First Aid Handbook - Crucial Survival Skills, Emergency Procedures & Lifesaving Medical Information E-Book
Department of the Army
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- Herausgeber: Madison & Adams Press
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
Whether you are faced with an open wound, an airway obstruction, a head injury, a fracture or a snakebite, this book will teach you how to help yourself or save somebody's life. Here you will find thoroughly explained and easy to follow first aid measures for all types of casualties. Be prepared to act in a split second when emergency occurs: Content: Fundamental Criteria for First Aid: Understanding Vital Body Functions for First Aid Terminology Basics of First Aid Evaluating Causality... Basic Measures for First Aid: Open the Airway and Restore Breathing Breathing Process Assessment of and Positioning the Casualty Rescue Breathing (Artificial Respiration) Mouth-to-Mouth Method Mouth-to-Nose Method Heartbeat Stop the Bleeding and Protect the Wound Entrance and Exit Wounds Manual Pressure Digital Pressure Tourniquet Check for Shock Causes and Effects Signs and Symptoms... Specific Injuries: Head, Neck and Facial Injuries Chest Wounds Abdominal Wounds Burn Injuries Dressings and Bandages... Fractures: Signs and Symptoms Splints, Padding, Bandages, Slings, and Swathes Upper Extremity Lower Extremity Jaw, Collarbone and Shoulder Spinal Column Neck Climatic Injuries: Heat Injuries Cold Injuries Bites and Stings: Snakes Human or Animal Bites Marine Animals Insects... Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Environment: Classification of Chemical and Biological Agents Conditions for Masking Signs and Symptoms Background Information on Nerve Agents Blister Agents Choking Agents (Lung-Damaging Agents) Cyanogen (Blood) Agents Incapacitating Agents Toxins Nuclear Detonation... Psychological Reactions: Situations Requiring Psychological First Aid Respect for Others' Feelings Emotional and Physical Disability Combat and Other Operational Stress Reactions Severe Stress or Stress Reaction Reactions and Limitations...
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First Aid Handbook - Crucial Survival Skills, Emergency Procedures & Lifesaving Medical Information
PREFACE
This manual meets the first aid training needs of individual service members. Because medical personnel will not always be readily available, the nonmedical service members must rely heavily on their own skills and knowledge of life-sustaining methods to survive on the integrated battlefield. This publication outlines both self-aid and aid to other service members (buddy aid). More importantly, it emphasizes prompt and effective action in sustaining life and preventing or minimizing further suffering and disability. First aid is the emergency care given to the sick, injured, or wounded before being treated by medical personnel. The term first aid can be defined as “urgent and immediate lifesaving and other measures, which can be performed for casualties by nonmedical personnel when medical personnel are not immediately available.” Nonmedical service members have received basic first aid training and should remain skilled in the correct procedures for giving first aid. This manual is directed to all service members. The procedures discussed apply to all types of casualties and the measures described are for use by both male and female service members.
This publication is in consonance with the following North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) International Standardization Agreements (STANAGs) and American, British. Canadian, and Australian Quadripartite Standardization Agreements (QSTAGs).
TITLE
STANAG
QSTAG
Medical Training in First Aid, Basic Hygiene and Emergency Care
2122
535
First Aid Kits and Emergency Medical Care Kits
2126
Medical First Aid and Hygiene Training in NBC Operations
2358
First Aid Material for Chemical Injuries
2871
These agreements are available on request, using Department of Defense (DD) Form 1425 from the Standardization Documents Order Desk, 700 Robins Avenue, Building 4, Section D, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111-5094.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.
Use of trade or brand names in this publication is for illustrative purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the Department of Defense (DOD).
CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTAL CRITERIA FOR FIRST AID
“The fate of the wounded rests in the hands of the ones who apply the first dressing.” Nicholas Senn (1898) (49th President of the American Medical Association)
1-1. General
When a nonmedical service member comes upon an unconscious or injured service member, he must accurately evaluate the casualty to determine the first aid measures needed to prevent further injury or death. He should seek medical assistance as soon as possible, but he should not interrupt the performance of first aid measures. To interrupt the first aid measures may cause more harm than good to the casualty. Remember that in a chemical environment, the service member should not evaluate the casualty until the casualty has been masked. After performing first aid, the service member must proceed with the evaluation and continue to monitor the casualty for development of conditions which may require the performance of necessary basic lifesaving measures, such as clearing the airway, rescue breathing, preventing shock, and controlling bleeding. He should continue to monitor the casualty until relieved by medical personnel.
Service members may have to depend upon their first aid knowledge and skills to save themselves (self-aid) or other service members (buddy aid/ combat lifesaver). They may be able to save a life, prevent permanent disability, or reduce long periods of hospitalization by knowing WHAT to do, WHAT NOT to do, and WHEN to seek medical assistance.
NOTE
The prevalence of various body armor systems currently fielded to US service members, and those in development for future fielding, may present a temporary obstacle to effective evaluation of an injured service member. You may have to carefully remove the body armor from the injured service member to complete the evaluation or administer first aid. Begin by removing the outer– most hard or soft body armor components (open, unfasten or cut the closures, fasteners, or straps), then remove any successive layers in the same manner. Be sure to follow other notes, cautions and warnings regarding procedures in contaminated situations and when a broken back or neck is suspected. Continue to evaluate.
1-2. Terminology
To enhance the understanding of the material contained in this publication, the following terms are used —
•
Combat lifesaver.
This is a US Army program governed by Army Regulation (AR) 350-41. The combat lifesaver is a member of a nonmedical unit selected by the unit commander for additional training beyond basic first aid procedures (referred to as
enhanced first aid
). A minimum of one individual per squad, crew, team, or equivalent-sized unit should be trained. The primary duty of this individual does not change. The additional duty of combat lifesaver is to provide enhanced first aid for injuries based on his training before the trauma specialist (military occupational specialty [MOS] 91W) arrives. The combat lifesaver’s training is normally provided by medical personnel assigned, attached, or in direct support (DS) of the unit. The senior medical person designated by the commander manages the training program.
•
Trauma Specialist (US Army) or Hospital Corpsman (HM).
A medical specialist trained in emergency medical treatment (EMT) procedures and assigned or attached in support of a combat or combat support unit or marine forces.
•
Casualty evacuation.
Casualty evacuation (CASEVAC) is a term used by nonmedical units to refer to the movement of casualties aboard nonmedical vehicles or aircraft. See also the term
transported
below. Refer to FM 8-10-6 for additional information.
CAUTION
Casualties transported in this manner do not receive en route medical care.
•
Enhanced first aid (US Army).
Enhanced first aid is administered by the combat lifesaver. It includes measures, which require an additional level of training above self-aid and buddy aid, such as the initiation of intravenous (IV) fluids.
•
Medical
e
vacuation.
Medical evacuation is the timely, efficient movement of the wounded, injured, or ill service members from the battlefield and other locations to medical treatment facilities (MTFs). Medical personnel provide en route medical care during the evacuation. Once the casualty has entered the medical stream (trauma specialist, hospital corpsman, evacuation crew, or MTF), the role of first aid in the care of the casualty ceases and the casualty becomes the responsibility of the health service support (HSS) chain. Once he has entered the HSS chain he is referred to as a
patient.
•
First aid measures.
Urgent and immediate lifesaving and other measures, which can be performed for casualties (or performed by the casualty himself) by nonmedical personnel when medical personnel are not immediately available.
•
Medical treatment.
Medical treatment is the care and management of wounded, injured, or ill service members by medically trained (MOS-trained) HM, and area of concentration (AOC) personnel. It may include EMT, advanced trauma management (ATM), and resuscitative and surgical intervention.
•
Medical treatment facility.
Any facility established for the purpose of providing medical treatment. This includes battalion aid stations, Level II facilities, dispensaries, clinics, and hospitals.
•
Self-aid/buddy aid.
Each individual service member is trained to be proficient in a variety of specific first aid procedures. This training enables the service member or a buddy to apply immediate first aid measures to alleviate a life-threatening situation.
•
Transported.
A casualty is moved to an MTF in a nonmedical vehicle without en route care provided by a medically-trained service member (such as a Trauma Specialist or HM). First aid measures should be continually performed while the casualty is being transported. If the casualty is acquired by a dedicated medical vehicle with a medically-trained crew, the role of first aid ceases and the casualty becomes the responsibility of the HSS chain, and is then referred to as a
patient
. This method of transporting a casualty is also referred to as
CASEVAC.
1-3. Understanding Vital Body Functions for First Aid
In order for the service member to learn to perform first aid procedures, he must have a basic understanding of what the vital body functions are and what the result will be if they are damaged or not functioning.
a. Breathing Process
. All humans must have oxygen to live. Through the breathing process, the lungs draw oxygen from the air and put it into the blood. The heart pumps the blood through the body to be used by the cells that require a constant supply of oxygen. Some cells are more dependent on a constant supply of oxygen than others. For example, cells of the brain may die within 4 to 6 minutes without oxygen. Once these cells die, they are lost forever since they do not regenerate. This could result in permanent brain damage, paralysis, or death.
b. Respiration.
Respiration occurs when a person inhales (oxygen is taken into the body) and then exhales (carbon dioxide [CO
2
] is expelled from the body). Respiration involves the —
•
Airway
. The airway consists of the nose, mouth, throat, voice box, and windpipe. It is the canal through which air passes to and from the lungs.
•
Lungs
. The lungs are two elastic organs made up of thousands of tiny air spaces and covered by an airtight membrane. The
bronchial tree
is a part of the lungs.
•
Rib cage
. The rib cage is formed by the muscleconnected ribs, which join the spine in back, and the breastbone in front. The top part of the rib cage is closed by the structure of the neck, and the bottom part is separated from the abdominal cavity by a large dome-shaped muscle called the
diaphragm
(Figure 1-1). The diaphragm and rib muscles, which are under the control of the respiratory center in the brain, automatically
contract
and
relax
.
Contraction
increases and
relaxation
decreases the size of the rib cage. When the rib cage increases and then decreases, the air pressure in the lungs is first less and then more than the atmospheric pressure, thus causing the air to rush into and out of the lungs to equalize the pressure. This cycle of inhaling and exhaling is repeated about 12 to 18 times per minute.
c. Blood Circulation.
The heart and the blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) circulate blood through the body tissues. The heart is divided into two separate halves, each acting as a pump. The left side pumps oxygenated blood (bright red) through the arteries into the capillaries; nutrients and oxygen pass from the blood through the walls of the capillaries into the cells. At the same time waste products and CO
2
enter the capillaries. From the capillaries the oxygen poor blood is carried through the veins to the right side of the heart and then into the lungs where it expels the CO
2
and picks up oxygen. Blood in the veins is dark red because of its low oxygen content. Blood does not flow through the veins in spurts as it does through the arteries. The entire system of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics is called the
circulatory system.
(1)
Heartbeat.
The heart functions as a pump to circulate the blood continuously through the blood vessels to all parts of the body. It contracts, forcing the blood from its chambers; then it relaxes, permitting its chambers to refill with blood. The rhythmical cycle of contraction and relaxation is called the
heartbeat
. The normal heartbeat is from 60 to 80 beats per minute.
(2)
Pulse.
The heartbeat causes a rhythmical expansion and contraction of the arteries as it forces blood through them. This cycle of expansion and contraction can be felt (monitored) at various points in the body and is called the
pulse.
The common points for checking the pulse are at the —
• Side of the neck (
carotid
).
• Groin (
femoral
).
• Wrist (
radial
).
• Ankle (
posterior tibial
).
(
a
)
Carotid pulse.
To check the carotid pulse, feel for a pulse on the side of the casualty’s neck closest to you. This is done by placing the tips of your first two fingers beside his Adam’s apple (Figure 1-2).
(
b
)
Femoral pulse.
To check the femoral pulse, press the tips of your first two fingers into the middle of the groin (Figure 1-3).
(
c
)
Radial pulse.
To check the radial pulse, place your first two fingers on the thumb side of the casualty’s wrist (Figure 1-4).
(
d
)
Posterior tibial pulse
. To check the posterior tibial pulse, place your first two fingers on the inside of the ankle (Figure 1-5).
NOTE
DO NOT use your thumb to check a casualty’s pulse because you may confuse the beat of your pulse with that of the casualty.
1-4. Adverse Conditions
a. Lack of Oxygen.
Human life cannot exist without a continuous intake of oxygen. Lack of oxygen rapidly leads to death. First aid involves knowing how to open the airway and restore breathing.
b. Bleeding.
Human life cannot continue without an adequate volume of blood circulating through the body to carry oxygen to the tissues. An important first aid measure is to stop the bleeding to prevent the loss of blood.
c
.
Shock.
Shock means there is an inadequate blood flow to the vital tissues and organs. Shock that remains uncorrected may result in death even though the injury or condition causing the shock would not otherwise be fatal. Shock can result from many causes, such as loss of blood, loss of fluid from deep burns, pain, and reaction to the sight of a wound or blood. First aid includes preventing shock, since the casualty’s chances of survival are much greater if he does not develop shock. Refer to paragraphs 2-21 through 2-24 for a further discussion of shock.
d
.
Infection.
Recovery from a severe injury or a wound depends largely upon how well the injury or wound was initially protected. Infections result from the multiplication and growth (spread) of harmful microscopic organisms (sometimes referred to as germs). These harmful microscopic organisms are in the air, water, and soil, and on the skin and clothing. Some of these organisms will immediately invade (contaminate) a break in the skin or an open wound. The objective is to keep wounds clean and free of these organisms. A good working knowledge of basic first aid measures also includes knowing how to dress a wound to avoid infection or additional contamination.
1-5. Basics of First Aid
Most injured or ill service members are able to return to their units to fight or support primarily because they are given appropriate and timely first aid followed by the best medical care possible. Therefore, all service members must remember the basics.
• Check for
BREATHING
: Lack of oxygen intake (through a compromised airway or inadequate breathing) can lead to brain damage or death in very few minutes.
• Check for
BLEEDING
: Life cannot continue without an adequate volume of blood to carry oxygen to tissues.
• Check for
SHOCK
: Unless shock is prevented, first aid performed, and medical treatment provided, death may result even though the injury would not otherwise be fatal.
1-6. Evaluating a Casualty
a.
The time may come when you must instantly apply your knowledge of first aid measures. This could occur during combat operations, in training situations, or while in a nonduty status. Any service member observing an unconscious and/or ill, injured, or wounded person must carefully and skillfully evaluate him to determine the first aid measures required to prevent further injury or death. He should seek help from medical personnel as soon as possible, but must not interrupt his evaluation of the casualty or fail to administer first aid measures. A second service member may be sent to find medical help. One of the cardinal principles for assisting a casualty is that you (the initial rescuer) must continue the evaluation and first aid measures, as the tactical situation permits, until another individual relieves you. If, during any part of the evaluation, the casualty exhibits the conditions (such as shock) for which the service member is checking, the service member must stop the evaluation and immediately administer first aid. In a chemical environment, the service member should not evaluate the casualty until both the individual and the casualty have been masked. If it is suspected that a nerve agent was used, administer the casualty’s own nerve agent antidote autoinjector. After providing first aid, the service member must proceed with the evaluation and continue to monitor the casualty for further complications until relieved by medical personnel.
WARNING
Do not use your own nerve agent antidote autoinjector on the casualty.
NOTE
Remember, when evaluating and/or administering first aid to a casualty, you should seek medical aid as soon as possible. DO NOT stop first aid measures, but if the situation allows, send another service member to find medical aid.
b.
To evaluate a casualty, perform the following steps:
(1)
Check the casualty for responsiveness.
This is done by gently shaking or tapping him while calmly asking, “Are you OK?” Watch for a response. If the casualty does not respond, go to step (2). If the casualty responds, continue with the evaluation.
(
a
) If the casualty is conscious, ask him where he feels different than usual or where it hurts. Ask him to identify the location of pain if he can, or to identify the area in which there is no feeling.
(
b
) If the casualty is conscious but is choking and cannot talk, stop the evaluation and begin first aid measures. Refer to paragraphs 2-10 and 2-11 for specific information on opening the airway.
WARNING
If a broken back or neck is suspected, do not move the casualty unless his life is in immediate danger (such as close to a burning vehicle). Movement may cause permanent paralysis or death.
(2)
Check for breathing.
(Refer to paragraph 2-6 for this procedure.)
(
a
) If the casualty is breathing, proceed to step (3).
(
b
) If the casualty is not breathing, stop the evaluation and begin first aid measures to attempt to ventilate the casualty. Attempt to open the airway, if an airway obstruction is apparent, clear the airway obstruction, then ventilate (see paragraphs 2-10 and 2-11).
(
c
) After successfully ventilating the casualty, proceed to step (3).
(3)
Check for pulse.
(Refer to paragraph 1-3
c
(2) for specific methods.) If a pulse is present and the casualty is breathing, proceed to step (4).
(
a
) If a pulse is present, but the casualty is still not breathing, start rescue breathing.
(
b
) If a pulse is not present, seek medical personnel for help.
(4)
Check for bleeding.
Look for spurts of blood or bloodsoaked clothes. Also check for
both
entry and exit wounds. If the casualty is bleeding from an open wound, stop the evaluation and begin first aid procedures as follows for a —
(
a
) Wound of the arm or leg (refer to paragraphs 2-16 through 2-18 for information on putting on a field or pressure dressing).
(
b
) Partial or complete amputation, apply dressing (refer to paragraph 2-16 to 2-18) and then apply tourniquet if bleeding is not stopped (refer to paragraph 2-20 for information on putting on a tourniquet).
(
c
) Open head wound (refer to paragraph 3-10 for information on applying a dressing to an open head wound).
(
d
) Open chest wound (refer to paragraph 3-5 for information on applying a dressing to an open chest wound).
(
e
) Open abdominal wound (refer to paragraph 3-7 for information on applying a dressing to an open abdominal wound).
WARNING
In a chemically contaminated area, do not expose the wounds. Apply field dressing and then pressure dressing over wound area as needed.
(5)
Check for shock.
(Refer to paragraph 2-24 for first aid measures for shock.) If the signs and symptoms of shock are present, stop the evaluation, and begin first aid measures immediately. The following are the nine signs and symptoms of shock.
(
a
) Sweaty but cool skin (clammy skin).
(
b
) Paleness of skin. (In dark-skinned service members look for a grayish cast to the skin.)
(
c
) Restlessness or nervousness.
(
d
) Thirst.
(
e
) Loss of blood (bleeding).
(
f
) Confusion (does not seem aware of surroundings).
(
g
) Faster than normal breathing rate.
(
h
) Blotchy or bluish skin, especially around the mouth.
(
i
) Nausea or vomiting.
WARNING
Leg fractures must be splinted before elevating the legs as a first aid measure for shock.
(6)
Check for fractures
.
(
a
) Check for the following signs and symptoms of a back or neck injury and perform first aid procedures as necessary.
• Pain or tenderness of the back or neck area.
• Cuts or bruises on the back or neck area.
• Inability of a casualty to move or decreased sensation to extremities (paralysis or numbness).
• Ask about ability to move (paralysis).
• Touch the casualty’s arms and legs and ask whether he can feel your hand (numbness).
• Unusual body or limb position.
(
b
) Immobilize any casualty suspected of having a back or neck injury by doing the following:
• Tell the casualty not to move.
• If a back injury is suspected, place padding (rolled or folded to conform to the shape of the arch) under the natural arch of the casualty’s back. (For example, a blanket/poncho may be used as padding.)
WARNING
Do not move casualty to place padding.
• If a neck injury is suspected, immediately immobilize (manually) the head and neck. Place a roll of cloth under the casualty’s neck, and put weighted boots (filled with dirt or sand) or rocks on both sides of his head.
(
c
) Check the casualty’s arms and legs for open or closed fractures.
• Check for
open
fractures by looking for —
• Bleeding.
• Bones sticking through the skin.
• Check for pulse.
• Check for
closed
fractures by looking for —
• Swelling.
• Discoloration.
• Deformity.
• Unusual body position.
• Check for pulse.
(
d
) Stop the evaluation and begin first aid measures if a fracture to an arm or leg is suspected. Refer to Chapter 4 for information on splinting a suspected fracture.
(
e
) Check for signs/symptoms of fractures of other body areas (for example, shoulder or hip) and provide first aid as necessary.
(7)
Check for burns.
Look carefully for reddened, blistered, or charred skin; also check for singed clothing. If burns are found, stop the evaluation and begin first aid procedures. Refer to paragraph 3-9 for information on giving first aid for burns.
NOTE
Burns to the upper torso and face may cause respiratory complications. When evaluating the casualty, look for singed nose hair, soot around the nostrils, and listen for abnormal breath sounds or difficulty breathing.
(8)
Check for possible head injury.
(
a
) Look for the following signs and symptoms:
• Unequal pupils.
• Fluid from the ear(s), nose, mouth, or injury site.
• Slurred speech.
• Confusion.
• Sleepiness.
• Loss of memory or consciousness.
• Staggering in walking.
• Headache.
• Dizziness.
• Nausea or vomiting.
• Paralysis.
• Convulsions or twitches.
• Bruising around the eyes and behind the ears.
(
b
) If a head injury is suspected, continue to watch for signs which would require performance of rescue breathing, first aid measures for shock, or control of bleeding; seek medical aid. Refer to paragraph 3-10 for information on first aid measures for head injuries.
