Facial Aesthetics E-Book

Farhad B. Naini

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1174

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

The definitive reference on facial aesthetic analysis for aesthetic and reconstructive surgery and aesthetic dentistry

Facial Aesthetics: Concepts and Clinical Diagnosis is a unique resource for facial aesthetic surgery and dentistry. Providing a comprehensive guide to both the art and science of facial aesthetics, the book incorporates all aspects relevant to the work of the clinician involved in the management of facial deformities.  Revised and expanded with extensive additions, the second edition is structured over 24 easy-to-follow chapters with numerous illustrations and diagrams.

Part I of Facial Aesthetics covers the historical evidence for facial aesthetics canons and concepts in depth. It incorporates all aspects relevant to the work of the clinician, including the philosophical and scientific theories of facial beauty, facial attractiveness research, facial proportions, facial expression, and the psychological ramifications of facial deformities. Part II of the book goes on to examine clinical evaluation and diagnosis in considerable detail under four sections, from the initial consultation interview and acquisition of diagnostic records, complete clinical examination and analysis of the craniofacial complex, in-depth analysis of each individual facial region, and the comprising craniodentoskeletal and soft tissue units and subunits, using a top-down approach, and finally focusing on smile and dentogingival aesthetic evaluation. 

Written by a highly qualified practitioner and researcher in the field, Facial Aesthetics also provides:

• Examination of facial aesthetics in a clinical context
• Step-by-step aesthetic analysis of each facial region
• Detailed descriptions of the systematic clinical evaluation of the facial soft tissues and craniodentoskeletal complex
• In-depth analysis of 2D and 3D clinical diagnostic records
• An evidence-based approach, from antiquity to contemporary scientific evidence, to the guidelines employed in planning the correction of facial deformities
• Treatment planning from first principles highlighted 

Facial Aesthetics is a comprehensive, practical reference and essential guide for practitioners with interest in refining their understanding and appreciation of the human face and applying practical protocols to their clinical diagnosis and treatment planning.  It is essential reading for facial aesthetic surgeons and aesthetic dentists, orthodontists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, as well as plastic and reconstructive surgeons.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Dedication Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page 1

Reviews for the First Edition

Preface to Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

Acknowledgements

Part I: Concepts

Chapter 1: Facial Beauty

Definition of beauty and aesthetics

Is beauty ‘in the eye of the beholder’?

The enigma of facial beauty

Beauty and facial beauty: historical and philosophical perspectives

Facial Beauty: Scientific perspectives

Importance of facial beauty

Striving for form

References

Chapter 2: Facial Proportions

Introduction

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Greece

Ancient Rome

The Renaissance

The Enlightenment and neoclassicism

Twentieth century

The golden proportion

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Facial Expression

Introduction

Importance of facial expressions

History of research into facial expressions

References

Chapter 4: Psychological Ramifications of Facial Deformities

Introduction

Health and psychosocial well‐being

Self‐image

The effect of the response of others on those with facial deformities

To treat or not to treat? The controversial debate

Body dysmorphic disorder: the delusion of deformity

Managing facial deformity in a neurotic‐dysmorphic patient

Conclusion

References

Further reading

Part II: Clinical Diagnosis

Section 1: Patient Interview and Clinical Diagnostic Records

Chapter 5: Patient Interviewand Consultation

Introduction

Presenting complaint

History of presenting complaint

Psychosocial history

Medical history

Danger signals and the ‘problem’ patient

Concluding remarks

References

Chapter 6: Clinical Diagnostic Records, Natural Head Position and Craniofacial Anthropometry

Introduction

Clinical diagnostic records

Radiographs

Clinical photographs

Clinical videography

Study models

Serial height measurement

Three‐dimensional hard and soft tissue imaging

Natural head position

The Frankfort Craniometric Agreement and the Frankfort Plane

The unreliability of anatomical reference planes

Natural head position: the key to diagnosis

Choice of horizontal and vertical reference planes

Orientation of the patient in natural head position

Clinical photography

Equipment for digital photography and data storage

Patient consent forms

Background and lighting

Facial views

Intraoral views

Craniofacial anthropometry

Anthropometric craniofacial surface landmarks

References

Chapter 7: Cephalometry and Cephalometric Analysis

Introduction

Cephalometric landmarks and planes of reference

Landmarks, lines, planes and volumes

Cephalometric planes of reference

Posteroanterior cephalometric radiography

Cephalometric analysis and geometric principles

Description of dentofacial deformities

Sagittal skeletal relationships

Sagittal dentoalveolar relationships

Vertical skeletal relationships

Vertical dentoalveolar relationships

Transverse skeletal relationships

References

Section 2: Facial Aesthetic Analysis: Facial Type, Proportions and Symmetry

Chapter 8: Facial Type

Introduction

The fictional conception of the ‘normal’

Proportion indices

Head type

Cephalic index

Head circumference

Facial type: frontal view (norma frontalis)

Facial shape

Facial index

Facial type: profile view (norma lateralis)

Facial divergence

Sagittal facial profile contour

Parasagittal facial profile contour

Vertical facial profile form

Facial curves and curvilinear relationships

Curvilinear relationships – frontal and profile views

Angularity of facial contour lines

Facial profile curves and ‘S‐shaped’ curvilinear considerations

Contour defects

Sexual variation: the main differences between male and female faces

‘Ethnic’ variation: considerations in facial aesthetic evaluation

Historical background

Considerations in facial aesthetic evaluation

Clinical implications

Facial ageing

Current understanding, controversies and future research

Recognizing the visible effects of ageing

References

Chapter 9: Facial Proportions

Introduction

Craniofacial height to standing height proportion

Vertical Facial Proportions

Transverse facial proportions

Concluding remarks

References

Chapter 10: Facial Symmetry and Asymmetry

Introduction

Relationship between symmetry and proportion

Balance and harmony: a note on terminology

Aetiology and classification of facial asymmetry

Clinical evaluation

Dynamic clinical evaluation

Dental midlines

Radiographic/cephalometric evaluation

Three‐dimensional imaging evaluation

Craniofacial growth and treatment timing

References

Section 3: Facial Aesthetic Analysis: Regional Analysis

Upper Facial Analysis

Chapter 11: The Forehead

Introduction and terminology

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

References

Chapter 12: The Orbital Region

Introduction

Terminology

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

References

Midfacial Analysis

Chapter 13: The Ears

Introduction

Terminology

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

References

Chapter 14: The Nose

Introduction

Terminology

Anatomy

Nasal type, topography and the subunit principle

Clinical evaluation

Normative values for nasal dimensions

Nasal function

References

Chapter 15: The Malar Region

Introduction

Terminology

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

Principles in planning the correction of malar deficiency

References

Chapter 16: The Maxilla and Midface

Introduction

Terminology

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

Maxillary deficiency

Maxillary excess

Maxillary asymmetry

References

Lower Facial Analysis

Chapter 17: The Lips

Introduction

Anatomy

Terminology

Clinical evaluation

References

Chapter 18: Mentolabial (Labiomental) Fold

Introduction

Mentolabial fold (sulcus) depth

Mentolabial angle

Attractiveness research

Vertical position of the mentolabial fold

Mentolabial fold morphology

References

Chapter 19: The Mandible

Terminology

Anatomy, morphology and size

Sagittal and vertical relationships

Mandibular deficiency

Mandibular excess

Transverse relationships

Mandibular asymmetries

References

Chapter 20: The Chin

Introduction

Anatomy

Terminology

Classification of chin deformities

Clinical evaluation

Sagittal evaluation and chin projection

Vertical chin height

Transverse chin width

References

Chapter 21: Submental‐Cervical Region

Introduction

Anatomy

Terminology

Aetiology

Clinical evaluation

Skeletal pattern (jaw relationship)

Relative submental projection and aesthetics

References

Section 4: Smile and Dentogingival Aesthetic Analysis

Chapter 22: Dental‐Occlusal Relationships: Terminology, Description and Classification

Introduction

Terminology

Dental occlusion

Classification of dental‐occlusal relationships

The term ‘Class’ and classification

The aetiology of malocclusion

Oral health

Occlusal function

References

Chapter 23: Smile Aesthetics

Introduction

Clinical evaluation

Lip aesthetics

Lip lines

Upper lip–maxillary incisor relationship

Incisor exposure and phonetic analysis

Incisor exposure in oblique lateral view

Incisor exposure and anterior occlusal guidance

Smile symmetry

Dynamic upper lip curvature

Orientation of the transverse occlusal plane

Orientation of the sagittal occlusal plane

Smile curvature (smile arc)

Dental midlines

Buccal corridors (negative space)

Smile aesthetics in profile view

References

Chapter 24: Dentogingival Aesthetics

Introduction

Anatomy

Clinical evaluation

Tooth shape

Tooth size

Tooth proportions

Tooth symmetry

Arch form

Maxillary incisor axial angulations

Gradation (front‐to‐back progression)

Gingival aesthetics

Contacts, connectors and embrasures

Tooth colour

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Criteria required to make a diagnosis of body dysmorphic disorder...

Table 4.2 Signals indicative of potential body dysmorphic disorder in the c...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Craniofacial soft tissue surface landmarks (Figure 6.22)

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric (skeletal) landmarks

Table 7.2 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric (dental) landmarks

Table 7.3 Soft tissue lateral cephalometric landmarks

Table 7.4 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric reference planes

Table 7.5 Soft tissue lateral cephalometric reference planes

Table 7.6 Hard tissue posteroanterior cephalometric landmarks

Table 7.7 Hard tissue posteroanterior cephalometric reference planes (numbe...

Table 7.8 Normative standards in McNamara Analysis

Table 7.9 Normative linear vertical cephalometric measurements (numbers ref...

Table 7.10 Normative angular vertical cephalometric relationships (numbers ...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Classification of anatomical head types

Table 8.2 Cephalic index of three ethnic groupsData modified from Farkas.

Table 8.3 Head circumference of three ethnic groups

Table 8.4 Classification of anatomical face types

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Anthropometric vertical facial measurements

Table 9.2 Normative values in young adults (age 18) for intercanthal and na...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 A classification of the aetiology of facial asymmetry

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Normative values for orbital and interocular dimensions (see Fig...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Classification of nasal type according to nasal index

Table 14.2 Normative values for adult nasal dimensions and parameters

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Facial widths and total face height in white Caucasians

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Dental arch width measurements (age 18)

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Upper lip height

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Influence of lower anterior face height (LAFH) on labiomental fo...

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Björk's seven structural signs indicating the pattern of mandibu...

Table 19.2 Normal mandibular dimensions (white Caucasian adults)

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Incisor exposure at rest relative to sex

Table 23.2 Incisor exposure at rest relative to age

Table 23.3 Increase in upper lip height with age

Chapter 24

Table 24.1 Tooth size analysis (Bolton analysis) standard table of values

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten established aesthetics as a distinc...

Figure 1.2 William Shakespeare – this copper‐engraved image from the title p...

Figure 1.3 Francis Hutcheson.

Figure 1.4 (

A

) Constructed composite image, in which the subject's left faci...

Figure 1.5 Sir Francis Galton.

Figure 1.6 (

A–D

) Galton created composite faces by overlying multiple ...

Figure 1.7 Charles Darwin age 65 (c.1874).

Figure 1.8 Plato and Aristotle.

Figure 1.9 The Death of Socrates.

Figure 1.10 Michel de Montaigne

Figure 1.11 Voltaire.

Figure 1.12 David Hume.

Figure 1.13 Immanuel Kant.

Figure 1.14 Friedrich Schiller.

Figure 1.15 John Keats, listening to the song of the nightingale.

Figure 1.16 Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Figure 1.17 Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Figure 1.18 Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, by Francesco Melzi, c. 1510, Roya...

Figure 1.19 (

A

) William Hogarth's Painter and his Pug. Hogarth has drawn his...

Figure 1.20 Hogarth's The Analysis of Beauty (1753) (book cover).

Figure 1.21 (

A

) Plate I from Hogarth's The Analysis of Beauty (1753).(

B

) H...

Figure 1.22 Plate II from Hogarth's The Analysis of Beauty (1753).

Figure 1.23 Gustav Theodor Fechner.

Figure 1.24 Hogarth's serpentine line.

Figure 1.25 Illustration 49 from Plate I of Hogarth's The Analysis of Beauty...

Figure 1.26 Michelangelo Buonarotti.

Figure 1.27 The Belvedere Torso.

Figure 1.28 Michelangelo's Cleopatra (c. 1535), demonstrating the use of cur...

Figure 1.29 Queen Nefertiti – unfinished head. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo.)

Figure 1.30 Arthur Schopenhauer.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Queen Nefertiti.

Figure 2.2 Second Egyptian Canon.

Figure 2.3 Kouros from Attica, c. 610–600 bc.

Figure 2.4 Kleobis and Biton; Polymedes of Argos; dedicated c. 580 bc.

Figure 2.5 Delphic charioteer, c. 475 bc.

Figure 2.6 Kritian Boy, c. 480 bc.

Figure 2.7 Sculpture from Cape Artemision (depicting Zeus launching a thunde...

Figure 2.8 Discobolos (‘Discus thrower’), c. 450 bc. Roman copy after a bron...

Figure 2.9 Doryphoros (‘Spear‐bearer’), also known as the ‘Canon’, c. 450 bc...

Figure 2.10 Riace warriors, fifth century bc, possibly by Phidias; the eyes ...

Figure 2.11 Apollo Sauroktonos (‘The Lizard‐slayer’), c. 350–340 bc. Roman c...

Figure 2.12 Hermes and the infant Dionysus, c. 340–300 bc. Roman copy or pos...

Figure 2.13 Aphrodite of Knidos, fourth century bc. Roman copy after origina...

Figure 2.14 Apoxyomenos (‘The Scraper’) of Lysippos.

Figure 2.15 Depiction of Pythagoras' experiments on the proportional relatio...

Figure 2.16 Depiction of Vitruvius presenting De Architectura to Augustus Ca...

Figure 2.17 Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72).

Figure 2.18 Proportional relationships according to Alberti.

Figure 2.19 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Self‐portrait, c. 1515.

Figure 2.20 (

A

) Measuring the human head, c.1482, Piero della Francesca, fro...

Figure 2.21 (

A

) Detail from Francesco di Giorgio Martini's Trattato di archi...

Figure 2.22 Human skull in sagittal section with proportions (detail), c. 14...

Figure 2.23 Portrait of Luca Pacioli, Iacopo de' Barbari, 1494.

Figure 2.24 Polyhedron, Leonardo da Vinci, from Pacioli's De Divina Proporti...

Figure 2.25 Mona Lisa (c. 1505–14), Leonardo da Vinci

Figure 2.26 Vitruvian Man, c. 1490, Leonardo da Vinci (Gallerie dell’Accadem...

Figure 2.27 (A) Male Head in Profile with Proportions, c. 1490. Leonardo da ...

Figure 2.28 (A) Leonardo’s Square (Detail, Study of Proportions and Study of...

Figure 2.29 (A) Study of Proportions of the Human Head and Figure (detail), ...

Figure 2.31 (A) Proportions of the Face and Nose, c. 1490, Leonardo da Vinci...

Figure 2.32 Portrait of Michelangelo Buonarroti, c. 1522, Giuliano Bugiardin...

Figure 2.33 Vitruvian Man, 1521, Cesare Cesariano, from Cesare Cesariano's t...

Figure 2.34 Vitruvian Man, 1570, Carlo Urbino.

Figure 2.35 (A) Study of the Proportions of the Head and Chest, Leonardo da ...

Figure 2.36 Leonardo’s Square, copy of the original, 1570, Carlo Urbino. Com...

Figure 2.37 Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Self‐portrait, 1500.

Figure 2.38 Adam and Eve, 1504, Albrecht Dürer.

Figure 2.39 (A–C) Albrecht Dürer's studies on human proportions(D) ‘Idea...

Figure 2.40 (A–D) ‘Ideal’ Craniofacial Proportions in Three Dimensions, 1528...

Figure 2.41 ‘Ideal’ Facial Profile Proportions, 1528, Albrecht Dürer(A,B...

Figure 2.42 Albrecht Dürer, Constructed Head of a Man in Profile,...

Figure 2.43 Ideal proportions of a woman, based on measurements of classical...

Figure 2.44 Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764–1850), Lithograph 1830, depicted ...

Figure 2.45 Proportions of the human head and ageing.

Figure 2.46 Petrus Camper (1722–89).

Figure 2.47 Variations in the facial angle, depicted by Petrus Camper (late ...

Figure 2.48 Aleš Hrdlička (1869–1943).

Figure 2.49 Leslie G Farkas (1915–2008) – the pioneer of modern craniofacial...

Figure 2.50 The golden proportion.

Figure 2.51 (

A

) Facial profile drawn within the main body of the text in Luc...

Figure 2.52 Relative proportions of the head and foot, Detail, Leonardo da V...

Figure 2.53 (

A–D

) Selected images from Zeising's Neue Lehre von den Pr...

Figure 2.54 Le Corbusier's Le Modular (c. 1943).

Figure 2.55 Leonardo Pisano (1170–1240), also known as Leonardo Fibonacci.

Figure 2.56 Dr Carl Edward Sagan.

Figure 2.57 Bertrand Russell (3rd Earl Russell) with his wife Edith, and the...

Figure 2.58 Sir Karl Raimund Popper.

Figure 2.59 A black swan.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 The Scream (1893), Edvard Munch.

Figure 3.2 Detail of the Mona Lisa (c. 1505–14), Leonardo da Vinci....

Figure 3.3 Duchenne de Boulogne with ‘The Old Man’.

Figure 3.4 Duchenne using stimulating electrodes on various facial muscle in...

Figure 3.5 Muscles of facial expression and other superficial muscles of the...

Figure 3.6 Charles Darwin, aged 72 (1881).

Figure 3.7 Illustration of the expressions of an aggressive and helpless man...

Figure 3.8 Illustration of the expressions of a submissive and aggressive do...

Figure 3.9 Paul Ekman.

Figure 3.10 Universal expressions of emotion.

Figure 3.11 Smile types: the posed (non‐Duchenne) smile utilizing the zygoma...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 An individual's sense of identity resides to a great extent on th...

Figure 4.2 Physical health, mental health and social well‐being are all nece...

Figure 4.3 Draw‐A‐Person test demonstrating the difference in body image of ...

Figure 4.4 (A–B)Photographs of a patient with hemifacial atrophy taken only ...

Figure 4.5 Girl Before a Mirror, Pablo Picasso, 1932, Oil on canvas. The Mus...

Figure 4.6 The Italian professor of psychiatry Enrico Morselli (1852–1929) c...

Figure 4.7 Katharine Phillips.

Figure 4.8 Frances Cooke Macgregor (1906–2001).

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Alexander Pope (1688–1744).

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Orthopantomograph (OPT or OPG), alternatively termed a dental pan...

Figure 6.2 Lateral cephalometric radiograph; the opacity of the head‐holding...

Figure 6.3 Posteroanterior (PA) cephalometric radiograph.

Figure 6.4 Dental study casts.

Figure 6.5 Presurgical dental study casts mounted on an adjustable articulat...

Figure 6.6 (

A, B

) Digital study models may be viewed on a computer screen an...

Figure 6.7 Three‐dimensional virtual surgical planning (3D‐VSP) using CT dat...

Figure 6.8 (

A

) head tilted down; (

B

) natural head position; (

C

) head tilted ...

Figure 6.9 The Frankfort Agreement was to orient skulls such that the ‘Germa...

Figure 6.10 The Frankfort Horizontal (FH) plane on a dried skull, extending ...

Figure 6.11 The image shows a cranium, as if resting on a table, supported b...

Figure 6.12 Downs described the significant individual variation in the incl...

Figure 6.13 Two adult Bantu men with almost identical facial profiles in nat...

Figure 6.14 This superimposition of two women with very similar facial profi...

Figure 6.15 The

0° meridian (zero‐degree meridian)

was described ...

Figure 6.16 The vertical 0° meridian line and the horizontal line later...

Figure 6.17 (

A

) The relative orientation of the vertical 0° ...

Figure 6.18 A patient in natural head position, demonstrating the true facia...

Figure 6.19 Tying back long hair for facial clinical evaluation. A common oc...

Figure 6.20 A grid pattern focussing screen is useful for orientation, consi...

Figure 6.21 Intraoral views. Left panel: right buccal view, overjet view; Mi...

Figure 6.22 Craniofacial soft tissue surface landmarks.

Figure 6.23 In patients with receding hairlines, trichion (Tr) may be locate...

Figure 6.24 (

A

) Spreading calliper; and (

B

) sliding calliper.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 A patient positioned in the cephalometer (or cephalostat) with ea...

Figure 7.2 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric landmarks (skeletal) (see Table...

Figure 7.3 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric landmarks (dental) (see Table 7...

Figure 7.4 Soft tissue lateral cephalometric landmarks (see Table 7.3 for de...

Figure 7.5 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric (horizontal) reference planes (...

Figure 7.6 Hard tissue lateral cephalometric (vertical) reference planes (se...

Figure 7.7 Hard tissue posteroanterior (PA) cephalometric landmarks (see Tab...

Figure 7.8 Hard tissue posteroanterior (PA) cephalometric reference planes (...

Figure 7.9 Skull (frontal view)....

Figure 7.12 Skull (coronal section of anterior facial skeleton)....

Figure 7.13 Free body diagrams depicting the structural components of the cr...

Figure 7.14 The nasion perpendicular is a vertical line perpendicular to the...

Figure 7.15 The horizontal distance between projections of maxillary A‐point...

Figure 7.16 The Delaire craniofacial analysis and craniofacial angle.

Figure 7.17 The SNA and SNB angles demonstrate the sagittal position of the ...

Figure 7.18 An increase in the SNA angle may indicate protrusion of the maxi...

Figure 7.19 The SNA angle will reduce if nasion is more forward in position....

Figure 7.20 Variations in the vertical position of sella will affect the val...

Figure 7.21 Anterior facial divergence tends to increase both the SNA and SN...

Figure 7.22 Comparing (

A

) and (

B

), the SNB angle remains the same; the SND a...

Figure 7.23 A reduction in the cranial base (saddle) angle may result in man...

Figure 7.24 The ANB angle represents the difference between the SNA and SNB ...

Figure 7.25 Variation in the position of nasion may give misleading values o...

Figure 7.26 With the same ANB angle, the greater the anterior face height, t...

Figure 7.27 A Class I incisor relationship due to dentoalveolar compensation...

Figure 7.28 (

A

) Forward (anticlockwise) rotation of the bimaxillary complex ...

Figure 7.29 The Ballard conversion method to evaluate sagittal jaw discrepan...

Figure 7.30 (

A

) The Wits appraisal of sagittal jaw discrepancy involves cons...

Figure 7.31 The difference between the maxillary (Co‐A) and mandibular (Co‐G...

Figure 7.32 The relationship between midfacial length (effective maxillary l...

Figure 7.33 Maxillary incisor inclination may be evaluated in relation to th...

Figure 7.34 An unusually acute maxillary incisor crown‐root angle may lead t...

Figure 7.35 The inclination of the maxillary incisor to the maxillary plane ...

Figure 7.36 According to Steiner, the most anterior point of the maxillary i...

Figure 7.37 The labial (facial) surface of the maxillary incisor should be 4...

Figure 7.38 The protrusion of the maxillary incisors may be measured as the ...

Figure 7.39 The axial inclination of the mandibular incisors (MnI) may be ev...

Figure 7.40 According to Steiner, the most labial portion of the crown of th...

Figure 7.41 In individuals with good dentofacial aesthetics and good dental ...

Figure 7.42 The edge‐centroid relationship: the mandibular incisor edge proj...

Figure 7.43 The interincisal angle is the posterior angle formed by the inte...

Figure 7.44 (

A

) According to the Sassouni analysis, in a well‐proportioned f...

Figure 7.45 Anterior face height ratios (proportional relationship of lower ...

Figure 7.46 Facial Height Index (FHI: Proportional relationship of anterior ...

Figure 7.47 (

A,B

) Linear vertical cephalometric measurements (numbers refer ...

Figure 7.48 (

A,B

) Angular vertical cephalometric relationships (numbers refe...

Figure 7.49 1: Anterior maxillary dental height; 2: Posterior maxillary dent...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Determination of the normality or abnormality of any craniofacial...

Figure 8.2 Cephalic index.

Figure 8.3 Head types.

Figure 8.4 Facial height‐to‐width ratios.

Figure 8.5 Facial types according to Albrecht Dürer.

Figure 8.6 Facial types.

Figure 8.7 Facial divergence according to Albrecht Dürer.

Figure 8.8 Facial divergence.

Figure 8.9 Facial profile contour according to Albrecht Dürer.

Figure 8.10 Facial profile contours.

Figure 8.11 Angle of facial profile convexity (facial contour angle).

Figure 8.12 Facial angle. FH, Frankfort Horizontal plane; TrH, true horizont...

Figure 8.13 The relationship of the cranial base angle (saddle angle) and an...

Figure 8.14 Parasagittal profile contour.

Figure 8.15 Hyperdivergent, ‘high angle’ facial type.

Figure 8.16 Hypodivergent, ‘low angle’ facial type.

Figure 8.17 Mandibular plane angle (clinical). FH, Frankfort Horizontal plan...

Figure 8.18 Mandibular plane angle (cephalometric). MxP, maxillary plane; Mn...

Figure 8.19 Gonial angle.

Figure 8.20 Facial height to horizontal facial depth ratio. FH, Frankfort Ho...

Figure 8.21 Facial axis.

Figure 8.22 Y‐axis. FH, Frankfort Horizontal.

Figure 8.23 Facial contour line angles in masculine and feminine faces.

Figure 8.24 Facial profile curves.

Figure 8.25 ‘S‐shaped’ curvilinear considerations.

Figure 8.26 Nasal contour defect.

Figure 8.27 Bimaxillary surgery for a skeletal Class III pattern in a female...

Figure 8.30 Bimaxillary surgery for a skeletal Class III pattern in a female...

Figure 8.31 Relaxed skin tension lines.

Figure 8.32 Excessive subcutaneous fat accumulation and skin laxity.

Figure 8.33 (

A

) Changes to the maxilla and mandible resulting from alveolar ...

Figure 8.34 Facial profile changes associated with ageing and resulting from...

Figure 8.35 (

A

) Average facial morphology of the young female face, based on...

Figure 8.36 (

A

) St Jerome, (c. 1480, Leonardo da Vinci, Pinacoteca Vaticana,...

Figure 8.37 The ageing neck.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Vertical facial disproportions.

Figure 9.2 Ideal craniofacial proportional relationships.

Figure 9.3 Proportional differences in the size of the neonatal and adult sk...

Figure 9.4 Relative sizes of the cranium and facial skeleton in the neonatal...

Figure 9.5 Schematic representation of the changing proportions of head size...

Figure 9.6 Doryphoros (‘Spear‐bearer’). In the fifth century bc, Polycleitos...

Figure 9.7 Apoxyomenos (‘The Scraper’) of Lysippos. (Roman copy after the Gr...

Figure 9.8 Apollo Belvedere of Leochares.

Figure 9.9 Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (Homo vitruvianus), (c. 1490). ...

Figure 9.10 Albrecht Dürer's Man of Eight Head‐Lengths....

Figure 9.11 Dürer described the craniofacial height as ranging from...

Figure 9.12 Craniofacial bisection (modified, detail from Leonardo da...

Figure 9.13 Facial (Vitruvian) trisection (Detail from Leonardo da Vinci's V...

Figure 9.14 Facial trisection (modified, detail from Leonardo da Vinci's Pro...

Figure 9.15 Vertical craniofacial tetrasection.

Figure 9.16 The artist's grid describes the face as five eye widths wide and...

Figure 9.17 The facial trisection canon compared with proportional ratios de...

Figure 9.18 The lower facial height canon compared with proportional ratios ...

Figure 9.19 Total vertical maxillary excess. Excessive gingival exposure is ...

Figure 9.20 Anterior vertical maxillary excess. Excessive anterior dentoging...

Figure 9.21 Excessive gingival tissue.

Figure 9.22 Vertical chin excess. Increased vertical chin height (stomion to...

Figure 9.23 (

A

) Rule of fifths.(

B

) In some facial types, the outer part ...

Figure 9.24 Transverse facial proportions. The ‘rule of fifths’ states that ...

Figure 9.25 Telecanthus and hypertelorism. (

A

) Normal interocular dimensions...

Figure 9.26 Orbital hypertelorism in a patient with Crouzon syndrome.

Figure 9.27 Increased bigonial width.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 This patient developed a compensatory head posture, rotating his...

Figure 10.2 Facial midline, parallel to a true vertical line (TrV).

Figure 10.3 Facial midline, connecting glabella and the mid‐philtrum of the ...

Figure 10.4 The midpoints of different structures may be marked on the patie...

Figure 10.5 Vertical references lines.

Figure 10.6 Horizontal reference lines.

Figure 10.7 The vertical level of bilateral structures to a baseline horizon...

Figure 10.8 Use of wooden spatula to evaluate the orientation of the transve...

Figure 10.9 Use of Fox's occlusal guide plane to evaluate the orientation of...

Figure 10.10 The superior view.

Figure 10.11 The submental view.

Figure 10.12 Transverse occlusal plane view with an orthodontic cheek retrac...

Figure 10.13 Transverse occlusal plane view with photographic retractors.

Figure 10.14 Mandibular asymmetry due to a lateral mandibular displacement t...

Figure 10.15 Premature contact in the undisplaced position, from which the s...

Figure 10.16 On mouth opening the upper and lower dental midlines are almost...

Figure 10.17 Mandibular asymmetry is evident in the undisplaced position, bu...

Figure 10.18 The mandibular dental midline should be evaluated in relation t...

Figure 10.19 Left panel: With isolated chin asymmetry, the upper and lower l...

Figure 10.20 Posteroanterior cephalometric radiograph demonstrating a true h...

Figure 10.21 In establishing a facial midline perpendicular to a constructed...

Figure 10.22 Harvold

11

recommended the construction of a horizontal plane th...

Figure 10.23 Soft tissue markers may be placed prior to taking the posteroan...

Figure 10.24 Vertical reference lines may be drawn parallel to the midsagitt...

Figure 10.25 Horizontal reference lines may be used to illustrate vertical d...

Figure 10.26 ‘Triangular analysis’ demonstrating the maxillary, mandibular a...

Figure 10.27 Right‐sided hemimandibular hyperplasia has led to an increase i...

Figure 10.28 Vertical asymmetry of the left and right inferior mandibular bo...

Figure 10.29 Left‐sided hemimandibular hyperplasia and excessive ramus heigh...

Figure 10.30 A transparent ruled grid may be placed over the occlusal surfac...

Figure 10.31 3D facial soft tissue scans of a developing facial asymmetry ta...

Figure 10.32 CT transverse sections of the maxilla and mandible in a patient...

Figure 10.33 Three‐dimensional computed tomography reconstructions of patien...

Figure 10.34 Having established the facial midline on a 3D computerized tomo...

Figure 10.35 Vertical relationship of the trigeminal foramina (dotted blue l...

Figure 10.36 Horizontal reference planes drawn through bilateral structures ...

Figure 10.37 The ‘maxillofacial frame’ is a useful method of analysing facia...

Figure 10.38 Stereolithographic model.

Figure 10.39 Three‐dimensional virtual surgical planning (3D‐VSP). (

A

) Front...

Figure 10.40 Superimposition of two lateral cephalometric radiographs taken ...

Figure 10.41 Superimposition of serial 3D surface images provides an indicat...

Figure 10.42 Standard growth charts (height); individuals at the midpoint of...

Figure 10.43 Skull and neck (posteroanterior view) scintigraph demonstrating...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Many cultures have represented the forehead as the emblem of int...

Figure 11.2 Forehead anatomy:...

Figure 11.3 The forehead aesthetic unit is comprised of two subunits:...

Figure 11.4 The outer contour of the face (lateral facial contour in frontal...

Figure 11.5 Forehead inclination may be mildly posterior (usually in men), a...

Figure 11.6 Frontal bossing is said to exist when the sagittal projection of...

Figure 11.7 The nasofrontal (or glabellar) angle may be separated into upper...

Figure 11.8 The convex outer contour of the superior forehead subunit is cur...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The eyes are arguably the most important facial aesthetic featur...

Figure 12.2 Orbital anatomy

Figure 12.3 Eyelid anatomy: the tarsal plates, palpebral ligaments and orbit...

Figure 12.4 The eyes and eyelids (surface features): Superior orbital fol...

Figure 12.5 Eyebrow aesthetics: The medial brow starts approximately above t...

Figure 12.6 Leonardo's commissure‐limbus‐eyebrow peak line.

Figure 12.7 Brow‐nasal tip aesthetic line.

Figure 12.8 Orientation of palpebral fissure: In the normal Caucasian eye, t...

Figure 12.9 Increased inferomedial slant and increased inferolateral slant o...

Figure 12.10 The lower eyelid lies on an inferior‐posterior slope of approxi...

Figure 12.11 The superior most point of the curve of the upper lid margin an...

Figure 12.12 The upper lid crease normally divides the upper lid into an inf...

Figure 12.13 The upper lid crease may be absent in East Asian patients.

Figure 12.14 Sheen's test: the patient assumes a 45° downward gaze while...

Figure 12.15 Orbital hypertelorism in a patient with Crouzon syndrome.

Figure 12.16 Orbital and interocular dimensions (for normative values see Ta...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Anatomy of the external ear (auricle):

Figure 13.2 Attached ear lobe.

Figure 13.3 The ear is attached to the scalp approximately one ear height po...

Figure 13.4 The width‐to‐height ratio of the ear is approximately...

Figure 13.5 The ear may be divided vertically into three approximately equal...

Figure 13.6 The long axis of the ear is inclined about 15°–20°...

Figure 13.7 The outer helical rim stands away from the head at an angle of a...

Figure 13.8 Excessive lateral projection of the ear.

Figure 13.9 Auriculocephalic angle.

Figure 13.10 Ear protrusion (lateral projection): normal distances.

Figure 13.11 Asymmetrical ear morphology and position in patient with hemifa...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Plates 6 and 7 of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, shown here d...

Figure 14.2 The Italian surgeon Gaspare Tagliacozzi (1545–99) published a tr...

Figure 14.3 An article published in the Gentleman's Magazine (1794), describ...

Figure 14.4 Jacques Joseph (1865–1934), considered to be the pioneer of mode...

Figure 14.5 The external nose is pyramidal in shape.

Figure 14.6 The osseous framework supporting the upper third of the external...

Figure 14.7 The osseocartilaginous nasal septum (paramedian sagittal section...

Figure 14.8 The bones and cartilages of the external nose (lateral view)....

Figure 14.9 The bones and cartilages of the external nose (caudal view).

Figure 14.10 Variations in nasal type in profile view. (Leonardo da Vinci, c...

Figure 14.11 Nasal index.

Figure 14.12 Ethnic variations in nasal type.

Figure 14.13 Descriptive terms for relative nasal spatial relationships. (Af...

Figure 14.14 The nasal framework. The rhinion (Rh) marks the osseocartilagin...

Figure 14.15 Nasal height, length and projection.

Figure 14.16 Nasal aesthetic subunits.

Figure 14.17 Brow‐nasal tip aesthetic line. (Detail, Birth of Venus, c. 1485...

Figure 14.18 The normal angle of divergence of the domes has been described ...

Figure 14.19 Sheen

13

described the nasal tip as the nasal surface area conta...

Figure 14.20 Left panel: The columella is observed to hang just inferior to ...

Figure 14.21 The columella–ala triangle.

Figure 14.22 Lateral alar axis orientation.

Figure 14.23 Nasion position. (

A

) The nasion level or vertical position may ...

Figure 14.24 The nasofrontal angle and its separation into component parts b...

Figure 14.25 (

A

) Where an anterior curvature of the superior portion of the ...

Figure 14.26 The nasal dorsal line is drawn from nasion (N') to the nasal ti...

Figure 14.27 Nasal tip rotation: cephalic or caudal nasal tip rotation is al...

Figure 14.28 The nasofacial angle is the inner angle formed by the intersect...

Figure 14.29 Joseph

9

developed a profilometer in order to directly measure t...

Figure 14.30 Nasal tip projection may be related to cutaneous upper lip heig...

Figure 14.31 Nasal height to projection ratio: Baum

38

suggested a ratio of 2...

Figure 14.32 Nasal projection (p) to nasal length (l) ratio: Goode

23

suggest...

Figure 14.33 Nasal projections (tip and root) to length ratio (Byrd method).

Figure 14.34 Nasal tip projection may be evaluated relative to the sagittal ...

Figure 14.35 (

A

) Baud's ‘facial circle’: A line from tragion to pronasale fo...

Figure 14.36 Nasal base projection: (

A

) Leonardo's square, described by Leon...

Figure 14.37 Nasal tip angle (Joseph's ‘septodorsal’ angle).

9

Figure 14.38 The ‘ideal’ columellar–lobular angle (θ) is 35°–40°....

Figure 14.39 Columellar–alar relationship classification.

Figure 14.40 Nasolabial angle (upper component θ): Male: 10°–15°;...

Figure 14.41 Nasal base inclination (θ): Male: 90°–95°; female:...

Figure 14.42 Dynamic nasolabial evaluation: A profile smiling view may demon...

Figure 14.43 Nasal evaluation in basal view.

Figure 14.44 Basal view, demonstrating alar flare, alar base width (distance...

Figure 14.45 Nostril types. Types I–III are most frequently observed in Cauc...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 The malar eminence is an important aesthetic feature of the face...

Figure 15.2 Anatomy of the zygomatic bone:...

Figure 15.3 Right‐sided malar deficiency in a patient with hemifacial micros...

Figure 15.4 Evaluation of malar region: (

A

) superior view; (

B

) inferior view...

Figure 15.5 The malar eminence is located 15–20 mm inferior to the lateral c...

Figure 15.6 The mild depression of the cheek, which is just inferior and med...

Figure 15.7 Malar deficiency.

Figure 15.8 Palpation of the malar region helps relate the soft tissue conto...

Figure 15.9 Hinderer's crossed lines.

Figure 15.10 Wilkinson's method.

Figure 15.11 Silver's malar prominence triangle. FH, Frankfort Horizontal pl...

Figure 15.12 Powell's analysis.

Figure 15.13 Prendergast and Schoenrock method.

Figure 15.14 ‘Zonal’ analysis of the malar region.

Figure 15.15 Frontozygomatic curvilinear contour in oblique lateral view....

Figure 15.17 Frontozygomatic curvilinear contour in oblique lateral view....

Figure 15.18 In the oblique lateral view, with the patient in NHP, a true ho...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 (

A

) Maxillary rotation around the three axes of rotation. (

B

) Ro...

Figure 16.2 Maxilla and midface (frontal view):...

Figure 16.3 Maxilla: (

A

) Medial view of left maxilla; (

B

) Frontal view of le...

Figure 16.4 Masking the lower lip and mandibular region with a piece of card...

Figure 16.5 Increased scleral exposure above the lower eyelid and below the ...

Figure 16.6 Inferior orbital rim projection in relation to the globe and lat...

Figure 16.7 The borders of the soft tissue cheek. (Modified, detail, Head of...

Figure 16.8 The submalar triangle (1) is bordered superiorly by the malar em...

Figure 16.9 The midfacial curvilinear contour line should form a smooth, uni...

Figure 16.10 Paranasal hollowing. (

A

) Paranasal region is concave as a resul...

Figure 16.11 Nasal base support: Sagittal maxillary deficiency may result in...

Figure 16.12 The ratio of the horizontal linear distance from nasal tip (pro...

Figure 16.13 Upper lip inclination may be evaluated using a line tangent to ...

Figure 16.14 Nasolabial angle (lower component): the inclination of the uppe...

Figure 16.15 Inferior orbital rim projection evaluation with the S‐N‐Or angl...

Figure 16.16 The sagittal position of the maxillary apical base may be evalu...

Figure 16.17 Maxillary incisor exposure in relation to upper lip. (

A

) In rep...

Figure 16.18 Sagittal maxillary occlusal plane evaluation. 1: Anterior midfa...

Figure 16.19 Maxillary skeletal width may be measured between left and right...

Figure 16.20 (

A

) Normal palatal width and normal posterior occlusal relation...

Figure 16.21 Schematic representation of the aetiology of transverse maxilla...

Figure 16.22 Maxillary hypoplasia in a patient with previously operated bila...

Figure 16.23 Sagittal maxillary deficiency (combined with mandibular excess)...

Figure 16.24 Sagittal maxillary deficiency resulting in a reverse incisor ov...

Figure 16.25 (

A

) Class III skeletal pattern mainly due to sagittal maxillary...

Figure 16.26 Vertical maxillary deficiency (VMD) – example is of a Class II ...

Figure 16.27 Relative transverse maxillary deficiency. (

A

) Presurgical study...

Figure 16.28 Absolute transverse maxillary deficiency due to a

true

transver...

Figure 16.29 Le Fort type osteotomies: Le Fort I type osteotomy (red lines) ...

Figure 16.30 Sagittal maxillary excess: soft tissue pogonion is on the true ...

Figure 16.31 There may be up to 10–15 mm of bone between the nasal floor and...

Figure 16.32 Total vertical maxillary excess (total VME): in the presence of...

Figure 16.33 Excessive overeruption of the maxillary incisors may lead to in...

Figure 16.34 A predominantly skeletal aetiology to the anterior open bite, w...

Figure 16.35 Vertical dentoalveolar compensation (incisor overeruption) for ...

Figure 16.36 A predominantly soft tissue aetiology to the anterior open bite...

Figure 16.37 Increased transverse dimensions in the maxilla tend to be assoc...

Figure 16.38 Correctly related and well‐articulated dental study casts demon...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 The lips are a significant aesthetic unit of the face. (Detail,

Figure 17.2 Repaired right‐sided cleft lip.

Figure 17.3 Lip anatomy and terminology:...

Figure 17.4 Changes in lip morphology with ageing.

Figure 17.5 Resting lip lines: The interlabial separation is no more than 2–...

Figure 17.6 High upper lip line.

Figure 17.7 Low upper lip line: The maxillary incisor display may be non‐exi...

Figure 17.8 High lower lip line: The lower lip often rests high on the labia...

Figure 17.9 Hypertonicity of the lower lip.

Figure 17.10 Hypotonicity of the upper lip.

Figure 17.11 Flaccid lips.

Figure 17.12 In Class II division 1 malocclusion the lower lip will form a s...

Figure 17.13 Variation in vermilion heights.

Figure 17.14 Change in upper lip height with growth from ages 8 to 18 (error...

Figure 17.15 Change in lower lip height‐chin with growth from ages 8 to 18 (...

Figure 17.16 (

A

) Upper lip thickness. (

B

) Upper lip strain.

Figure 17.17 Total chin thickness (effective bony chin ahead of the NB line ...

Figure 17.18 (

A

) Lower lip thickness at vermilion border. (

B

) Lower lip thic...

Figure 17.19 Change in upper lip thickness with growth from ages 8 to 18 (er...

Figure 17.20 Change in lower lip thickness with growth from ages 8 to 18 (er...

Figure 17.21 Upper lip curvature (frontal view): the mid‐philtrum height and...

Figure 17.22 A significantly shorter mid‐philtrum height compared with commi...

Figure 17.23 Reduced upper lip curl: posterior sagittal curvature of the upp...

Figure 17.24 Increased upper lip curl.

Figure 17.25 Evaluation of upper lip curl may be undertaken by drawing a lin...

Figure 17.26 Upper and lower lip sulcus depths may be measured from the H‐li...

Figure 17.27 Angular profile parameters may be visually separated into upper...

Figure 17.28 (

A

) Incomplete lip seal (lip incompetence) refers to excessive ...

Figure 17.29 With more severe lip incompetence, as well as flattening of the...

Figure 17.30 Potential lip competence.

Figure 17.31 Maxillary dentoalveolar protrusion: such protrusion of the maxi...

Figure 17.32 Proclination of the maxillary incisors will tend to make the up...

Figure 17.33 Excessive dentoalveolar protrusion and proclination in the pres...

Figure 17.34 (

A

and

B

) Aesthetic analyses may be used to evaluate the relati...

Figure 17.35 The S‐line may be seen in this drawing by Albrecht Dürer....

Figure 17.36 The S‐line reduces the reliance of the analysis on nasal tip pr...

Figure 17.37 As a general guideline, the lower lip should rest slightly post...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 The morphology of the mentolabial region is an important aesthet...

Figure 18.2 Mentolabial fold depth.

Figure 18.3 Mentolabial angle and its component parts. TrH, true horizontal ...

Figure 18.4 Variations in the inclination of the lower lip and corresponding...

Figure 18.5 Patients with incompetent lip posture often elevate the lower li...

Figure 18.6 Increased horizontal chin projection leads to a decrease in the ...

Figure 18.7 Influence of lower anterior face height on mentolabial angle.

Figure 18.8 Eversion of the lower lip by proclined maxillary incisors in Cla...

Figure 18.9 The vertical level of the deepest part of the mentolabial fold...

Figure 18.10 With mandibular advancement surgery the retrusive lower lip wil...

Figure 18.11 With isolated horizontal advancement genioplasty only, changes ...

Figure 18.12 (

A

) Increased lower anterior face height (LAFH) due to posterio...

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 (

A

) Oblique right lateral view. (

B

) Superior view. (

C

) Oblique l...

Figure 19.2 Mandibular subunits:...

Figure 19.3 Extensive tooth loss results in resorption of the alveolar proce...

Figure 19.4 (

A

) Reduced, acute gonial angle. (

B

) Increased, obtuse gonial an...

Figure 19.5 The gonial angle may be divided into an upper and lower componen...

Figure 19.6 (

A

) Forward (anterior, anticlockwise) rotation of the mandible, ...

Figure 19.7 Björk's seven structural signs, which may be used to indicate...

Figure 19.8 Indistinct inferior border of the mandible.

Figure 19.9 Mandibular dimensions (for normative values see Table 19.2).

Figure 19.10 Sagittal mandibular deficiency with a reduced lower anterior fa...

Figure 19.11 Sagittal mandibular deficiency with an increased lower anterior...

Figure 19.12 The prominent ‘Hapsburg jaw’ and protrusive lower lip of the Ha...

Figure 19.13 The ‘chin retractor’ of Edward Angle was a predecessor to the c...

Figure 19.14 The characteristic feature of mandibular excess is the prominen...

Figure 19.15 Excessive forward rotation of the mandible (overclosure), secon...

Figure 19.16 Anterior mandibular displacement: patients with an uncomfortabl...

Figure 19.17 In frontal view, the patient with true mandibular excess exhibi...

Figure 19.18 (

A

) Mandibular excess may create the illusion of upper lip and/...

Figure 19.19 Chin prominence is usually the most characteristic feature obse...

Figure 19.20 (

A

) Protrusive lower lip resulting from mandibular excess and m...

Figure 19.21 (

A

) Class III jaw relationship – compensatory retroclination of...

Figure 19.22 (

A

and

B

) Shortening of the mandibular body will reduce the sub...

Figure 19.23 Dentoalveolar compensation for an underlying Class III jaw rela...

Figure 19.24 Increased bigonial width.

Figure 19.25 Masseteric hypertrophy leads to bone proliferation at the gonia...

Figure 19.26 Hemimandibular hyperplasia and hemimandibular elongation.

Figure 19.27 (

A

and

B

) Hemimandibular hyperplasia (patient's left side): The...

Figure 19.28 The mandibular occlusal plane is oriented downward on the affec...

Figure 19.29 (

A

and

B

) Hemimandibular elongation (patient's right side): The...

Figure 19.30 (

A

) Combined hemimandibular hyperplasia and elongation (patient...

Figure 19.31 Graphical representation of perceptive and intervention thresho...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 (

A

) Cranioskeletal morphology of Homo erectus, a species of homi...

Figure 20.2 The chin establishes much of the character of the lower face, pa...

Figure 20.3 (

A

) Normal chin prominence. (

B

) Horizontal osseous microgenia. (

Figure 20.4 Sagittal chin excess secondary to mandibular excess (i.e. normal...

Figure 20.5 Horizontal, hypodivergent (short face type) facial growth patter...

Figure 20.6 Types of mandibular growth rotation. (

A

) Anterior (forward) mand...

Figure 20.7 Anterior mandibular autorotation around the condylar hinge axis ...

Figure 20.8 Relative sagittal chin excess, with the chin appearing protrusiv...

Figure 20.9 (

A

) Normal chin prominence. (

B

) Horizontal osseous microgenia. (

Figure 20.10 Sagittal chin deficiency secondary to mandibular deficiency (i....

Figure 20.11 Vertical, hyperdivergent (‘tall face’ type) facial growth patte...

Figure 20.12 Posterior mandibular autorotation around the condylar hinge axi...

Figure 20.13 Relative sagittal chin deficiency, with the chin appearing retr...

Figure 20.14 Sagittal mandibular deficiency combined with horizontal macroge...

Figure 20.15 Vertical chin excess – lower anterior dentoalveolar and chin he...

Figure 20.16 Macrogenia – types of skeletal chin excess.

Figure 20.17 Microgenia – types of skeletal chin deficiency.

Figure 20.18 Combined skeletal chin deformity.

Figure 20.19 Increased thickness of soft tissue chin pad (bony chin is relat...

Figure 20.20 Reduced thickness of soft tissue chin pad (mentalis hypertrophy...

Figure 20.21 Ptosis of the soft tissue chin pad in repose and in animation....

Figure 20.22 Zero‐degree meridian: according to Gonzalez‐Ulloa

12, 13

soft ti...

Figure 20.23 With the patient in natural head position, the true vertical pl...

Figure 20.24 Bass aesthetic analysis

17, 18

suggests drawing a true vertical ...

Figure 20.25 Soft tissue pogonion (Pog') should be 2–9 mm anterior to the ve...

Figure 20.26 The Riedel analysis indicates that the point of maximum chin pr...

Figure 20.27 Evaluation of the sagittal position of the chin in relation to ...

Figure 20.28 As a general guideline, soft tissue pogonion (Pog') should not ...

Figure 20.29 (

A

) Patient with mandibular deficiency and associated retrusive...

Figure 20.30 The lower lip‐chin prominence (LiaV‐Pog') angle. In front of th...

Figure 20.31 Linear relationship of anterior mandible to gonion at three lev...

Figure 20.32 Projection of chin in relation to mandibular incisors: The labi...

Figure 20.33 Rees aesthetic plane – this line/plane, drawn between the nasal...

Figure 20.34 (

A

) Björk's polygon demonstrates four linear and three...

Figure 20.35 The morphology of the mentolabial fold and the transition betwe...

Figure 20.36 In patients with horizontal osseous macrogenia and a thin soft ...

Figure 20.37 Horizontal smile/chin ptosis phenomenon.

Figure 20.38 The mentalis origin is almost circular and relatively compact, ...

Figure 20.39 Contraction of the mentalis forces the skin of the chin against...

Figure 20.40 Cleft chin.

Figure 20.41 (

A

) Mentalis hypertrophy is evident in a patient with an incomp...

Figure 20.43 Male Head in Profile with Proportions, c. 1490. Leonardo da Vin...

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Submental anatomy in relation to the mandible, with muscle attac...

Figure 21.2 Profile view of the face and neck with superimposed bony and mus...

Figure 21.3 Submental plane, cervical plane and cervical point (C‐point).

Figure 21.4 Class II jaw relationship due to mandibular deficiency and signi...

Figure 21.5 (

A

) Patient with Class II jaw relationship due to mandibular def...

Figure 21.6 Skin laxity test.

Figure 21.7 Platysma view: With the head tilted slightly back in frontal vie...

Figure 21.8 Platysmal bands may be evident in repose in an ageing neck.

Figure 21.9 Submental adiposity.

Figure 21.10 The definition of the inferior border of the mandible is an imp...

Figure 21.11 In frontal view, the transition from the upper aspect of the ne...

Figure 21.12 Of the ‘six visual criteria’ of the profile view for ‘success i...

Figure 21.13 (

A

and

B

) Submental‐facial angles – methods of evaluation.

Figure 21.14 (

A

and

B

) Inclination of the submental plane to the true vertic...

Figure 21.15 Submental length may be measured from C‐point to soft tissue me...

Figure 21.16 (

A

) Submental length to orbital depth (approximately 1:1) and s...

Figure 21.17 Lower vertical height‐depth ratio.

Figure 21.18 The submental‐neck (submental‐cervical) angle helps to describe...

Figure 21.19 Submental soft tissue thickness may be measured at a number of ...

Figure 21.20 Evaluation of hyoid bone position in a normal attractive neck:...

Figure 21.21 (

A

) Schematic diagram depicting an obtuse submental‐cervical an...

Figure 21.22 Identical facial profiles varying only in the submental‐cervica...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Terms of direction in dental nomenclature may be used to describ...

Figure 22.2 Terms of tooth rotation around the three axes of rotation.

Figure 22.3 The skull named ‘Old Glory’ was used by Edward Angle to exemplif...

Figure 22.4 The ‘curve of Spee’ or sagittal curve of the occlusion

Figure 22.5 Sagittal occlusal curves: the maxillary and mandibular incisors ...

Figure 22.6 Sagittal occlusal curves: the maxillary and mandibular incisors ...

Figure 22.7 The transverse curve of occlusion is termed the ‘curve of Wilson...

Figure 22.8 Andrews' ‘six keys’ to ‘ideal’ dental occlusion:Key I: molar r...

Figure 22.9 Correct tooth size is the ‘seventh key’ to ‘ideal’ occlusion: in...

Figure 22.10 Sagittal incisor relationships.

Figure 22.11 Class I occlusion.

Figure 22.12 Class II division 1 incisor relationship.

Figure 22.13 Class II division 2 incisor relationship.

Figure 22.14 Class III incisor relationship.

Figure 22.15 Incisor overbite.

Figure 22.16 Classification of incisor overbite.

Figure 22.17 Class I buccal segment relationship.

Figure 22.18 Class II (full unit) buccal segment relationship.

Figure 22.19 Class III (full unit) buccal segment relationship.

Figure 22.20 Right‐sided lateral open bite.

Figure 22.21 Transverse buccal segment relationship: (

A

) normal; (

B

) right‐s...

Figure 22.22 (

A

) Class II division 1 incisor relationship with an increased ...

Figure 22.23 The terms ‘Class I’, ‘Class II’ and ‘Class III’, are used to de...

Figure 22.24 ‘Normal’ or average growth of the face from Broadbent's serial ...

Figure 22.25 The soft tissue envelope of the tongue, lips/cheeks; the teeth ...

Figure 22.26 Dentoalveolar compensation. (A) Proclination of the mandibular ...

Figure 22.27 Combined aetiology anterior open bite. (A) predominantly skelet...

Figure 22.28 The maxillary left central incisor has been ‘trapped’ anterior ...

Figure 22.29 Excessive vertical facial growth pattern and posterior mandibul...

Figure 22.30 Characteristic asymmetrical anterior open bite resulting from a...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Smile types.

Figure 23.2 Line diagram illustrating changes in incisor exposure in relatio...

Figure 23.3 (

A

) Increased mandibular incisor exposure in Class III malocclus...

Figure 23.4 Upper lip–maxillary incisor relationship. (

A

) The vertical expos...

Figure 23.5 The ‘lip–incisor relationship’ and maxillary incisor exposure (M...

Figure 23.6 Kostianovsky and Rubinstein's method of reducing upper lip mobil...

Figure 23.7 Vertical maxillary excess (VME) – this case demonstrates total V...

Figure 23.8 (

A

) Vertical maxillary excess; this patient demonstrated excessi...

Figure 23.9 Anterior vertical maxillary excess (anterior VME) – this is due ...

Figure 23.10 Retroclination of proclined maxillary incisors towards the corr...

Figure 23.11 Gingival sulcus depth may be measured by probing the sulcus wit...

Figure 23.12 The degree of mandibular incisor exposure during normal speech ...

Figure 23.13 (

A

) The speaking line. It has been suggested that the speaking ...

Figure 23.14 Asymmetrical smile: There is a difference in the extent of elev...

Figure 23.15 Dynamic upper lip curvature: (

A

) straight; (

B

) upward; (

C

) slig...

Figure 23.16 In patients with posterior vertical maxillary excess, the poste...

Figure 23.17 Patient with posterior vertical maxillary excess, demonstrating...

Figure 23.18 The smiling line. This was described as a curve whose path foll...

Figure 23.19 ‘Ideal’ smile curvature (smile arc).

Figure 23.20 (

A

) Flat smile curvature. (

B

) Reverse smile curvature.

Figure 23.21 A progressive increase in the maxillary occlusal plane inclinat...

Figure 23.22 (

A

) Preoperative smiling view demonstrating a flat smile arc. P...

Figure 23.23 Burstone

28

described a simple experiment to demonstrate that th...

Figure 23.24 (

A

) ‘Ideal’ smile curvature. (

B

) Inadvertent, iatrogenic flatte...

Figure 23.25 (

A

) Maxillary dental midline to the left and mandibular dental ...

Figure 23.26 Incorrect maxillary incisor angulation is more noticeable than ...

Figure 23.27 Maxillary dental midline shift of 2 mm to the right of the pati...

Figure 23.28 Absence of buccal corridors. The posterior dentition ‘fills’ th...

Figure 23.29 (

A

) Maxillary advancement permits a wider part of the dental ar...

Figure 23.30 The ‘concealed premolar’ smile: it is likely that the parameter...

Figure 23.31 (

A

) The maxillary incisors are slightly proclined and the maxil...

Figure 23.32 Variations between the inclination of the labial face of the ma...

Figure 23.33 Variation from the norm in the crown‐root angle of the maxillar...

Figure 23.34 The labial face tangent: The most accurate measurement of maxil...

Figure 23.35 Excessive maxillary incisor proclination may be evaluated on a ...

Figure 23.36 (

A

) Pretreatment profile of a Class III patient with compensate...

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Gingival anatomy. The free gingiva extends from the free gingiva...

Figure 24.2 The dentogingival unit and ‘biological width’.

Figure 24.3 Maxillary incisor crown shape: (

A

) ovoid (barrel‐shaped); (

B

) re...

Figure 24.4 Tooth width–face width ratio: maxillary central incisor crown wi...

Figure 24.5 SAP (sex, age and personality) theory.

Figure 24.6 Mammelons usually appear as three small rounded prominences on u...

Figure 24.7 Gingival recession has exposed the root surfaces, which show sig...

Figure 24.8 The width‐to‐height ratio of the maxillary central incisor crown...

Figure 24.9 Optical concepts: maxillary incisors of reduced height will appe...

Figure 24.10 Optical concepts: whiter, brighter teeth appear larger and more...

Figure 24.11 The diminutive maxillary lateral incisor is narrower than the m...

Figure 24.12 Due to the curvature of the dental arch a decreasing amount of ...

Figure 24.13 The golden proportion and golden percentage.

Figure 24.14 The incisor and canine observed proportions will vary with vari...

Figure 24.15 Megadont maxillary central incisor – bilateral symmetry between...

Figure 24.16 Maxillary canines substituted for missing lateral incisors bila...

Figure 24.17 Dental arch form types may be arbitrarily classified as ovoid, ...

Figure 24.18 Axial angulation refers to the angular deviation of the long ax...

Figure 24.19 Incisor crown angulation (‘tip’) is measured by the angulation ...

Figure 24.20 The anterior crown angulations have a general mesial angulation...

Figure 24.21 In frontal view, the observer perceives a bilateral progressive...

Figure 24.22 The aesthetic smile often demonstrates a gradation effect, i.e....

Figure 24.23 The abnormal morphology of the maxillary left first premolar ha...

Figure 24.24 (

A

) The gingival margin level of the maxillary lateral incisors...

Figure 24.25 Overeruption of the maxillary incisor teeth results in gingival...

Figure 24.26 Canine‐lateral incisor substitution: the maxillary canine has b...

Figure 24.27 The interdental papillae should fill the spaces apical to the c...

Figure 24.28 Loss of the interdental papillae may occur as a result of perio...

Figure 24.29 Dark interdental triangles may become evident following orthodo...

Figure 24.30 The gingival zenith points (shown in red) are the most apical p...

Figure 24.31 Incisal embrasures are the triangular spaces between the edges ...

Figure 24.32 (

A

) The contact areas (or contact points) are the points where ...

Figure 24.33 Between the maxillary central incisors, the ‘ideal’ aesthetic a...

Figure 24.34 Alignment of the triangular maxillary incisors may result in th...

Figure 24.35 Variation in skin colour for a given tooth shade value influenc...

Part 3

Figure S1.1 The facial planes.

Figure S1.2 The axes of rotation.

Part 4

Figure S2.1 The diagnostic process in facial aesthetic evaluation.

Figure S2.2 Angular profile parameters may be visually separated into upper ...

Figure S2.3 Two sets of arrows that exhibit the Müller‐Lyer...

Figure S2.4 Clinical evaluation – the sequence.

Part 5

Figure S3.1 Heads Divided into Facets (Detail, Albrecht Dürer,...

Figure S3.2 Facial soft tissue aesthetic units/regions:...

Figure S3.3 Albert Einstein (1879–1955).

Guide

Cover Page

Dedication Page

Title Page

Copyright page

Dedication

Reviews for the First Edition

Preface to Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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