Essentials of WRAML3 and EMS Assessment E-Book

Wayne Adams

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Essentials of Psychological Assessment
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 411

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Develop your memory assessment expertise with WRAML3 and EMS mastery

Essentials of WRAML3 and EMS Assessment allows you to dive deep into the intricacies of memory assessment and gain proficiency in making holistic, meaningful recommendations on the basis of test scores and subjective assessments. Explore the latest enhancements in the second version of WRAML, featuring a Performance Validity measure, heightened emphasis on delayed recall and working memory, more nuanced scoring, and an additional abbreviated format. This book will also help you develop expertise in administering the subjective EMS assessment tool, capturing everyday memory in addition to the more clinical information offered by the WRAML.

• Understand the nuances of memory assessment with visual cues highlighting crucial points
• Develop practical expertise with step-by-step guidelines that go beyond the official testing manuals.
• Gain a deeper knowledge of memory assessment with integrated theoretical and research content
• Enhance your own professional development or train students and colleagues in a multifaceted memory assessment approach

This comprehensive guide will elevate your memory assessment skills for children and adults, ensuring your recommendations are both informed and impactful.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

COVER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SERIES PAGE

TITLE PAGE

COPYRIGHT PAGE

DEDICATION

SERIES PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

One ESSENTIALS OF MEMORY MEASUREMENT USING THE WRAML3 AND THE EMS: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

IS MEMORY ASSESSMENT NEEDED?

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK

Two MEASURING MEMORY: FOUNDATIONS

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

ANATOMY OF MEMORY

IN THE PAGES THAT FOLLOW

SOME CAUTIONS

Three OVERVIEW OF THE WRAML3

FROM WRAML2 TO WRAML3

PERFORMANCE VALIDITY

STRUCTURE OF THE WRAML3

DIVERSITY ISSUES

USER QUALIFICATIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND CAUTIONS

Four INTERPRETING WRAML3 SUBTESTS, INDEXES, AND PROCESS SCORES

VISUAL IMMEDIATE, DELAYED, AND RECOGNITION MEMORY INDEXES

OPTIONAL RELATED SUBTESTS

VERBAL IMMEDIATE, DELAYED, AND RECOGNITION MEMORY INDEXES AND SUBTESTS

OPTIONAL RELATED SUBTESTS

Five WRAML3 INTERPRETATION: LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

Six WRAML3 ABBREVIATED FORMATS

SCREENER FORMAT

BRIEF FORMAT

A WORD OF CAUTION

ABBREVIATED FORMATS: CASE ILLUSTRATION

COMMENTARY

Seven INTEGRATED INTERPRETATION OF THE WRAML3

INTERPRETATION USING CASES AND COMMENTARY

CASE A: ADHD?

CASE B: LEARNING DISABILITY?

CASE C: HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY

CASE D: DEMENTIA LIKELY?

CASE E: ACADEMIC STRUGGLE AND AN IEP

Eight EVERYDAY MEMORY SURVEY: OVERVIEW, ADMINISTRATION, AND SCORING

EVERYDAY MEMORY

EMS OVERVIEW

ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING

Nine USES AND INTERPRETIVE CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE EVERYDAY MEMORY SURVEY

USES

INTERPRETATION OF THE EMS

CASE EXAMPLE: TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Ten Q&A WITH THE AUTHORS

THE WRAML3 IS A BIG TEST! WHAT’S THE EASIEST WAY TO LEARN IT?

THE WRAML WAS THE FIRST STANDARDIZED AND NATIONALLY NORMED TEST OF MEMORY FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS. WHAT ORIGINALLY LED YOU TO EMBARK ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION EFFORT?

HOW DID THE WRAML GET ITS NAME?

HOW LONG DID THE ORIGINAL WRAML TAKE TO DEVELOP COMPARED TO THE WRAML3?

YOU HAVE SAID THAT THE WRAML IS ONE OF THE BEST DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENTS TO ASSESS ADHD. WHY?

HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT STUDENTS USING THE

WRAML3 INTERPRETIVE REPORT

SOFTWARE?

HOW SOON CAN I RE‐ADMINISTER THE WRAML3?

THE WRAML3 PERFORMANCE VALIDITY INDICATOR (PVI) IS BASED UPON PERFORMANCE ON THE FOUR RECOGNITION SUBTESTS AS WELL AS THE TWO ACI SUBTESTS. HOW CAN I KNOW IF AN EXAMINEE IS FAKING BAD OR SIMPLY NOT MOTIVATED TO PERFORM IF I DON’T ADMINISTER ALL OF THOSE SUBTESTS?

I “GOOGLED”

EVERYDAY MEMORY SURVEY

AND FOUND A 2004 PUBLICATION AUTHORED BY DR. HALL. IS THAT POSSIBLE?

WHY IS THERE NO LONG‐TERM MEMORY SUBTEST?

WHY WAS NO AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER GROUP INCLUDED AMONG THE VARIOUS CLINICAL SAMPLES THAT WERE OBTAINED AND WHOSE DATA ARE INCLUDED IN THE VALIDITY CHAPTER OF THE WRAML3 TECHNICAL

MANUAL

?

HOW SHOULD I USE THE QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTORS (SUCH AS “AVERAGE” OR” EXTREMELY LOW” SCORE) FOUND IN ONE OF THE

WRAML3

MANUALS?

HOW SHOULD I USE THE AGE EQUIVALENTS FOUND NEAR THE END OF THE ADMINISTRATION MANUAL?

IF I DON’T HAVE TIME TO DO AN ENTIRE WRAML3 ADMINISTRATION, IS IT OKAY TO GIVE JUST A FEW SUBTESTS?

WHAT DOES THE WRAML3 SAY ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF MEMORY? WE KNOW THAT IN OLD AGE, MEMORY DECLINES. DOES THAT DECLINE START THEN OR EARLIER, AND IS THE DECLINE THE SAME FOR VISUAL AND VERBAL MEMORY?

ARE THERE ADDITIONAL FACTORS RELATED TO INTERPRETATION THAT USERS OF THE WRAML3 AND/OR THE EMS SHOULD CONSIDER?

REFERENCES

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

INDEX

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 A Sampling of Cognitive Effects Found in Common Kinds of Dementia...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Example of the Interpretive Impact of Index Discrepancies

Table 5.2 Examples of Determining WRAML3 Subtest Discrepancies

Table 5.3 Examples of determining WRAML3 Index Discrepancies

Table 5.4 Illustration of Horizontal Analysis Data: Comparing Discrepancy Pe...

Table 5.5 Illustration of Evaluating Possible Discrepancies Found with Data ...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Sam’s Results from the Brief Version of the Wide Range Assessment ...

Table 7.2 WRAML3 Brief Format Printout from its Scoring Software for Clare’s...

Table 7.3 Clare’s Performance on Additional WRAML3 Subtests that Focus on I...

Table 7.4 Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Third Edition (WRAML...

Table 7.5 Pat’s performance on the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learn...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Luke’s WRAML3 Test Results Excerpted from a Larger Neuropsycholog...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 WRAML3 Standard Score performance of children with ADHD, RD (read...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 A coronal section of the brain showing the location of the hippoc...

Figure 2.2 Hippocampus, fornix, and amygdala: bilateral, medial temporal lob...

Figure 2.3 Some of the important hippocampal structures that are essential f...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 WRAML3 Immediate (“Core”) Memory Subtests and Indexes....

Figure 3.2 Structure for the WRAML3 Delayed Memory measures.

Figure 3.3 Structure for the WRAML3 recognition measures.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Design Learning Performance of Sam, compared to his 9‐year‐old co...

Figure 4.2 Design Learning Performance of “Ted,” compared to his 9‐year‐old ...

Figure 4.3 Illustration of scoring using Story B as it might appear on the W...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Illustration of a Top‐down, or Pyramidal Approach to Interpretati...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 The Subtests that Comprise the Screener Format of the WRAML3.

Figure 6.2 The Subtests that Comprise the Brief Format of the WRAML3.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Clare’s Design Learning subtest results across five recall trials...

Figure 7.2 Design and Verbal Learning Subtest Performance over Trials for Pa...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Q‐global EMS Output Related to Observed Decline over Three Admini...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Age trajectories for performance on WRAML3 Visual and Verbal Del...

Figure 10.2 Developmental trajectory (across age cohorts) of Finger Windows ...

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Series Title

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

SERIES PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Begin Reading

REFERENCES

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

INDEX

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series

Series Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of 16PF® Assessmentby Heather E. P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger

Essentials of Adaptive Behavior Assessment of Neurodevelopmental Disordersby Celine A. Saulnier and Cheryl Klaiman

Essentials of ADHD Assessment for Children and Adolescentsby Elizabeth P. Sparrow and Drew Erhardt

Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficultiesby David A. Kilpatrick

Essentials of Assessment Report Writing, Second Editionby W. Joel Schneider, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather, Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Assessment with Brief Intelligence Testsby Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of Autism Spectrum Disorders Evaluation and Assessmentby Celine A. Saulnier and Pamela E. Ventola

Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development‐II Assessmentby Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula

Essentials of Behavioral Assessmentby Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds, and R. W. Kamphaus

Essentials of Career Interest Assessmentby Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser

Essentials of CAS2 Assessmentby Jack A. Naglieri and Tulio M. Otero

Essentials of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, Second Editionby Linda Wilmshurst

Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other Kaufman Measuresby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Y. Broadbooks, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Conners Behavior Assessments™by Elizabeth P. Sparrow

Essentials of Creativity Assessmentby James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer

Essentials of Cross‐Battery Assessment, Third Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz, and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of DAS‐II® Assessmentby Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliott

Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Interventionby Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling

Essentials of Evidence‐Based Academic Interventionsby Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather

Essentials of Executive Functions Assessmentby George McCloskey and Lisa A. Perkins

Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Editionby Marc J. Ackerman

Essentials of Gifted Assessmentby Steven I. Pfeiffer

Essentials of IDEA for Assessment Professionalsby Guy McBride, Ron Dumont, and John O. Willis

Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessmentby Douglas K. Smith

Essentials of Intellectual Disability Assessment and Identificationby Alan W. Brue and Linda Wilmshurst

Essentials of KABC‐II Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Elaine Fletcher‐Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of KTEA™‐3 and WIAT®‐III Assessmentby Kristina C. Breaux and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger

Essentials of MCMI®‐IV Assessmentby Seth D. Grossman and Blaise Amendolace

Essentials of Millon™ Inventories Assessment, Third Editionby Stephen Strack

Essentials of MMPI‐A™ Assessmentby Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy

Essentials of MMPI‐2® Assessment, Second Editionby David S. Nichols

Essentials of Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator® Assessment, Second Editionby Naomi L. Quenk

Essentials of NEPSY®‐II Assessmentby Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman

Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Nancy Hebben and William Milberg

Essentials of Nonverbal Assessmentby Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman

Essentials of PAI® Assessmentby Leslie C. Morey

Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventions for Unique Learnersby Jennifer T. Mascolo, Vincent C. Alfonso, and Dawn P. Flanagan

Essentials of Processing Assessment, Second Editionby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of Psychological Assessment Supervisionby A. Jordan Wright

Essentials of Psychological Testing, Second Editionby Susana Urbina

Essentials of Response to Interventionby Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns

Essentials of Rorschach® Assessmentby Tara Rose, Michael P. Maloney, and Nancy Kaser‐Boyd

Essentials of Rorschach Assessment: Comprehensive System and R‐PASby Jessica R. Gurley

Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessment, Third Editionby Daniel C. Miller and Denise E. Maricle

Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identification, Second Editionby Vincent C. Alfonso and Dawn P. Flanagan

Essentials of Stanford‐Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessmentby Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram

Essentials of TAT and Other Storytelling Assessments, Second Editionby Hedwig Teglasi

Essentials of Temperament Assessmentby Diana Joyce

Essentials of Trauma‐Informed Assessment and Interventions in School and Community Settingsby Kirby L. Wycoff and Bettina Franzese

Essentials of Treatment Planning, Second Editionby Mark E. Maruish

Essentials of WAIS®‐IV Assessment, Second Editionby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WISC®‐IV Assessment, Second Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WISC‐V® Assessmentby Dawn P. Flanagan and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of WISC‐V Integrated Assessmentby Susan Engi Raiford

Essentials of WJ IV® Cognitive Abilities Assessmentby Fredrick A. Schrank, Scott L. Decker, and John M. Garruto

Essentials of WJ IV® Tests of Achievementby Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling

Essentials of WMS®‐IV Assessmentby Lisa Whipple Drozdick, James A. Holdnack, and Robin C. Hilsabeck

Essentials of WNV™ Assessmentby Kimberly A. Brunnert, Jack A. Naglieri, and Steven T. Hardy‐Braz

Essentials of Working Memory Assessment and Interventionby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of WPPSI™‐IV Assessmentby Susan Engi Raiford and Diane L. Coalson

Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL‐2 Assessmentby Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of WRAML3 and EMS Assessmentby Wayne V. Adams, David V. Sheslow, and Trevor A. Hall

Essentials of WRAML3 and EMS Assessment

Wayne V. Adams

David V. Sheslow

Trevor A. Hall

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DEDICATION

To you who have provided and continue to provide such wonderful memories: Nora, Jen, Elizabeth, Scott, Paul, Cana, Ellie, Aurora, and Elyse!Wayne

I am filled with gratitude for all the sustained wonderful memories authored by my children, Annie and Paul, and, of course, my longest and best memory author, my wife, Liz.David

To Carrie, Jadon, and Ian for lovingly residing in all my best memories!Trevor

SERIES PREFACE

In the Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series, we have attempted to provide the reader with books that deliver key practical information in the most efficient and accessible manner. Many books in the series feature specific topics in a variety of domains, such as specific learning disabilities, social‐emotional learning, neuropsychological assessment, cross‐battery assessment, and adaptive behavior assessment. Books in this category are intended for professionals in psychology and education – and for graduate students in these or related disciplines – who are involved with any aspect of assessment and intervention. A second category of books in this series, such as Essentials of BayleyTM–4 Assessment, is devoted to a single test. Books in this category offer a concise yet thorough review of an instrument, with special attention given to the details of administration, scoring, interpretation, application, and tips for best practice of the test. Students can rely on series books in both categories for a clear and concise overview of the important assessment tools and key topics in which they must become proficient to practice skillfully, efficiently, and ethically in their chosen fields. Experienced clinicians will feel equally at home with this series in their efforts to remain on the cutting edge of new research and new instruments (including revisions of old ones) in an array of diverse fields.

Wherever feasible, visual cues highlighting key points are utilized alongside systematic, step‐by‐step guidelines. Chapters are focused and succinct. Topics are organized for an easy understanding of the essential material related to a particular test or topic. Theory and research are continually woven into the fabric of each book, but always to enhance the practical application of the material, rather than to sidetrack or overwhelm readers. With this series, we aim to challenge and assist readers interested in psychological assessment to aspire to the highest level of competency by arming them with the tools they need for knowledgeable, informed practice. We have long been advocates of “intelligent” testing – the notion that numbers are meaningless unless they are brought to life by the clinical acumen and expertise of examiners. Assessment must be used to make a difference in the child’s life or the adult’s life or why bother to test? All books in the series – whether devoted to specific tests or general topics – are consistent with this credo. We want this series to help our readers, novice and veteran alike, to benefit from the intelligent assessment approaches of the authors of each book.

In Essentials of WRAML3 and EMS Assessment, Drs. Adams, Sheslow, and Hall provide important insights into memory and memory testing alongside substantive guidance in administering and interpreting these two tests. The WRAML3 builds on the strong foundation of the test’s two prior versions, continuing to provide a psychometrically sound memory assessment tool that can be used with children and adults, including older adults. Among other enhancements, the third edition of WRAML includes an embedded Performance Validity measure, greater emphasis on Delayed recall and Working Memory, additional process scores that allow more nuanced interpretation, and an additional abbreviated format. Both beginning and seasoned practitioners familiar with assessment in general, and memory assessment in particular, will find useful material that goes well beyond that found in the WRAML3 administration and technical manuals. While the WRAML3 is a complex instrument, the approach found in these very readable chapters provides users a means to evaluate their technical and clinical competency, especially useful for those new to the instrument and for those supervising students and colleagues.

Further, the inclusion of the EMS in this volume helps readers become aware of a means to contrast individually administered test results with self‐ and observer‐subjective estimates of a given adult’s performance in everyday tasks, such as remembering the location of a new office recently visited, or the content of a phone message. Everyday memory (i.e. memory performance outside of the clinician’s office) is often overlooked. This volume shows how to use EMS results to generate practical, meaningful, and person‐centered recommendations in combination with formal testing results (e.g. the WRAML3). This volume, therefore, will provide sound professional, practical guidance in how to conduct tailored, user‐friendly, and functionally meaningful memory assessments.

Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman, EdD, Series Editors

Neag School of Education, University of Connecticut

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The original WRAML appeared in 1990, which is before some reading this were born! Over the years, we would like to feel that the test has been on a path of steady improvement and greater helpfulness. Accordingly, we would be remiss not to express sincere gratitude for our associations with those at Wide Range, Inc. and our more recent friends at Pearson, as well as for the many WRAML users, clients, students, and colleagues who, over the years, have been sources of learning, encouragement, challenge, and useful suggestions. Good memories!

TwoMEASURING MEMORY: FOUNDATIONS

Generating meaning from these words is a notable memory achievement. You have to remember procedural aspects, like where to start on the page and to use your eyes to scan in the direction common for your written language. You also need to remember what the various letter configurations and word combinations represent spatially, phonetically, and holistically. Then you need to remember what meaning to assign those many phonetic and spatial combinations. You also need to remember the meaning from the beginning of a sentence until the end of the sentence, and the beginning of the paragraph until its end. Obviously, without memory, reading would be impossible; and actually, without memory, life as we know it could not exist.

As a central feature of human cognition, memory is represented in nearly all day‐to‐day functions, be they intellectual, emotional, academic, social, vocational, or recreational. Memory provides meaning in terms of who we are and it preserves our identity. Without the ability to recall our personal history, we would be in a near state of confusion and constant dilemma. Indeed, the greatest tragedy of most dementias is that they eventually take from us who we are and what we know of ourselves and others. Memory allows us to acquire skills and knowledge to perform our jobs and to recognize and respond appropriately to our loved ones. Simply stated, memory is a ubiquitous necessity for a life most would consider a quality existence.

While memory is a central cognitive process, it is also a vulnerable brain function due to its being highly interconnected and dependent on other aspects of cognition. Various injuries and illnesses, minor or devastating, can affect the efficiency of the brain’s storing new memories and/or retrieving those already stored. Generally speaking, if there is going to be some cognitive compromise resulting from an injury or illness to the brain, it is highly likely that memory in some form will be among those processes negatively impacted. It is well known that difficulties with memory and attention are the two most common complaints following a brain injury, even if that injury is mild. Therefore, and akin to intellectual functioning, memory prowess is widely variable across individuals, from very impaired to highly advanced, with such differences apparent even in early childhood. There are also variable developmental trajectories associated with age; for example, visual memory seems to develop more rapidly and show decline in adulthood earlier than verbal (more about developmental trajectories in Chapter 10). Consequently, it should not be surprising that psychologists, neuropsychologists, neuroscientists, and physicians have devoted, and continue to devote much attention to memory and its measurement.

As noted in Chapter 1, a good portion of this book features the WRAML3, one of the most utilized comprehensive memory batteries currently available for assessment of memory functions from childhood to older adulthood. This volume also includes the introduction of a new complementary assessment tool, the Everyday Memory Survey. The WRAML3 is intended to reliably sample a variety of memory functions that are of clinical and theoretical importance for children, adolescents, and adults. The EMS provides reliable subjective personal accounts of memory performance demanded in navigating daily life; both the client and another familiar with the client contribute their opinions about how much challenge is posed performing specific everyday, functional recall tasks. Incidentally, the EMS was developed and normed at the same time as the WRAML3, sharing a significant portion of cases. By sharing standardization samples in this way, the authors used a psychometrically sound manner to bring together two important arenas that are often left disconnected, namely formal test performance of memory (i.e., the WRAML3) and perceived capacity to perform everyday memory demands (i.e., the EMS). When the WRAML3 and the EMS are used in concert, the evaluator has an empirical basis to comment on memory performance demonstrated both in the clinic and in the everyday world.

Memory can be broken down into a multitude of forms, or types, each of which has a seemingly endless number of variations of task, process, and stimuli. Depending upon one’s theoretical orientation, distinctions among memory processes may carry such labels as abstract, meaningful, verbal, figural, spatial, associative, free recall, cued, sequential, recognition, short‐term, long‐term, rote, retrieval, procedural, episodic, working, semantic, and ecological—among others. There is no uniformly accepted terminology used to describe the subprocesses of memory. This diversity in memory terminology is rivaled only by the hundreds of terms designed to reflect specific aptitudes and personality characteristics.

DON’T FORGET

The WRAML3 formally measures memory and learning using a traditional one‐to‐one testing format. The EMS provides a subjective estimate of clients’ perception of how well they are performing everyday life tasks that make memory demands, and validation (or lack of it) of that perception from a caregiver.

A single task may carry multiple classifications legitimately because of the complexity of memory and the corresponding theories of memory, and their terminology often overlaps. Some have even considered the classic definition of learning as also defining memory (e.g., see Kolb & Whishaw, 2021). However, although the distinction may be to some degree artificial (anything recalled must have been learned), the WRAML3 distinguishes between memory and learning by providing two subtests that allow the examiner to actually witness new visual and verbal learning occurring over multiple learning trials. The EMS, by design, captures estimates of perceived competency in recall involved in everyday demands that are also often impacted more by situational factors beyond memory alone. Although clinical utility was emphasized in the development of the WRAML3 and EMS, and is an important focus throughout this volume, researchers will also find both tests valuable because of their sound psychometric qualities, as well as content coverage of more varied memory functions across a broader age range than is available in most, if not all, other standardized instruments.

What follows in the remainder of this chapter are two sections that might be labelled, “what all clinicians using memory tests should know.” The first looks at our memory‐testing legacy and the second focuses on basic neuroanatomy of memory. Such background will hopefully serve as a useful backdrop to appreciate how the areas have evolved, as well as provide a foundation for better understanding (and interpreting) the cognitive process these tests are measuring.

DON’T FORGET

The EMS, by design, captures estimates of perceived competency in recall involved in everyday demands that are also often impacted by other factors beyond memory alone.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

Unlike some domains of psychological testing, memory assessment had a relatively strong empirical base upon which to build. That foundation has had many contributors. Hans Ebbinghaus is generally recognized as among the first to study memory. His now classic “forgetting curve” was published as part of numerous findings related to more than a decade of research on memory and forgetting (Ebbinghaus, 1885). Ebbinghaus operationalized what we now think of as immediate memory using digit span and nonsense syllable tasks. He showed that the amount to be remembered affects performance and having a way to chunk information improved performance. The meaningfulness of the information to the learner was shown to positively impact retention too.

A contemporary of Ebbinghaus was Alfred Binet, famous for creating the first measures of intellectual ability. Less known is Binet’s interest in many facets of memory. This focus is perhaps one reason that 20% of his first intelligence test (the 1905 Binet‐Simon Scale) consisted of questions directly assessing immediate verbal and visual memory abilities.

While Sigmund Freud did not investigate memory per se, his revolutionary theory was heavily reliant on assumed and diverse memory mechanisms. Later, Karl Lashley (1950) (long‐term memory), George Miller (1956) (and his “7 ± 2” rule), Alexander Luria (2006) (the case of S and his unlimited long‐term memory), and many others contributed an enormous amount of research that helps us better understand memory. A lengthier treatment of research “pioneers” who contributed both directly and indirectly to memory assessment can be found in comprehensive sources like Haberlandt (1997); Squire and Schacter (2002); and Kolb and Whishaw (2021).

Memory research continues, embracing new technologies, such as using fMRI imaging techniques, focusing on such contemporary and applied topics as investigating the impact of blast injuries on memory of soldiers (Newsome et al., 2015); memory impairment following pediatric intensive care admission (Leonard et al., 2022); estimating performance validity when assessing learning and memory (Nayar et al., 2022); memory as is related to central nervous system disease or injury (Backman et al., 2005; Baron, Fennell, & Voeller, 1995; Cullum, Kuck, & Ruff, 1990; Cytowic, 1996; Gillberg, 1995; Knight, 1992; Lezak et al., 2019; Mapou & Spector, 1995; Mitchell, 2008; Reeves & Wedding, 1994; Weissberger et al., 2017); and memory decline as it impacts activities of daily living (Farias et al., 2003; Jefferson et al., 2006; Mlinac & Feng, 2016).

Yet, despite over a century of research on the topic of memory, the clinical assessment of developmentally typical and disordered memory has been fraught with problems (Fuster, 1995; Miller, Bigler, & Adams, 2003; Prigatano, 1978; Riccio & Reynolds, 1998), many of which stem from difficulties separating intertwined constructs such as executive functioning, attention, and mood regulation from memory, as well as distinguishing immediate memory from short‐term and longer‐term memory (see especially Fuster, 1995; Miller, Bigler, & Adams, 2003; Riccio & Reynolds, 1998; Riccio, Reynolds, & Lowe, 2001), and understanding the differential effects brain insults have on memory at different developmental stages.

DON’T FORGET

The two most common complaints of individuals following a closed head injury are difficulties with attention and memory, so both should be assessed.

We have known for a long time that certain neurological disorders of adulthood tend to occur in the elderly but as noted in Table 2.1, may also appear as early as 30 years of age. These “senior disorders” typically have a profound impact on memory, and the type of memory loss that a person displays may have diagnostic implications for that disorder. Table 2.1 lists the four most common forms of dementia which differ in how much and when memory is impacted, especially in their early stages of onset. Determining the presence and severity of dementia is a common reason for referral for those doing memory testing. While there are four discrete columns, in reality, there are probably different subtypes of each form of dementia, and people can have more than one kind and at different stages.

Also, in obtaining a thorough history, examiners should be looking for conditions such as those found in Rapid Reference 2.1 even for referrals not explicitly focused on memory concerns. If any are part of the “current status” or “past history” of the client, at least a memory screening may be indicated. Prescribed medication is mentioned twice since its prescribed use and its inadvertent mistaken ingestion (e.g., incorrect medicine, wrong dosage, or schedule) are both common contributors to memory difficulties.

PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE

Prescribed medication use and its inadvertent mistaken ingestion are common contributors to memory difficulties, so should be examined carefully when gathering history, especially in adults.

Table 2.1A Sampling of Cognitive Effects Found in Common Kinds of Dementiasa

Associated symptoms having a cognitive basis

Alzheimer’s Disease

Lewy Body Dementia

Vascular Dementia

Frontotemporal Dementia

Memory loss that disrupts daily life. Poor judgment, leading to bad decisions. Loss of spontaneity and sense of initiative. Losing track of dates or knowing current location. Taking longer to complete normal daily tasks. Repeating questions or forgetting recently learned information. Trouble handling money and paying bills.

Visual hallucinations Unpredictable changes in concentration, attention, alertness, and wakefulness from day to day and sometimes throughout the day Ideas may be disorganized, unclear, or illogical These kinds of changes are common and may help distinguish it from Alzheimer's. Slowness in starting and maintaining movement Severe loss of thinking abilities that interfere with daily activities.

Difficulty performing tasks that used to be easy. Trouble following instructions or learning new information and routines. Forgetting current or past events. Misplacing items. Getting lost on familiar routes. Problems with language, such as finding the right word or using the wrong word. Changes in sleep patterns.

Problems planning and sequencing (thinking through which steps come first, second, etc.). Difficulty prioritizing tasks or activities Repeating the same activity or saying the same word over and over. Acting impulsively or saying or doing inappropriate things without considering how others perceive the behavior. Becoming disinterested in family or activities previously cared about.

Challenges in planning or solving problems. Wandering and getting lost. Losing things or misplacing them in odd places. Difficulty completing tasks such as bathing. Mood and personality changes. Increased anxiety and/or aggression.

Memory problems may not be evident at first but often arise as the disease progresses. Other changes related to thinking may include poor judgment, confusion about time and place, and difficulty with language and numbers. Insomnia Long staring spells

Difficulty reading and writing. Loss of interest in things or people. Changes in personality, behavior, and mood, such as depression, agitation, and anger. Hallucinations or delusions Poor judgment and loss of ability to perceive danger.

Personality changes more apparent in early stages, while memory decline comes in later stages Movement disorders (balance, tremor) Difficulty with speech and language

Incidence among dementia cases

50–75%

10–15%

10–20%

1–3%

Typical age(s) of onset (yrs.)

Mid 60s (although rare cases as young as 30)

50 and older

65 and older

45–64

a Adapted from the National Institute on Aging (2022).

Rapid Reference 2.1

Common Medical Contributors to Memory Loss

Traumatic Brain Injury

Drug abuse including regular alcohol consumption