Assessing the Rate of New Learning

Assessing Immediate Verbal Memory

Assessing Immediate Visual Memory

Assessing Delayed Verbal Memory

Assessing Delayed Visual Memory

Assessing Verbal-Visual Associative Learning and Recall

Chapter Summary

Chapter Thirteen: Executive Functions

What are Executive Functions?

Neuroanatomy of Executive Functions

When to Assess for Executive Functions

Identifying Executive Dysfunction Concerns

Assessing Executive Functions

Assessing Response Inhibition

Chapter Summary

Chapter Fourteen: Attention and Working Memory Facilitators/Inhibitors

Allocating and Maintaining Attention Facilitators/Inhibitors

Working Memory Facilitators/Inhibitors

Chapter Summary

Chapter Fifteen: Speed, Fluency, and Efficiency of Processing Facilitators/Inhibitors

Processing Speed Definition

Models of Processing Speed

Neuroanatomy of Speed, Fluency, and Efficiency of Processing

When to Assess for Speed, Fluency, and Efficiency of Processing

Identifying Speed, Fluency, and Efficiency of Processing Deficits

Assessing Speed and Efficiency of Cognitive Processing

Chapter Summary

Chapter Sixteen: Acquired Knowledge: Acculturation Knowledge and Language Abilities

Acculturation Knowledge

Language Abilities

Chapter Summary

Chapter Seventeen: Acquired Knowledge

When to Assess for Academic Functioning

Reading Disorders

Written Language Disorders

Mathematics Disorders

Chapter Summary

Chapter Eighteen: Future Directions of School Neuropsychological Assessment

Continued Refinement of the School Neuropsychology Conceptual Model

Neuroeducation and School Neuropsychology

Neuroimaging and School Neuropsychology

Future Trends in School Neuropsychological Assessment

Training Issues in School Neuropsychological Assessment

Chapter Summary

Appendix

References

About the Author

Index

About the CD-ROM

Download CD/DVD Content

Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series

Series Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of 16 PF® Assessmentby Heather E.-P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger

Essentials of Assessment Report Writingby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather, Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Assessment with Brief Intelligence Testsby Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of Autism Spectrum Disorders Evaluation and Assessmentby Celine A. Saulnier and Pamela E. Ventola

Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development–II Assessmentby Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula

Essentials of Behavioral Assessmentby Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds, and R. W. Kamphaus

Essentials of Career Interest Assessmentby Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser

Essentials of CAS Assessmentby Jack A. Naglieri

Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other Kaufman Measuresby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Broadbooks, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Conners Behavior Assessments™by Elizabeth P. Sparrow

Essentials of Creativity Assessmentby James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer

Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Third Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz, and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of DAS-II ® Assessmentby Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliot

Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Interventionby Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling

Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventionsby Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather

Essentials of Executive Functions Assessmentby George McCloskey and Lisa A. Perkins

Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Editionby Marc J. Ackerman

Essentials of IDEA for Assessment Professionalsby Guy McBride, Ron Dumont, and John O. Willis

Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessmentby Douglas K. Smith

Essentials of KABC-II Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of Millon™ Inventories Assessment, Third Editionby Stephen Strack

Essentials of MMPI-A™ Assessmentby Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy

Essentials of MMPI-2® Assessment, Second Editionby David S. Nichols

Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ® Assessment, Second Editionby Naomi Quenk

Essentials of NEPSY®-II Assessmentby Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman

Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Nancy Hebben and William Milberg

Essentials of Nonverbal Assessmentby Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman

Essentials of PAI ® Assessmentby Leslie C. Morey

Essentials of Processing Assessmentby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of Response to Interventionby Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns

Essentials of Rorschach ® Assessmentby Tara Rose, Nancy Kaser-Boyd, and Michael P. Maloney

Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Daniel C. Miller

Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identificationby Dawn Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessmentby Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram

Essentials of TAT and Other Storytelling Assessments, Second Editionby Hedwig Teglasi

Essentials of Temperament Assessmentby Diana Joyce

Essentials of WAISEssentials of WJ III™ Cognitive Abilities Assessment, Second Editionby Fredrick A. Schrank, Daniel C. Miller, Barbara J. Wendling, and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WJ III™ Tests of Achievement Assessmentby Nancy Mather, Barbara J. Wendling, and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WMS®-IV Assessmentby Lisa Whipple Drozdick, James A. Holdnack, and Robin C. Hilsabeck

Essentials of WNV ™ Assessmentby Kimberly A. Brunnert, Jack A. Naglieri, and Steven T. Hardy-Braz

Essentials of WPPSI ™-III Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL-2 Assessmentby Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds

Cover Design: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cover Image: © Greg Kuchik/Getty Images

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone].

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If legal, accounting, medical, psychological, or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or all capital letters. Readers, however, should contact the appropriate companies for more complete information regarding trademarks and registration.

For general information on our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Miller, Daniel C. (Daniel Carlton), 1956-

Essentials of school neuropsychological assessment [electronic resource]/Daniel C. Miller.—2nd ed.1 online resource.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

ISBN 978-1-118-17584-2 (paper/cd)

ISBN 978-1-118-41931-1 (ebk)

ISBN 978-1-118-42107-9 (ebk)

ISBN 978-1-118-43376-8 (ebk)

1. Neuropsychological tests for children. 2. Pediatric neuropsychology. 3. School psychology. 4. School children—Mental health services. 5. Behavioral assessment of children. I. Title.

RJ486.6

618.928—dc23

2012028393

To my loving wife, Michie, who for 26 years has been my best friend and best supporter, and to my parents, Roger Carlton Miller and Mary Jane Miller.

Foreword

The Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment by Daniel C. Miller is yet one more excellent addition to the Wiley Essentials series. Over the years, the Essentials series, designed and edited by Alan and Nadeen Kaufman, has provided a valuable avenue for the dissemination of information across many specialties in psychology. Each book is a concise, well-written, up-to-date, and practical resource. These “little” books may be small in size, yet they consist of a synthesis of huge amounts of information. They are relatively little in cost, yet they provide referenced materials that are used in everyday practice over and over again. It is hard not to own an Essentials book that does not look dog-eared and well worn!

From experience, I know that it is not easy to write these seemingly easy-to-read books. Parsimony is the rule of thumb during manuscript preparation, and the author(s) struggles with the synthesis of vast quantities of information sifted down into small tables, “Don't Forget” boxes, and streamlined chapters that give all the constituent parts of a subject while not losing the big picture. Essentials authors try to be fair and represent the subject matter objectively and with substantial evidence. They take great pains to give practical, evidence-based guidance that translates quickly into everyday practice. In this instance, I am delighted to say that Daniel C. Miller has managed to provide us in this second edition another typical Essentials book!

In the 1960s and 1970s, when school psychology was formed as a field of practice, little was known about brain-behavior relationships compared to today. School psychology practitioners had to assemble quickly after the passage of the first laws that guaranteed children with special needs rights to a free appropriate public education. Researchers struggled with vague technology to document what was going on in the brain. In kind, school psychologists struggled with their duty to bring science down to the everyday level of the classroom. The gap between the laboratory and the classroom was wide indeed.

As technology improved in the 1980s and 1990s researchers were able to observe the brain processing information with increasingly clearer media and the natural progression of applying the information began in earnest. Studies investigating dyslexia, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, and autism (to name a few) gave us direct inroads into understanding the physical processes that underlined the behaviors that we were seeing in the classroom. In turn, the following first decade of the century witnessed direct remediative attempts that were based in concrete imaging neuroscience. Work by eminent researchers, such as Sally Shaywitz, Bob Schultz, Ami Klin, Peg Semrud-Clikeman, Erin Bigler, and many others, showed serious and powerful attempts to bring laboratory findings directly into clinical practice. Interventions that were previously based on theory and speculation were now becoming interventions based on concrete attempts to encourage neural plasticity and all of the benefits of strength models of remediation. Therefore the gap between science and practice has been steadily decreasing and school psychology practitioners are finding themselves in the middle of new information that must be translated into practice.

In the first edition of the Essentials of School Neuropsychology we acknowledged that there was “a movement afoot in school psychology to include neuropsychological assessment principles into everyday practice” and that this movement did not evolve as a strong reactionary force loudly proclaiming its right to be heard, but more as “a reflection of practitioners trying to keep up with the advances of modern science.” Some five years later, there is evidence that this quiet and serious grassroots movement is strong and continuing to strengthen as research on neuropsychological aspects of autism, traumatic brain injury, and specific learning disabilities are common in school psychology journals and trade publications. Indeed, the demise of the discrepancy model of learning disability identification has given way to powerful and theoretically based methods of determining cognitive strengths and weaknesses as they relate to academic skills. The latter requires inquiry into brain-behavior relationships and cements school psychology's commitment to translating neuroscientific knowledge to the individual level in the classroom.

How does the school psychologist keep up? What kind of information is needed in today's workplace? This quiet movement of applying neuropsychological information into school psychology practice is starting to crystallize. Leaders in the field are recognizing the need for training and school psychology training programs across the country are enhancing their curriculums to include courses on neuroanatomy, neuropsychological assessment, consultation, and competencies in medical liaison activities. Indeed, school psychology doctoral programs that have a strong emphasis on pediatric neuropsychology are now becoming common as the grassroots movement for continuing education grows.

There is enough established activity and interest in school neuropsychology for some authors to suggest that the time for a specialty within school psychology has come. The issues surrounding credentialing and competencies for such a specialty are quite complex, but regardless of the outcome of such issues, the fact that the ethical demand for school psychologists to be aware of and to incorporate scientific information into everyday practice will remain. Efforts to codify and express practice guidelines, such as those found in this book are needed at this time to direct and assist school psychologists in navigating their way in the future. It is not possible to wait for all issues to be resolved before applying new knowledge: That day may never come. After all, as a child stands before us today, we are charged to bring everything that we have and know to help him or her meet the demands of everyday living in the real world—not in a clinical setting, not in a hospital or rehabilitation center, but in a real classroom where most of the children have few problems and can easily perform learning and social tasks that sometimes seem insurmountable to the children we serve.

Daniel C. Miller's Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment—Second Edition is an important book. It provides us with clear and concise guidance on how to bring neuropsychological information and research into our non-clinical settings. This second edition merges the theoretical application of neuropsychological principles with the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which will hopefully assist with translating information to educational personnel in the school system. The second edition also provides supplementary information that is designed to have an immediate practical application. Clinicians can use the Neuropsychological Processing Concerns Checklist for Children and Youth immediately. The sample school neuropsychology report shell is also available. Dr. Miller also has updated the tables of numerous new tests and assessment measures to reflect a commitment to using the best tools of the trade within a practical model. All in all, the additions to the second edition are abundant and happily reflect the passion and strength of progress in the past 5 years.

The guidance in this book is not elementary; it is complex and requires much effort on the part of the reader to assimilate and translate into everyday practice. Dr. Miller emphasizes the need for formal training, appropriate supervision, and ongoing education. He also infuses the text with an exceptional level of competency, enthusiasm, and excitement for the subject matter that is contagious and motivating. This second edition is a welcome addition to the school psychologist's library and, like the first edition, is destined to become dog-eared and well worn!

Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, EdD, NCSP, ABPdNChicago School of Professional PsychologyChicago, IllinoisJune, 2012

Series Preface

In the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, we have attempted to provide the reader with books that deliver key practical information in the most efficient and accessible style. The series features instruments in a variety of domains, such as cognition, personality, education, and neuropsychology. For the experienced clinician, books in the series offer a concise yet thorough way to master utilization of the continuously evolving supply of new and revised instruments, as well as a convenient method for keeping up-to-date on the tried-and-true measures. The novice finds here a prioritized assembly of all the information and techniques that must be at one's fingertips to begin the complicated process of individual psychological diagnosis.

Wherever feasible, visual shortcuts to highlight key points are utilized alongside systematic, step-by-step guidelines. Chapters are focused and succinct. Topics are targeted for an easy understanding of the essentials of administration, scoring, interpretation, and clinical application. Theory and research are continually woven into the fabric of each book, but always to enhance clinical inference, never to sidetrack or overwhelm. We have long been advocates of “intelligent” testing—the notion that a profile of test scores is meaningless unless it is brought to life by the clinical observations and astute detective work of knowledgeable examiners. Test profiles must be used to make a difference in the child's or adult's life, or why bother to test? We want this series to help our readers become the best intelligent testers they can be.

The Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment—Second Edition provides clinicians with a thoroughly updated practical guide on how to integrate neuropsychological assessment into educational practice. The author, a world leader in the emerging specialty of school neuropsychology, provides a useful review of the history of adult and pediatric clinical neuropsychology and paints a careful picture of the emerging specialization of this rapidly growing field. The book features a list of professional organizations, training requirements, and professional resources, such as books and journals, that relate to school neuropsychology. The author provides an updated, state-of-the-art conceptual framework that can be used to guide practitioners who are interested in conducting school neuropsychological assessments. The current version of the school neuropsychological model (SNP) explained in this second edition is a further integration of Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory with neuropsychological theories. This Integrated SNP/CHC Model is described thoroughly and systematically with a chapter on each component. The author provides a comprehensive case study that illustrates how the school neuropsychological conceptual model can be operationalized and the reader is provided with a step-by-step interpretation guide for making sense of divergent data. The second edition of this book contains a supplemental CD that is filled with copies of rating forms, sample case studies, and a sample report shell template. We believe that Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment—Second Edition is a vital resource for all mental health care providers who work with children and who are interested in integrating neuropsychological principles into educational practice.

Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman, EdD,Series EditorsYale Child Study Center, School of Medicine

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge several people in my life for their support and contributions. First and foremost, I want to thank my wife, Michie. She has been my best friend and primary editor for the past 26 years. I also want to thank my parents, Roger Carlton Miller and Mary Jane Miller. I got the writing gene from my father, the newspaper columnist and playwright. I got the attention to detail and patience from my mother. Thank you both for the nurturing guidance and support throughout the years.

For the first time in 23 years, I got some time off from the university to work on this book. Special thanks to my dean, Ann Staton, to the associate provost, Michael Stankey, and to the provost and vice president for academic affairs, Robert Neely, for their support of my release time. Also, thank you to Dr. Shannon Rich for stepping in as department chair in my absence.

Thank you to Bill Benson for doing the brain illustrations for the book and thank you Elaine Fletcher-Janzen for writing the Foreword to the book. Thank you to my colleague, Denise Maricle, who graciously edited early versions of the book and offered insights on ways to improve the content. Thank you to Glenda Peters, my administrative assistant at TWU, who helped “hold down the office” in my leave and who has been a good friend over the many years.

Thank you to several of my colleagues who contributed case studies to the supplemental CD. Thank you to my colleagues whom I have had the pleasure to work with in the School Neuropsychology Post-Graduate Training Program since 2002. I continue to be inspired by your professionalism and passionate commitment to school neuropsychology. Special thanks to Marquita Flemming, my senior editor at John Wiley & Sons, and her staff, for making the editorial process run smoothly for this second edition.

Finally, I want to thank the school psychologists I have taught or influenced over the past 20-plus years to integrate neuropsychological principles into their professional practices. Your collective commitment to providing high-quality services to children and their families is the inspiration that keeps me working hard.

Chapter One

The Emerging Specialization of School Neuropsychology

This first chapter reviews the major reasons why there is an interest in the emerging specialization of school neuropsychology, including the acknowledgment of the neurobiological bases of childhood learning and behavioral disorders, the increased number of children with chronic medical conditions that affect school performance, the increased use of medications with school-age children, the increase in the number of children with severe behavioral and emotional challenges, and the increased emphasis on the identification of processing disorders in children with specific learning disabilities. The chapter also reviews the need for providing neuropsychological assessment and consultation services within the schools. A definition of school neuropsychology is provided and the roles and functions of a school neuropsychologist are outlined. Finally, lists of the recent school neuropsychological publications and scholarly journals, that publish school neuropsychology research are presented.

Reasons Why there is a Growing Interest in School Neuropsychology

There are several reasons why there is a growing interest in school neuropsychology, including: (1) the wealth of research on the neurobiological bases of childhood learning and behavioral disorders; (2) the increased numbers of children in the schools with medical conditions that affect their school performance; (3) the increased use of medications prescribed to children; (4) the increase in the incidence rate of children who had serious educational and behavioral problems; and (5) the increased emphasis on the identification of processing disorders within children diagnosed with a specific learning disability.These reasons will be covered in more detail in this section of the chapter.

Recognition of the Neurobiological Bases of Childhood Learning and Behavioral Disorders

The interest in the biological bases of human behavior is not new to the school psychology profession, but it is becoming more relevant to the current generation of school psychologists. Some of the seasoned veterans or psychology historians suggest that there has always been an interest in the biological bases of behaviors. In fact, the “nature versus nurture” debate is as old as the psychology profession. Some major theorists in our shared past, such as B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson, were strict behaviorists. They believed that observable behavior was the only essential element that needed to be considered in human behavior. The curriculum-based measurement/assessment approach touted by many practitioners today has its theoretical roots in behaviorism.

Don't Forget

Many parents and educators are looking to school psychologists for answers as to why a student is not achieving at grade level or is behaving in socially inappropriate ways, rather than merely receiving a special education diagnosis.

In the late 1950s, researchers came to realize that the behaviorist approaches could not “explain complex mental functions such as language and other perceptual functions” (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 2002, p. 21), and this still holds true today. On the opposite end of the theoretical spectrum were the cognitive psychologists such as George Miller, Noam Chomsky, and Michael Posner, who believed that brain function needed to be considered in understanding human behaviors. Starting in the 1970s and continuing through today, the cognitive psychologists were tremendously aided by the development of neuroimaging techniques. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional MRI (fMRI) are all useful tools in validating or helping to refine theoretical models of cognition developed by cognitive psychologists.

It is important to acknowledge that the integration of neuropsychological principles into educational practice got off to a rough start. Practitioners who entered the field prior to the 1970s may remember Doman and Delcato's perceptual-motor training (R. Doman, Spitz, Zucman, Delacato, & G. Doman, 1960) for children with “minimal brain dysfunction” or tests such as the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (S. Kirk, McCarthy, & W. Kirk, 1968). These approaches may have had good face validity, but they did not accurately show treatment efficacy for either perceptual-motor deficits or language deficits. These early missteps in integrating neuropsychological principles into educational practice only reinforced the rising role of behaviorism in school psychology (Hynd & Reynolds, 2005). Some contemporary and influential scholars still cite inadequate findings on the early process assessment approach in the 1970s as the basis for current legislative changes to the definition of a specific learning disability (Reschly, Hosp, & Schmied, 2003). Unfortunately, these influential scholars seem to have omitted an impressive body of empirical research in the past 30-plus years that supports the biological bases to the majority of childhood disorders.