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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This graduate text, and Cooper's companion introductory text ('Introduction to the Technology of Explosives'), serve the same markets as the successful explosives reference by Meyer, now in its 4th edition. VCH also published the International Journal of Propellants, Explosives, and Pyrotechnics. The resulting package would give VCH the major presence in the field. This text presents the basic technologies used in the engineering of explosives and explosive systems, i.e., chemistry, burning, detonation, shock waves, initiation theories, scaling. The book is written for upper-division undergraduate or graduate-level scientists and engineers, and assumes a good grasp of basic physics, chemistry, mechanics and mathematic through calculus. It is based on lecture notes used for graduate courses at the Dept. of Energy Laboratories, and could serve as a core text for a course at schools of mining or military engineering. The intent of the book is to provide the engineer or scientist in the field with an understanding of the phenomena involved and the engineering tools needed to solve/ design/ analyze a broad range of real problems.
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Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Preface
Section I: Chemistry of Explosives
Chapter 1: Organic Chemical Nomenclature
1.1 Basic Organic Structures
1.2 Alkanes
1.3 Alkenes
1.4 Alkynes
1.5 Cyclic Forms
1.6 Aromatics
1.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Structures
Chapter 2: Oxidation
2.1 Oxidation Reactions
2.2 Effects of Stoichiometry
2.3 Reaction Product Hierarchy
2.4 Oxygen Balance
Chapter 3: Pure Explosives
3.1 Grouping Explosives by Structure
3.2 Aromatic Pure Explosive Compounds
3.3 Aliphatic Explosive Compounds
3.4 Inorganic Explosives
Chapter 4: Use Forms of Explosives
4.1 Pressings
4.2 Castables
4.3 Plastic Bonded (PBX)
4.4 PUTTIES
4.5 Rubberized
4.6 Extrudables
4.7 Binary
4.8 Blasting Agents
4.9 Slurries and Aqueous Gels
4.10 Dynamites
Chapter 5: Estimating Properties of Explosives
5.1 Estimation of Theoretical Maximum Density
5.2 Estimation of Detonation Velocity AT TMD
5.3 Detonation Velocity as a Function of Density
5.4 Estimating Detonation Velocity of Mixtures
5.5 Estimating Detonation Pressure
Chapter 6: Decomposition
6.1 Decomposition Reactions
6.2 Thermal Stability Tests
6.3 Chemical Compatibility
References
Section II: Energetics of Explosives
Chapter 7: Basic Terms of Thermodynamics
7.1 Energy
7.2 Temperature and Heat
7.3 Internal Energy
7.4 Energy in Transition: Heat and Work
7.5 Energy Units
7.6 Enthalpy
Chapter 8: Thermophysics
8.1 Heat Capacity of Gases
8.2 Heat Capacity of Liquids
8.3 Heat Capacity of Solids
8.4 Latent Heat of Fusion
8.5 Heat of Vaporization
8.6 Heat of Transition
8.7 Summary
Chapter 9: Thermochemistry
9.1 Heat of Reaction
9.2 Heat of Formation
9.3 Heats of Reaction from Heats of Formation
9.4 Heat of Combustion
9.5 Heat of Detonation or Explosion
9.6 Heat of Afterburn
Chapter 10: Group Additivity
10.1 Group Additivity Notation
10.2 Data for the Ideal Gas State
10.3 Data for the Solid State
Chapter 11: Reaction Temperature
11.1 Reaction Temperature at Constant Pressure
11.2 Reaction Temperature at Constant Volume
Chapter 12: Closed-Vessel Calculations
12.1 Effect of Free Volume
12.2 Heat Produced
12.3 Temperature of the Gases
12.4 Pressure in the Vessel
12.5 Summary
Chapter 13: Estimating Detonation Properties
13.1 KJ Assumed Product Hierarchy
13.2 Detonation Velocity
13.3 Detonation (CJ) Pressure
13.4 Modifications of the KJ Method
References
Section III: Shock Waves
Chapter 14: Qualitative Description of a Shock Wave
14.1 Stress-Strain
14.2 Sound, Particle, and Shock Velocities
14.3 Attenuation Behind Shock Waves
Chapter 15: The Bead Model
15.1 Arrangement of the Model
15.2 Wave and Particle Velocity
15.3 Energy Partition
15.4 Density Changes
Chapter 16: Rankine-Hugoniot Jump Equations
16.1 Mass Balance
16.2 Momentum Balance
16.3 Energy Balance
Chapter 17: The Hugoniot Planes,
U-u, P-v, P-u
17.1 The Hugoniot
17.2 The
U-u
Plane
17.3 The
P-v
Plane
17.4 The
P-u
Plane
Chapter 18: Interactions of Shock Waves
18.1 Impact of Two Slabs
18.2 Shock at a Material Interface Case a,
Z
A
< Z
B
18.3 Shock at a Material Interface Case b,
Z
A
> Z
B
18.4 Collision of Two Shock Waves
18.5 Summary of Shock Waves and Interactions
Chapter 19: Rarefaction Waves
19.1 Development of a Rarefaction Wave
19.2 Interactions Involving Rarefactions
19.3 Summary of Rarefactions
References
Section IV: Detonation
Chapter 20: Detonations, General Observations
20.1 Simple Theory of Steady Ideal Detonation
20.2 Estimating Detonation Parameters
20.3 Detonation Interactions
20.4 Summary
Chapter 21: Real Effects in Explosives
21.1 The Reaction Zone
21.2 Diameter Effects
21.3 Density Effects
21.4 Temperature Effects
21.5 Geometry Effects (
L/D
)
21.6 Summary
References
Section V: Initiation and Initiators
Chapter 22: Theories of Initiation
22.1 Initiation of Deflagration
22.2 Initiation of Detonation
22.3 Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition
Chapter 23: Nonelectric Initiators
23.1 Flame or Spark Initiators
23.2 Friction-Initiated Devices
23.3 Stab Initiators
23.4 Percussion Initiators
23.5 Energy-Power Relationship
Chapter 24: Hot-Wire Initiators
24.1 Electric Matches
24.2 Electric Blasting Caps
24.3 Short Lead and Connectorized Initiators
24.4 Energy-Power Relationship
24.5 Firing at Minimum Energy
24.6 Safety Considerations in Design
24.7 Quality Control Testing
Chapter 25: Exploding Bridgewire Detonators
25.1 Construction of EBWs
25.2 Explosion of the Bridgewire
25.3 Detonation of Initial Pressing
25.4 Effects of Cables
25.5 Function Time
25.6 Series and Parallel Firing Considerations
25.7 Safety Considerations
References
Section VI: Engineering Applications
Chapter 26: Theories of Scaling
26.1 Units and Dimensions
26.2 Scaling by Geometric Similarity
26.3 Scaling by Dimensional Analysis
26.4 Work Functions or Available Energy
Chapter 27: Acceleration, Formation, and Flight of Fragments
27.1 Acceleration of the Gurney Model
27.2 Fragmentation of Cylinders
27.3 Flight of Fragments
Chapter 28: Blast Effects in Air, Water, and on the Human Body
28.1 Scaling Air Shock
28.2 Scaling Shocks in Water
28.3 Physiological Response to Air Blast
Chapter 29: Scaling Craters
29.1 Crater Formation Mechanisms
29.2 Surface Bursts
29.3 Above-Surface Bursts
29.4 Buried Bursts
Chapter 30: Jetting, Shaped Charges, and Explosive Welding
30.1 Shaped Charges
30.2 Explosive Welding
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
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Explosives Engineering
Paul W. Cooper
The procedures in this text are intended for use only by persons with prior training in the field of explosives. In the checking and editing of these procedures, every effort has been made to identify potentially hazardous steps and safety precautions have been inserted where appropriate. However, these procedures must be conducted at one’s own risk. The authors and the publisher, its subsidiaries and distributors, assume no liability and make no guarantees or warranties, express or implied, for the accuracy of the contents of this book or the use of information, methods or products described in this book. In no event shall the authors, the publisher, its subsidiaries or distributors, be liable for any damages or expenses, including consequential damages and expenses, resulting from the use of the information, methods or products described in this book.
Paul W. Cooper424 Girard Blvd., SEAlbuquerque, NM 87106
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cooper, Paul W., 1937–
Explosives engineering / Paul W. Cooper. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. –) and index. ISBN 0-471-18636-8 (alk. paper) 1. Explosives. I. Title. TP270.C7438 1997 662′.2—dc20
Copyright © 1996 Wiley-VCH, Inc.
All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.
Dedicated to my Dad, the late Nathan Cooper, a helluva engineer!
Preface
The field of explosives engineering incorporates a broad variety of sciences and engineering technologies that are brought together to bear on each particular design problem. These technologies include chemistry, thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, mechanics, electricity, and electronics, and even meteorology, biology, and physiology. Although excellent textbooks and research papers are found in each of these areas, there has been little, if any, literature available that ties all these diverse technologies together into a unified engineering discipline for this complex field of explosives engineering.
The purpose of this text is to attempt to fill that gap. It is based, in large part, upon engineering philosophies and approaches I have developed during my career to solve numerous design problems. The text is broken into six general areas, each of which is bound together by a common technical thread.
Section I deals with the chemistry of explosives. It starts with definitions and nomenclature of organic chemicals, based on molecular structure, which is included to bring nonchemists up to speed on being able recognize and describe pure explosive compounds and mixtures and not to be intimidated by chemists’ jargon. It then describes the many forms in which these explosive chemicals are used. Using molecular structure as the common thread, the text then goes into the estimation of the stoichiometry of oxidation reactions, the prediction of explosive detonation velocity and pressure properties, and the quantitative analysis of thermal stability.
Section II deals with the energetics of explosive reactions: Where does the energy come from, and how much do we get out of a particular explosive reaction? This section also uses molecular structure as the common thread tying together the thermophysical and thermochemical behavior of these reactions. In this section the thermochemical properties of the materials are used to predict the explosive properties.
Section III deals with nonreactive shock waves. The thread here is composed of three simple equations that describe the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy across the shock front. In this section we learn how to deal quantitatively with shock waves interacting with material interfaces and other shock waves.
Section IV combines the thermochemistry from Section II with the shock behavior of Section III to describe detonation (reactive shock waves). This section begins with simple ideal detonation theory and then goes on to quantitative calculations of detonation interactions at interfaces with other materials, and then deals with nonideal effects, those that cannot be predicted by ideal theory, such as the effects of size and geometry.
Section V describes the initiation of explosive reactions and the application of initiation theory to the design and analysis of initiating devices such as nonelectric, hot-wire, and exploding-bridgewire igniters and detonators. The thread that sews together all initiation phenomena is an energy-power balance, which describes the rate at which energy is deposited in an explosive and the rate of energy lost from the explosive through heat transfer.
Section VI takes all the previous information and, hanging that on a common thread of dimensional analysis, goes into the development of design scaling and scaling databases. Scaling theory and data are used here to predict the formation and flight of fragments generated by explosive devices; the production and behavior of air- and water-blast waves; the formation of craters from above-ground, ground-level, and buried explosive charges; the formation of material jetting and how that is applied to the design and behavior of lined cavity-shaped charges, as well as to the process of explosive welding.
Missing from this text is any mention of the computer codes and programs that may be used for the solution of many explosive design problems. That is an intentional omission. This text is intended to give the reader the basic understanding and working tool kit to deal with various explosive phenomena. When computer codes are used, this basic understanding of the phenomena provides a reality check of the output of computer-derived solutions.
Acknowledgments
I wish to acknowledge and thank the following people who helped with bringing this book to completion: Glenda Ponder for the editing and typing and formatting of the original manuscript; Dr. Olden L. Burchett (Sandia National Laboratories, retired), Dr. Brigita M. Dobratz (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, retired), and Stanley R. Kurowski (Sandia National Laboratories, retired), who devoted so much time and work in the editing and checking of the final manuscript.
My sincere thanks and appreciation also to the following people who reviewed the manuscripts and provided many excellent comments and improvements: John L. Montoya (Sandia National Laboratories), Dr. Gerald Laib (Naval Surface Warfare Center White Oak), Dr. James E. Kennedy (Los Alamos National Laboratory), Dr. Carl-Otto Lieber (Bundesinstitut fur Chemisch-Technische, BICT, Germany), Dr. Hugh R. James (Atomic Weapons Establishment, England), Dr. Pascal A. Bauer (Professor, Ecole Nationale Superieure de Mecanique et d’Aerotechnique, Paris, France), Dr. Eric J. Rinehart (Field Command, U.S. Defense Nuclear Agency). Mr. J. Christopher Ronay (Institute of Makers of Explosives), and Dr. Ronald Varosh (Reynolds Industries Systems, Inc.).
Paul W. CooperAlbuquerque, NM
SECTION ICHEMISTRY OF EXPLOSIVES
CHAPTER 1Organic Chemical Nomenclature
1.1 Basic Organic Structures
The carbon atom is the basic building block of organic molecules. A brief look at the carbon atom reveals that its atomic number is six, which means that it has six protons in its nucleus and six electrons around its nucleus. Its atomic weight is 12, which means that it must have six neutrons as well as six protons in its nucleus. The first electron shell is complete with two electrons, which leaves four more electrons for the second or outer shell. The second electron shell needs eight electrons to be complete, and thus the carbon atom can either gain or lose four electrons to have a complete outer shell. In other words, the carbon atom has a valence of four. In organic chemicals, the carbon atom fills the outer shell by sharing electrons with other atoms forming shared pairs of electrons or covalent bonds.
The four bonds with which carbon attaches to other atoms are equally distributed in a singly bonded carbon atom. Picture, then, that the bond sites of carbon are like the corners of a tetrahedron. Organic molecules, therefore, are three dimensional. Because it is difficult to draw complex, three-dimensional figures, we represent organic molecules by convention with a two-dimensional system of notation.
Carbon, with nothing bonded to it, is represented in Figure 1.1(a). Each dot represents one of the four electrons in the outer shell. Carbon can share its electrons with the electrons of other carbon atoms to form complex chains. If there is one shared pair of electrons between two carbon atoms, it is a single bond [Figure 1.1(b)]. Each shared pair of electrons can also be represented by a line. If there are two shared pairs of electrons between two carbon atoms, it is called a double bond [Figure 1.1(c)]. A triple bond, shown in Figure 1.1(d), consists of three shared pairs of electrons between two carbon atoms.
Figure 1.1. (a) Carbon; (b) single-bonded carbons; (c) double-bonded carbons; and (d) triple-bonded carbons.
If all the remaining electrons each form a covalent bond by sharing with the electron of a hydrogen atom (hydrogen has one available electron to form a covalent bond), then a molecule of hydrogen and carbon, or a hydrocarbon, is formed. Some examples are shown in Figure 1.2. Remember that in stable organic molecules, carbon has four covalent bonds and hydrogen has one.
Figure 1.2. Three simple hydrocarbon molecules.
1.2 Alkanes
Hydrocarbon molecules in which the carbon atoms are attached to each other only by means of single bonds are called saturated. Open-chain, saturated hydrocarbons form the group called alkanes, shown in Figure 1.3. Their names all end with the suffix ane.
Figure 1.3. Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons): (a) methane, (b) ethane, (c) propane, and (d) butane.
The names of the four hydrocarbons of the alkane chains shown in Figure 1.3 are derived from the Latin named numbers as shown in Table 1.1. If one bond is not attached to hydrogen, thus leaving it open to attach to some other atom, the name can end with yl, instead of ane. Two different structures of butylbromide are shown in Figure 1.4(a) and (b). Each carbon in the chain is numbered starting from the end nearest the heteroatom.
Figure 1.4. (a)–(c) Butylbromide.
Table 1.1 Alkanes
Name
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
Undecane
Dodecane
Tridecane
Tetradecane
Pentadecane
Hexadecane
Heptadecane
Octadecane
Nonadecane
Note that a shorthand version of the structure, -CHx, can be used where there is no ambiguity caused; thus the 1-butylbromide in Figure 1.4(a) could be written as shown in (c). The ending ane can also be retained, as shown in the same two structures of bromobutane in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5. (a) 1-Bromobutane; (b) 2-bromobutane.
If another shorter alkane is attached to one of the nonterminal carbons, forming a branched alkane, the longest carbon chain forms the basis of the name, and the attached alkane is the prefix as shown in Figure 1.6. Figure 1.7 shows the structural formula of 2-methyl-2,3-dibromopentane in four steps.
Figure 1.6. 2-Methylpentane (this material is also called isohexane).
Figure 1.7. Structural formula of 2-methyl-2,3-dibromopentane: (a) pentane is the major chain; therefore, there is a straight saturated five-carbon chain as the major backbone; (b) 2-methyl-; there is a methyl group on the number two carbon; (c) -2,3-dibromo; dibromo means two bromine atoms, and they are on the number 2 and 3 carbons; (d) the rest of the bonds are not specified; therefore, they are all bonded to hydrogen; thus we have 2-methyl-2,3-dibromopentane.
1.3 Alkenes
If there are one or more double bonds in a hydrocarbon, it is unsaturated. Unsaturated, straight-chain hydrocarbons with one double bond are called alkenes. Their names are identical to the alkanes, except they end with ene instead of ane. An example is shown in Figure 1.8. If there are two double bonds, the chain is called an alkadiene, and the names end in adiene, instead of ene. An example is given in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.8. 2-Pentene.
Figure 1.9. 1,4-Hexadiene.
If three double bonds exist, the group is called alkatrienes, with the names ending in atriene. Exceptions are the compounds ethylene (CH2=CH2) and allene (CH2=C=CH2), which retain their common names.
1.4 Alkynes
When there is a triple bond in the chain, it is referred to as an alkyne. The names end with yne instead of ane, but otherwise are named similarly to the alkanes and alkenes. Chains with multiple triple bonds are likewise called alkadiynes, with names ending in adiyne; alkatriynes, with names ending in atriyne; and so forth. The exception is that the compound acetylene (CH≡CH) retains its common name. Unsaturated hydrocarbon chains are numbered starting at the end of the chain that gives the double or triple bonds the lowest numbers. See Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10. Structural formula of 5,6-dibromo-l,3-hexadiyne: (a) the hexadiyne ending means that the major chain has six carbons and that there are two triple bonds in the chain. Since it is 1,3-hexadiyne, the triple bonds must be between the number 1 and 2 carbons and between the number 3 and 4 carbons. (b) The 5,6-dibromo, of course, indicates two bromine atoms, one each bonded to the number 5 and 6 carbons.
1.5 Cyclic Forms
Most of the chains mentioned with three or more carbons can be bent around and formed into a ring. Such ring compounds are named similarly to the straight chains, except that their name starts with the prefix cyclo. Cyclopropane and cyclohexane are shown in Figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11. (a) Cyclopropane; (b) cyclohexane.
We thus have the families cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, and cycloalkynes, as well as the multi-double and triple-bond variants such as cycloalkadienes and -atrienes, and cycloalkadiynes, -atriynes, etc. Naming the cyclo compounds corresponds to the naming of the straight-chain forms except that carbon atoms are numbered such that substituents are on the lowest numbered carbon atoms. This is shown in the 1,3,4-tribromo-cyclopentane (Figure 1.12) and in 1,3-cyclohexadiene (Figure 1.13). In the latter case (Figure 1.13), the carbon atoms are numbered so that the double bonds receive the lowest possible numbers. Figure 1.14 shows the structural formula for the compound named 3,5-dibromo-1-cyclopentene.
Figure 1.12. 1,3,4-Tribromo-cyclopentane.
Figure 1.13. 1,3-cyclohexadiene.
Figure 1.14. 3,5-dibromo-1-cyclopentene: (a) the 1-cyclopentene indicates that this is a five-carbon ring with one double bond in it, and that bond is between the number 1 and 2 carbons. (b) 3,5-Dibromo means that there are two bromine atoms, one each bonded to the number 3 and 5 carbons. (c) The rest of the bonds are to hydrogen; thus we have the complete formula.
The compounds we have looked at so far (alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes—open chain or cyclic) are called aliphatic compounds.
1.6 Aromatics
A special ring compound, the six-carbon ring with three double bonds, is known by its common name benzene (Figure 1.15). This particular arrangement has a special stability that makes this ring the basis of a different class of compounds than cycloalkatrienes. All organic compounds that contain this benzene ring are included in a class called aromatic compounds. For simplicity the benzene ring can be represented by the symbol shown in Figure 1.16.
Figure 1.15. The benzene molecule.
Figure 1.16. Symbol for the benzene molecule.
Each corner represents a carbon atom, and if not otherwise indicated, each carbon is bonded to a hydrogen atom. If one hydrogen is removed, the resulting radical is named phenyl and is represented as in Figure 1.17. Therefore, the compound represented in Figure 1.18 is called phenylbromide. If two hydrogen atoms are removed, the resulting diradical is called phenylene. Thus the compound shown in Figure 1.19 is a phenylene-1,3-dibromide, or 1,3-dibromophenylene.
Figure 1.17. Symbol for phenyl, the benzene molecule with one hydrogen removed.
Figure 1.18. Phenylbromide molecule.
Figure 1.19. Phenylene-1,3-dibromide or 1,3-dibromophenylene.
Alternatively, the name benzene may be retained. In that case, this same compound may also be called 1,3-dibromobenzene. The carbons in the benzene ring, like all of the cyclo compounds, are numbered such that the substituents are on the lowest-numbered carbon atoms. In lieu of numbering the carbons, there is also a system of naming relative positions of substitution on the ring when there are two identical substituents. Sometimes this method is clearer to use; however, both the numbering and naming systems are used. If two like substituents are on adjacent carbons of the benzene ring, they are in the ortho form, as in Figure 1.20. If the two substituents are on alternate carbons, they are in the meta position, as shown in Figure 1.21. If the two substituents are on opposite carbons, they are in the para position (Figure 1.22).
Figure 1.20. o-Dibromobenzene (1,2-dibromobenzene).
Figure 1.21. m-Dibromobenzene (1,3-dibromobenzene).
Figure 1.22. p-Dibromobenzene (1,4-dibromobenzene).
The compound of which common moth balls are made is paradichlorbenzene. Certain substituted benzene compounds retain their common names. Some of these are shown in Figure 1.23.
Figure 1.23. (a) Toluene; (b) xylene (o shown); (c) mesitylene; (d) styrene; (e) cumene; and (f) cymene (p shown).
1.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Structures
When more than one benzene ring are in the same compound, they may be joined together in different ways. If both rings share common carbon atoms, they are called fused polycyclics. Examples of this are the compounds shown in Figure 1.24. Since the two common carbons have all four bonds already committed, they are not numbered.
Figure 1.24. Fused polycyclics: (a) naphthalene; (b) anthracene; (c) phenanthrene.
When rings are joined such that they are not sharing common carbon atoms, they are called ring assemblies. Three examples are shown in Figure 1.25.
Figure 1.25. Ring assemblies: (a) biphenyl; (b) p-terphenyl (c) m-terphenyl.
The structural formula of 3, 3′-dichloro-5, 5′-dibromo-byphenyl is shown in Figure 1.26.
Figure 1.26. 3,3′-Dichloro-5,5′-dibromobiphenyl. (a) Biphenyl (a two-ring assembly); (b) 3,3′-dichloro indicates two chlorine atoms, one each on the number 3 and 3′ carbons; (c) 5,5′-dibromo indicates two bromines, one each on the number 5 and 5′ carbons.
For more extensive rules in organic chemical nomenclature, consult Ref. 1.
CHAPTER 2Oxidation
2.1 Oxidation Reactions
When explosives react they produce energy by a process called oxidation. In this chapter we will examine this process and see how it is affected by the composition of the explosive. We will learn how to predict the composition of the products of oxidation and how to quantify the degree of oxidation.
An oxidation reaction is the chemical reaction that occurs when a fuel is burning or an explosive is detonating; it is the same in both cases. Oxidation reactions produce heat because the internal energy of the product (final) molecules is lower than the internal energy of the reactant (starting) molecules. This difference between the internal energies of the reactants and products is called the heat of reaction.
