Ferns for a Cool Temperate Climate E-Book

Martin Rickard

• Herausgeber: The Crowood Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 366

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

Over the last twenty or so years garden ferns have greatly increased in popularity and a gardener's options have never been more exciting, but making the correct choice has perhaps become more difficult. Written for the gardener, enthusiast and horticulturalist, this book will reveal the fabulous range of form offered by ferns; show ways of displaying ferns in the smallest to the largest gardens; help in the selection process by giving guidance on tolerance of cold, soil acidity, drought, sun, wind etc. There are also suggestions where to acquire ferns, from the commonest to the rarest. An authoritative and highly illustrated A to Z section, listing over 500 different taxa, further helps with identification and selecting the ideal fern for any cool temperate garden.

Leseprobe

Cultivars of Polystichum setiferum and Dryopteris filix-mas enjoying light shade at John Massey’s Ashwood garden. Light shade is achieved by removing lower branches of the trees.

First published in 2021 by The Crowood Press Ltd Ramsbury, Marlborough Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2021

© Martin Rickard 2021

Cover images

Front cover: Adiantum aleuticum at Heddon Hall, Devonshire.

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 891 7

Cover design: Kelly-Anne Levey

Dedication

For my grandchildren, James, Gareth, Rebecca, Thomas, but particularly William, who knows many of these ferns already.

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

Chapter 1: History of Ferns and Fern Growing

Chapter 2: Using Ferns in Gardens

Chapter 3: Choosing Ferns

Chapter 4: Propagating Ferns

Chapter 5: Fern Diseases and Pests

Chapter 6: An A–Z of Ferns

Appendix I: Where to Buy Ferns

Appendix II: Where to See Ferns

Appendix III: Fern Societies

Appendix IV: National Collections of Ferns

Glossary

Bibliography and Further Reading

Acknowledgements

Index

PREFACE

It is twenty-one years since I last ventured into the world of writing a brand-new account of ferns and fern gardening, and things have evolved since then! The ferns being grown in our gardens are changing annually as new treasures are introduced or sometimes old treasures are re-introduced with a new name. Fortunately, the genuinely new introductions are in the majority. More hardy ferns are gradually emerging from China, Japan and Taiwan; there are many more still to come, of that I am sure. I went with a group from the British Pteridological Society to Jizu Shan Mountain in Yunnan, China. We dragged ourselves up hundreds of steps to a height of over 3,000m. At that height climbing was difficult for unfit lowlanders but the ferns at the side of the path were astonishing: species and genera unknown to me. Collecting anything on our trip was strictly forbidden, but one day surely someone will bring these wonders into cultivation in the west, and our gardens will be much the richer. Surely species at this altitude must be hardy if grown in lowland cold sites in Europe. Some of the new introductions have come in from China, but more from Japan and Taiwan. There are other promising areas of exploration, too, such as the Himalayas, the South African Drakensberg Mountains, the high-altitude Andes and lower altitude mountains inland from São Paulo, Brazil.

Very often the species one sees in the mountains of the world are abundant locally. Collecting some spore would hurt no one but the Nagoya agreement has put an end to that. (The Nagoya Protocol of 2010 gives the nation where the plant grows ownership of its genetic material. Plants cannot be collected and cannot be raised from wild collected seed. Plants in cultivation before 2010 can be propagated freely.) I have not yet been aware of a single fern being introduced within the Nagoya rules, but it is to be hoped that perhaps some large nurseries are making progress.

INTRODUCTION

In giving a short history of ferns and fern growing I have mentioned a number of books, as they offer a useful insight into what was cultivated at particular times. The Victorian love of all things ferny in the house and in the garden is a testament to the fern’s popularity. The appearance of Victorian nurseries is another clear indication, although many may not have been very profitable.

Chapter 2 is devoted to ideas about using ferns in the garden, illustrating them with pictures from gardens, usually public but sometimes private. I hope I have checked with everyone that it is OK to use pictures of this and that. If there is anyone who has slipped through my checks I hope they will accept my apologies.

In the A–Z of ferns (Chapter 6) I have decided to leave out some species mentioned in previous books. I have continued to cover the principal tree ferns but have left out those obviously not hardy enough to grow even in the warm and wet western extremities of Europe. I have omitted quite a few Dryopteris species, simply because they are often rather like each other and I find that most gardeners are not keen to get them all. The best species are included, like Dryopteris wallichiana, as are most cultivars. I have included many rare species and cultivars – possibly rather optimistically – but I notice that many former rarities are becoming less rare, and I hope this trend will continue.

What are Ferns?

Ferns are a group of plants linked by their DNA. Recent research has shown that fern allies (club mosses, quillworts and selaginellas) are not ferns. They are not even closely related to ferns, but horsetails are ferns. In this book I have therefore given no coverage of quillworts (Isoetes) or Selaginella and only a passing mention of clubmosses (Lycopodium). Fortunately, all the plants that look like ferns, apart from Asparagus, which is a lily, are ferns. Some plants which do not look like ferns are ferns, such as Ophioglossum vulgatum. It is quite common but rarely noticed, hidden by other vegetation in grassland, usually calcareous. A curiosity if cultivated.

Ophioglossum vulgatum at the Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh. The erect fronds are 25–30cm tall and carry the spores.

The standardized typical leaf (frond) consists of a stem (stipe) and leafy portion (lamina), supported on a midrib (rachis) which can branch.

Ferns do not produce flowers, but reproduce by spores, normally produced on the underside of the frond. In almost all species the fronds unfurl – a process called circinate vernation. Before the recent DNA discoveries, ferns were classed as vascular cryptogams, vascular because the fronds have vascular tissue like a flowering plant. Mosses, liverworts and algae do not. Ferns vary greatly in their frond form, but the stylized illustration shown here gives a good idea of their general appearance as well as naming their component parts.

Frond shapes.

An example of a tripinnate frond – Polystichum setiferum Tripinnatum.

For identification purposes the frond must be described; the basic classification of the terms used in describing a frond are shown in this illustration, others are explained in the Glossary.

CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF FERNS AND FERN GROWING

In the Beginning – Ferns and Related Fossils

The history of ferns begins many millions of years ago. Some genera, e.g. Marattia and Dipteris, which thrive in tropical areas today, can be traced back through fossil evidence dating from over 250 million years ago. Actual fern fossils such as these are not woody.

Marattia howeana, a tropical species, endemic on Lord Howe Island between Australia and New Zealand. A surviving species of related fossils dating back to the Palaeozoic period, around 300 million years ago.

Dipteris chinensis in tropical China. Closely related to fossils 230 million years old.

Lycopophytes

The most remarkable fossils found today are sections of trunk of tree lycophytes, usually a species of Lepidodendron. For many years they were thought of as fern allies, but modern DNA analysis has shown they are not closely related to ferns, hence the term ‘fern ally’ has been dropped. These plants are now collectively known as lycophytes. A 1m-tall remnant of a lepidodendron is still in position where it had been growing at the former site of the steelworks at Brymbo in North Wales.

Also from Brymbo is an assemblage of genuine fossils, excavated from the rock. It shows what the base of a Carboniferous arborescent lycopod looked like. This is a rebuilding of the fossils from the site, not a plastic replica! The top was not lost in excavation; it would have rotted away about 350 million years ago.

The base of a trunked lycophyte, possibly a lepidodendron, in situ at the site of a former steelworks at Brymbo, near Wrexham in North Wales. The section visible is about one metre tall.

Another discovery in the British Isles that fascinated me was made in Glasgow, Scotland. In Victoria Park (a public park full of football pitches and the like in the heart of Glasgow) there is a central rocky outcrop, which was to be turned into a rockery. During excavation the remnants of a lycophyte forest were discovered. Happily, the development plans were abandoned, the fossils were left in situ and a building was constructed to preserve them – a wonderful example of Victorian geo-conservation in 1887. Any visitor to the park can enter the building and enjoy this amazing sight. Notice how the trunks of these huge plants (that would have been about 45 metres tall) were supported by dichotomizing root structures that gave the plants stability. This was added to by a mass of finer roots.

None of these fossils are of species extant today, but relatives do still exist, mainly as Lycopodium species (common name: clubmosses). There are probably more than 100 clubmosses extant worldwide but none are trunked; all are herbaceous. Three true Lycopodium species and three related species are native to Britain, and there are more hardy species in Europe and North America. Most have a creeping habit and are rarely over 15cm tall. All are winter green and beautiful – but cultivation is probably impossible as after a year or two they dwindle. All are calcifuge.

Arborescent lycopod, surviving trunk about 2m tall. The original plant probably stood about 7–8 metres tall. (Photo: Barry Thomas)

Inside the building built to protect the trunk bases of lepidodendons in Victoria Park, Glasgow. Imagine the dinosaurs walking through here about 150 million years later!

Newly discovered in Britain, Lycopodium lagopus near the summit of a Scottish mountain at 900m. The much commoner, Lycopodium clavatum, differs by having two or more sporing tips (strobili) to the stems.

Lycopodium sp., probably Lycopodium phlegmaria under glass at Longwood Gardens, Pennsylvania, USA. A native to the South Pacific.

There are many more species native to the tropics, often pendulous as epiphytes. Many botanic gardens do succeed in growing these in sheltered environments, as at Longwood Gardens, Pennsylvania, USA.

Horsetails

Fossils of giant horsetails are not uncommon. They are usually in the genus Calamites, which is extinct today, but modern-day horsetails, in the genus Equisetum, are all too common. Horsetails are easy to cultivate and – unlike Lycopodium – are genuine ferns. I do not recommend growing them, however, as they spread rapidly where you probably do not want them!

Calamites in nature would have grown to 20m or taller. Most horsetails today are rarely taller than 1m. One species is quite widely grown, Equisetum hyemale var. affine. It is handsome, hardy and winter green, but unless you want several square metres of it in ten or twenty years, I would leave it alone.

A stem of Calamites also in situ at Brymbo, both visible sections are approximately 1m tall.

Equisetum hyemale var. affine at Leiden Botanic Gardens. Skilfully kept from spreading.

Genuine trunked fossils of true ferns do exist, mainly in America. In Europe most trunked examples are lycopods, but fossils of non-woody parts of ferns do exist quite widely in Britain as frond fragments.

One keen lover of horsetails tried growing them inside concrete enclosures – but they escaped. He also discovered that a second species had grown beneath his bungalow and come out the other side.

Fern Growing

Evidence for cultivation of ferns as ornamental plants in the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is sparse. Interest in plants during this time, and probably earlier, was largely medicinal. Herbals often mentioned ferns, and generic names sometimes reflected their herbal value; for example, Asplenium and ‘spleen’ is an obvious connection. (Whether or not aspleniums were actually good for the spleen is another matter.) Some cultivars were noted, e.g. Polypodium cambricum ‘Cambrian’ (1668) and Asplenium scolopendrium ‘Cristatum’ (1581), but not particularly for garden ornament.

In the first British fern book, Filices Britannicae (1785), the author James Bolton does give evidence of some ornamental interest and even illustrated and described some cultivars (varieties back then). On page xiii of his introduction, he notes:

Many of the ferns might with great propriety be introduced into our botanic gardens; not merely with a view to increase the number of plants in these gardens, but also on account of the agreeable contrast they produce when interspersed amongst plants of all the other classes….

How true this is today. In An Analysis of British Ferns (1837), G.W. Francis listed more wild cultivars than Bolton, but comments on cultivation were few. The aim was perhaps to steer the reader towards collecting for an album or herbarium. During the 1840s and 1850s a large number of albums were produced, many privately but also some commercially, such as those by Miss Harvey, Gardiner, Flintoft and Miss Wright. During the 1840s a shift towards collecting living plants as garden ornaments was gathering pace, in part due to Nathaniel Ward’s On the Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases (1842). This caused quite a stir, promoting the use of glazed cases to grow plants perfectly satisfactorily even in polluted city air. The production of albums died out quite quickly, however, with only Flintoft lingering into the 1860s.

The first ‘modern’ cultivars of any consequence were found wild at this stage, initially Polypodium cambricum ‘Omnilacerum Bennett’ (1848) and Polystichum setiferum ‘Divisilobum Wollaston’ (1852); after this the flood gates rapidly opened. Many books on British ferns in the wild, with coloured illustrations instead of pressed specimens, appeared. Each book told how to collect and grow ferns. Sadly, this led to some of the rarities being pushed close to extinction, although none were made extinct through over collecting during this period or since. All species that were here in the Victorian period can still be found in Great Britain and Ireland today, apart from an obscure species of Botrychium, which may simply be overlooked, and a species of Lycopodium which is no longer considered to be a fern or fern ally.

The earliest fern collections appear to have been in the hands of the rich, and most featured non-hardy species for glasshouse culture. Indeed, most of the beautiful colour plates in books produced by Hooker at Kew largely featured tropical species. Even one entitled Garden Ferns (1862) only included five species considered hardy today out of a total of sixty-two in the book. Other books of the time were much the same, but as the century progressed, true garden ferns that were hardy received more coverage in books. The Jones Nature Prints (not the title – this is shorthand because they were published as six series of sets of prints of British ferns, with long-winded and variable titles) appeared between 1876 and 1880; Charles T. Druery wrote on growing ferns in 1888; and Edward Lowe wrote British Ferns in 1890, an amazingly complete catalogue of all the cultivars. He followed this with a large volume called Fern Growing in 1895. Clearly fern gardening was taking off.

Societies

Surprisingly, it was not until 1891 that the British Pteridological Society was born, an earlier society with the same name was founded in 1870 but collapsed in 1876. Initially both societies were solely concerned with hardy ferns and especially their cultivars, although some were grown under glass to get the most perfect specimens, and wild ferns took pride of place. The Society suspended activity during the Second World War, and it was only through a young Jimmy Dyce’s enthusiasm that it was not wound up. (He had been appointed auditor just before the war.) Until about 1960 the membership was low; many original members had died off and others had died during the war. Luckily a new keen young botanist, Clive Jermy, was appointed to the fern section of the Natural History Museum in London and he took over the Society journal – The Fern Gazette. He contacted as many international pteridologists as he could; more and more joined the Society and contributed articles, but the journal moved away from gardening. One notable member resigned and the then Secretary, Jimmy Dyce, decided to launch a second journal, the Bulletin, aimed at the gardeners and amateur botanists. This policy was a great success, the notable member re-joined, and today the Society caters equally for professionals and amateurs. As an amateur I can say that the professionals can teach us a lot!

In parallel The American Fern Society was born in 1893. It too started off with a focus on gardening, but gradually became an admired botanical society and the gardening input diminished. In 1989 an alternative American society was established, called the Hardy Fern Foundation, based in Seattle. It is almost totally horticultural having developed an impressive list of satellite gardens where ferns can be tested for hardiness, etc. Happily, both American societies thrive today. Other local societies exist in America, notably in Florida and California, but neither of these focus on hardy garden ferns as much as the Hardy Fern Foundation.

There are fern societies elsewhere, mostly created in the last thirty or forty years. Please see Appendix III for more details.

Fern Gardening Books

Fern books give a very important background to the world of ferns. Many are descriptive of the fern flora of an area or a country whilst others are concerned with fern growing, and some cover both areas of interest.

Polypodium vulgare from British Ferns by Sir W.J.Hooker, 1861. Drawing by Walter Fitch, hand coloured.

Fern floras are vital for correct identification, but they are not always up to date: as research discovers additional information, it often necessitates name changes, which in the opinion of many horticulturalists are often unnecessary and far too frequent. In this book I have largely used long-established names, but I have tried to give more modern names for those who require them.

The oldest book I have discovered dealing solely with ferns as opposed to the general flora is Les Fougères de l’Amerique by Charles Plumier, written in 1705. This is an amazing book which does not cover America as we now know it but the fern flora of Guadaloupe in the West Indies! Plumier went to the West Indies twice to collect material – risky trips with the all the hazards of weather and pirates. It is folio size with 170 full-page uncoloured plates, and every species illustrated is recognizable today. Thank goodness the pirates missed him!

Title page of Plumier, the first specialist fern book produced.

Title page of Bolton, the earliest book produced on British ferns.

The next book was Filices Britannicae by James Bolton in 1785, with a supplement in 1790. This was an excellent first book on British ferns, beautifully illustrated with hand-coloured plates which are of high quality; virtually all of the species illustrated are easily recognized today.

About 500 books on ferns were published in English alone before Queen Victoria died. This list can only scrape the surface but some of the landmark titles are here:

Older reference books still used regularly today

●Octavo Nature Printed Ferns by Thomas Moore (1859)

●Our Native Ferns by E.J. Lowe (1862)

●The Fern Garden by Shirley Hibberd (1869)

●British Ferns by Mrs Lancaster (1880)

●British Ferns by E.J. Lowe (1890)

●British Ferns and Their Varieties by Charles Druery (1910)

●Hardy Ferns by Reginald Kaye (1968)

More recent books

●Fern Encyclopaedia by David Jones (1987)

●Farne in Natur und Garten by Helmuth Schmick (1990)

●Plantfinder’s Guide to Garden Ferns by Martin Rickard (2000)

●Fern Grower’s Manual by Barbara Hoshizaki and Robbin Moran (2001)

●Garden Ferns by Sue Olsen (2007)

●Fern Fever by Sarah Whittingham (2012)

Of special mention is British Ferns by E.J. Lowe. It is a drab little book with very few drawings, but it gives the details of 1,861 different British fern cultivars: indispensable to the keen grower.

The word ‘British’ is mentioned in several of these titles but ferns are international and British ferns grow throughout much of Europe. Ferns in North American gardens are not that different from those in European gardens, but today, with closer examination, after many millenia separated from Europe, we now know most American ferns are subtly different versions of their European cousins.

Recently the British Pteridological Society published a series of sixteen ‘special publications’. These go into detail never entered before and may well be of interest to gardeners. All, apart from the first, are still in print and available from the Society website.

Limitless information for growers is also available in wild plant floras, especially pure fern ones. A book about the ferns of China, Japan or Taiwan may not seem immediately relevant to the British gardener, but a lot of hardy garden ferns come from these countries; they are an amazing source of information and several of the later books are available in English. See the bibliography at the end of this book for details of the best titles.

Garden Ornaments

Ferns have been chosen to ornament garden furniture since Victorian times. The best example is probably garden seats made by Coalbrookdale in Shropshire. The most common is ‘Fern and Blackberry’, available in single, double or triple seaters. It is probably the one most frequently offered pattern from Coalbrookdale on the market in Britain, but it is still a collector’s piece. It has enduring popularity; a lot were made but even today there are not enough to go around. To meet demand more recently a lot of lightweight copies have been produced. They are fine and light to move compared with the cast-iron examples from Coalbrookdale, but they do not have the same quality.

‘Fern and blackberry’ cast iron seat made by Coalbrookdale. The fern is almost certainly bracken. The blackberries are a small bunch in each of the four diamonds along the top margin.

Similar patterns have been produced in the USA. They superficially look like the Coalbrookdale seat, but the seat is always metal, not wood slats as in the Coalbrookdale model. The American seats are made of aluminium and are far lighter. It is not surprising that Coalbrookdale seats are rare in the USA when you consider their weight and inevitably high freight costs. The only Coalbrookdale version I have seen in America is in the Vashon stumpery near Seattle.

Far more expensive are two different patterns from Coalbrookdale based on Osmunda regalis, the royal fern. One is called ‘Osmunda’ and the other ‘Osmunda regalis’. The latter is a particularly fine piece of casting and I suspect rather brittle. (Sadly, I have never seen one!) The ‘Osmunda’ is also very rare; I have seen three of this pattern, and it is amazing how accurate the casting is. The plant is certainly Osmunda regalis, not an artist’s impression. The foxgloves featured in the pattern are also beautifully crafted.

‘Osmunda’ Coalbrookdale fern seat. The arm rests are modelled on foxgloves, just visible at the left-hand end in the photograph.

American produced copies of the Coalbrookdale ‘Fern and blackberry’ garden seat suitably lining the entrance into this mansion in Memphis. I have looked closely at these seats and the bottom is metal, confirming they are of American manufacture. Sadly the owner died in 1977, before I got there!

Three sheet iron screens with carved fern symbols in John Massey’s Ashwood Nursery garden.

An unusual screen seen in a bed and breakfast house in Cheshire, probably in aluminium.

Seats like these and other Coalbrookdale models are great in the garden. You can see an incredible collection of them in the fernery in the garden of Kingston Lacy in Dorset. They do occur in private gardens but they are very valuable and easy pickings overnight if the garden is near the road. I keep mine indoors; at least there they won’t get rusty!

American-style seats are rarely seen in Europe, but they are well appreciated in the US. The picture here was taken in Memphis, Tennessee. The two seats may have been there when Elvis Presley moved in, but I like to think that he chose them!

More recently, skilled iron workers have produced sculpted sheet iron or aluminium screens. Quite a few people have started making these and related items. The best way to track them down might be to look out for them at flower shows. The sheet iron screens are invaluable for blocking off unwanted vistas. The trio pictured here at Ashwood nurseries was put in place before the stumpery was installed and ferns planted. See Chapter 2 to see the end result.

Beautifully crafted iron model of Blechnum chilense in Michael Hayward’s Merseyside garden.

The other two photographs give an idea of the types of items available. These are all ferns that can survive frost and drought. Wind can be a problem in some cases, so good fixing is advised, particularly for the screens.

Coalbrookdale also worked ferns into one of their models of an umbrella stand. It is an attractive design, but the fern could be virtually any species.

Coalbrookdale umbrella stand.

Fern corbel in Barnstaple, probably of a Polypodium.

A modern fern corner piece in a Dorset garden, clearly a Polypodium.

A matching carving with bipinnatifid fronds.

Buildings and walls in the garden and town can be artfully adorned with ferns. Pictured here are a fern corbel on a Victorian building by the bridge over the River Taw in Barnstaple, Devon, and more recent carved corner pieces in a Dorset garden. Gravestones can also sometimes be decorated with ferns.

Fern Ornaments in the House

The number of ways ferns can be used to decorate furnishings within the house is endless. In Victorian times virtually anything could have a fern on it. Fern pots were probably the most common, made by all the big names of the time – Worcester, Brownfield, Ridgeway – but many items were not marked. Glassware, biscuit tins, crockery and silver also featured ferns.

Drop-leaf table decorated with fern spatter work.

Assorted pots, glassware and biscuit tin. All decorated with ferns.

A selection of small Mauchline ware fern items, including two face shields at back with wooden covered books in front. Other items are boxes, notebooks, card cases, trays and even a round box to protect your ball of wool.

Spatter work side table, done in a different style.

Fern painted ebonized cabinet. A mixture of spatter work and painting.

One of the more collectable types of Victorian memorabilia today is Mauchline ware, made in a district of south Scotland, near the village of that name. Usually Mauchline ware consisted of small items of sycamore or plane wood decorated with photographs of picturesque towns, villages and countryside, or Scottish icons, pretty patterns, and – most attractive of all – ferns (‘fern ware’, as it is called). Different techniques were used to apply fern images onto the wood but the end result was broadly the same. Actual fern fronds were used to stencil, or spatter, their pattern onto wood. Fronds were held over the wood and sprayed with paint, the varying techniques creating fascinating three-dimensional images. Once again, virtually anything could potentially be treated. The images in the photograph here are just a small sample, but they give a good idea of typical Mauchline ware.

Larger items featuring ferns are less common, but small tables do occasionally occur; even more rare are fire screens and room screens. Sometimes furniture was part painted, for example the cabinet pictured here.

CHAPTER 2

USING FERNS IN GARDENS

Ferns in Very Small Gardens and Courtyards

Quite a few of the larger gardens used as examples here are open to the public regularly or by appointment. Some, unfortunately, remain private. Many fern growers start off with a small corner they proudly call their fernery, typically a shady corner where little else will thrive. Even a very small yard offers suitable sites to cultivate ferns.

Luxuriant hardy ferns amongst tree stumps in John Massey’s stumpery at Ashwood Nurseries. (Photo: John Massey)

The dimorphic fronds of Dryopteris dracomontana dominate a line of sink gardens in the late Tim Pyner’s Essex garden.

Stone troughs

Stone troughs are perfect for growing ferns; there are many small species suitable for this. Moreover, small yards in cities are usually hemmed in by buildings which leak heat, effectively lowering the hardiness Zone, allowing experimentation with less hardy species. The plants in a given trough will be dictated by the environment in the yard. If sunny, go for xerophytic ferns (ferns which live in desert or semi-desert conditions, e.g. Cheilanthes, dwarf Asplenium or Woodsia species). If shady, go for almost anything of an appropriate size. The two pictures here show how effective troughs can be in providing space for forty or fifty species in a tiny space. An added benefit is ease of maintenance.

A line of six stone troughs along the front wall of the late Tim Pyner’s house.

Concrete slab garden created by Richie Steffen in Seattle, USA.

Richie Steffen’s pretend tree ferns! The ferns used are in fact various species of Dryopteris, which do not trunk!

Stone troughs are always sought after, but if not available, old kitchen sinks can be presentable, and garden centres offer modern reproductions. Once planted with choice ferns no one will notice the trough. Remember to make sure drainage is good, especially if you are going for xeric species. The Cheilanthes are ideal but there are other Asplenium, for example, which do very well.

Vertical slabs

In the absence of a trough or other container why not try using waste materials like broken paving stacked on edge at 45° with 2–5cm of compost between each slab? Drainage is excellent, allowing woodsias, aspleniums and dwarf adiantums to thrive alongside saxifrages and other favourite alpines.

Tree ferns

Because courtyard gardens are generally very sheltered it might be possible to try a tree fern. Relative warmth in winter and humidity are perfect conditions. With a decent trunk they ultimately take up very little room at ground level. In such situations it should need minimal overwinter protection, such as straw in the crown. Alternatively, you could try the stacked containers to mimic tree ferns!

Stumperies

Stumperies are wonderful: although they are mainly suited for medium-sized or very large gardens, a small stumpery made up of just one stump can work. The stump offers a striking contrast to the delicate foliage. Of course it does not have be a stump; logs (preferably not with neatly sawn ends visible) also work well, and tend to be easier to find. This idea has the double advantage that it is pleasing to the eye and covers bare ground while ferns are developing. Stumperies are covered in more detail on pages 30–36.

Fern tables

Another option is to create a fern table. All you need is an old table strategically placed where it can be tended without bending down. This idea was developed by George Schenk many years ago in the Seattle district of the USA. It was new to me, but I was instantly impressed with the idea. To finally convince me I was presented with an empty iron table, about twenty ferns, a range of small pieces of wood, and a bag of compost and told to get on with it! In about ten minutes I had finished, and I must say my finished article was not that bad! The finished product had not bedded in, and some moss and more wood would have helped.

Fern table I made in about ten minutes. At HFF, Seattle 2007.

View of the HFF prepared fern table.

‘Fern chair’ created by Richie Steffen in a few minutes.

A table I was shown soon after I had made this one, prepared by the Hardy Fern Foundation (HFF) garden staff led by Michelle Bundy, put my effort to shame. Much more trouble had been taken with the finish. I have since seen one or two ‘fern tables’ in other private gardens in the USA, but not so far in Europe.

Carrying the idea of fern tables one step further, another fun idea is to create ‘fern chairs’. Richie Steffen demonstrated this. Perhaps a little ridiculous, but in a small courtyard it would take up very little room and attract attention!

Boulder tables

Another idea from Richie Steffen in Seattle, a boulder table is easily achieved with three concrete slabs and a few breeze blocks. In the example shown the emphasis is not on ferns, but the idea would convert well to ferns, much like a trough garden.

Boulder table by Richie Steffen in Seattle, USA.

Stepped staging (‘Auricula theatre’)

With stepped staging, smaller ferns can be placed at the back of a space but still be readily visible. Simple ideas such as these allow more plants in a limited space.

Stepped containers. Both by Richie Steffen in Seattle, USA.

‘Auricula theatre’. Has potential for mixing pendulous and upright ferns.

Seasonal gardens

Tender plants can be planted out like bedding and brought back inside for the winter. They are usually kept in pots at all stages. In Victorian times it was not uncommon to do this with tree ferns. Today it is not a common practice, but John Massey at his Ashwood nursery has gone part way to achieving this in his ‘Ruin Garden’. Included are various species and cultivars of Pteris, Nephrolepis, Adiantum etc., plus Cyathea cooperi – all tender species.

Aerial view of Ashwood ‘Ruin Garden’. The two large specimens with fronds 130cm long are young plants of Cyathea cooperi. (Photo: Phil James)

Two large cultivars of Polystichum setiferum of the ‘Bevis’ type blend well with a mixed border planting. Alistair and Margaret Urquhart’s garden, Kidlington, Oxfordshire.

Small or Suburban Style Gardens

Many of the features mentioned above could work equally well in a small or suburban garden.

Polystichum setiferum ‘Plumoso-multilobum’, filling a tricky space in John Massey’s garden.

The star-shaped Polystichum setiferum ‘Plumoso-multilobum’ contrasting beautifully with Abies procera ‘Obrighofen’, also at John Massey’s garden.

Awkward corners

There are several ways of using ferns here: for example in mixed plantings, or ferns only, or even only a single genus. In tricky spots where options among flowering plants are limited ferns can often be perfect. The well-known twentieth-century fern nurseryman, Reginald Kaye, thought every garden had somewhere suitable for ferns, if only the corner reserved for dustbins or, today, wheelie bins! The photo here shows how ferns – in this case Polystichum setiferum ‘Plumoso-multilobum’ – blend in well with flowering plants or a conifer to brighten up a north-east-facing area at John Massey’s Ashwood garden.

Adiantum venustum, early spring at Heddon Hall, north Devon, relishing the protection of a north-facing wall.

In small suburban gardens, awkward north-facing spaces beneath fences can become a problem. Carefully managed, as here in Alistair and Margaret Urquhart’s Oxfordshire garden, such a site becomes very easily enhanced with cultivars of Polystichum setiferum. Or further up the same garden against the same hedge with Asplenium scolopendrium ‘Crispum’. Here the border is under trees, of course giving shade but also needing plenty of water. Oxford is a low rainfall county.

Mixed borders

Ferns and flowering plants mix very well; the choice of which flowering plants to use is personal.

Many years ago, I was approached to supply some polypodiums from my nursery because the potential customer, John Morley, had a snowdrop nursery and he was looking for plants to complement the snowdrops in early spring. Happily he bought a lot of plants and about twenty years later I finally got to see his Suffolk garden. It was fabulous! The polypods were mainly Polypodium cambricum, which is winter green, and the snowdrops were wonderful too. How many other plants could be such a good companion for snowdrops in late February?

A stony pathway in the Urquhart garden, many flowering plants but mainly for foliage.

An area kept damp in the Urquhart garden for Osmunda regalis. Fringed with flowering plants and potted plants.

Polypodium cambricum cultivars as islands of fresh green among the snowdrops.

Fern borders

These are what most modern fern growers strive to achieve. A successful fern garden can be achieved quite quickly: ferns grow at a good speed and two or three years from the nursery should be a mature size. Tree ferns are a different case; the specimens pictured here have been fine for a few years now, but they are thoroughly protected against the cold in winter. In this border of Steve Colman’s garden, there are no foreigners, but behind me when I took the picture the beds were a blaze of colour! The wet climate of south Lancashire suits ferns really well, but do not despair if you do not live in such a damp, slightly maritime climate.

Fern border at the Urquhart garden in Oxfordshire.

Steve Colman’s magnificent, immaculate garden near Liverpool.

An area of my garden which is almost exclusively cultivars of Polypodium. Not generally a popular type of fern bed, but fascinating to enthusiasts!

In less hospitable climes it is still possible to have a wonderful fern border. The best example I know is the Urquhart garden near Oxford. Here the rainfall is lower, and the winters are harsh; there are no sheltering hills, no natural stream, but the garden is fabulous. The ferns are a good size and in beautiful condition. I think this garden best represents what is achievable in suburban gardens all across south and east England. There is not much room for improvement here!

Single species or single genus beds

These are quite popular amongst fern enthusiasts. I grow mainly Polypodium; other friends primarily grow Athyrium (lady fern), Dryopteris, or Asplenium scolopendrium (hart’s tongues). I do not call my fern area a garden, it is a collection, but to me none the worse for that!

Rockeries

Rockeries have largely fallen out of fashion. They have a bad reputation for harbouring slugs etc., but they are excellent for ferns, especially alpine or dwarf species. If for alpines, prepare the ground with a very free draining compost – ericaceous or lime depending on species choice. If in doubt go for ericaceous very liberally mixed with sand, grit or even scree. Lime-loving plants can be given a pocket in the alpine bed with lime added. It is always a good idea to make an alpine bed as a mound. Plants on slopes have enhanced drainage. In most cases, although not always, it is best to have a north- or east-facing slope. If exclusively for true xerics, such as Cheilanthes species, a sunnier aspect is fine. Various styles can be used; the three examples of a similar size shown here give a good idea of the potential.

Berndt Peters

This is beautiful natural looking area of mountainside. The stony nature of the soil is apparent. Everything is looking very healthy; even the bare looking area at the front is full of treasures. In this case the slope of the ‘mountain’ was facing approximately north.

Berndt Peters’ rockery in Suderbrarup, north Germany.

Wolfram Gassner

Wolfram Gassner has created two notably different rockeries. One uses boulders, not craggy rocks like Berndt Peters. The effect is quite different yet equally effective. The slope of this garden faces approximately east. Wolfram’s other well-known rockery is opposite the first. As far as I know it is unique in that is in completely encircled by a moat. The idea is to prevent slugs getting at his precious plants. This covers quite a large area, perhaps 50m2 or more. Different parts are built of different rock to allow cultivation of a wide range of ferns and other rock plants. When I took the photo shown here this area was still quite new and the specimens were recently planted.

Medium-sized boulder garden of Wolfram Gassner in Germany.

Wolfram Gassner’s slug-free moated garden.

Jane Keatley with her fern border at Heddon Hall, Parracombe, North Devon.

Stumperies

Sadly there are few stumperies in medium-sized gardens; stumps have been imaginatively used but rarely in a mass to make a stumpery. One of the best examples of using a single log is by Robin Pearce of Worcester. How he manipulated this stump into position is a mystery but to find a log with obligingly placed holes begging to be planted up was indeed good fortune.

Robin Pearce’s log in his front garden at World’s End Garden Nursery, Worcester.

An optimistic idea which never came to maturity.

Another use of wood (which did not work out in this case, although I think it could have been quite effective) is to arrange logs to your personal taste. Fill the interstices with soil and plant ferns at will or show ferns in pots. It took me about three minutes to tidy up logs that had just been sawn into this pile. It was not in my garden and all were taken away and burnt! In time the logs would have aged, and the ferns would have destroyed any symmetry.

Larger Gardens and Country Estates

Larger gardens offer the possibility to experiment in style, possibly not relevant to the average gardener but hopefully some ideas can be developed on a smaller scale.

Fern borders

A border of nothing but ferns is simple to create and immensely satisfying. Usually some non-ferns creep in but the one at Heddon Hall at Parracombe in Devonshire is one of the best I’ve seen in large gardens; a good range of species all growing luxuriantly. In this case it is to the north of the south wall of the walled garden. It demonstrates separate groups of contrasting morphologies. Many gardens large or small have similar areas. Beware wind tunnels between houses; in such situations some wind break would be very useful.

Stumperies

The history of stumperies goes back to the middle of the nineteenth century when one was built at Biddulph Grange in Staffordshire, although prior to that the use of wood on a small scale in gardens was discussed in various books. Some argued that rotting wood encouraged pests, while other said bugs were welcome. The view today might be more strongly in favour of rotten wood and the encouragement of bugs.

The stumpery on Vashon in 2009, two years after the structure was laid down.

Biddulph Grange

The stumpery at Biddulph is difficult to date precisely but around 1850 is a best guess. The owner of Biddulph, James Bateman, was fortunate in having a copious supply of oak stumps. His garden designer, Edward Cooke, built the stumps into 8- to 12-foot-high piles either side of a path, meeting overhead in places to make a tunnel. Today the piles by the side of the path are not as high and no doubt some new stumps have been added. The stumps no longer meet overhead but an arch of ivy gives a similar effect. Despite the wear of 170 years, it is still a very agreeable feature.

Biddulph Grange. A bank covered with old stumps colonized by mainly wild ferns. Some of these stumps are believed to have been mid-Victorian originals.

Biddulph Grange piled up stumps colonized by wild ferns.

The ferns colonizing between the stumps all look like uninvited, but welcome, guests. Elsewhere in the gardens there is a very good selection of hardy ferns, but here the fern flora is secondary to the stumps.

Highgrove

The next really significant stumpery was built for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales in about 1995 at his Highgrove garden. It is a magnificently planned feature with a stump arch into a circular area ringed with stumps. At opposite ends of the circle are a pair of small temples made of rough wood with pediments filled with small roots looking like antlers. Unlike Biddulph the Prince has planted a lot of good garden ferns, making the feature fascinating to the fern lover and the garden historian.

Dyffryn