Flight Theory and Aerodynamics E-Book

Brian A. Johnson

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 907

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

Comprehensive introduction to aerodynamics applied to different types of modern aircraft, now updated with the latest FAA guidance

Flight Theory and Aerodynamics provides an introduction to aerodynamics using practical application to modern aircraft with step-by-step calculations. This fifth edition streamlines content, notably the chapters on aircraft stability, and incorporates updated FAA guidance and figures from the 2023 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge as well as other FAA handbooks.

A balanced application of introductory physics and meteorology in the first five chapters evolves into an introduction to propeller and jet aircraft propulsion and eventually moves into a broad discussion on the application of physics to aircraft takeoff and landing performance. After the introductory material has been presented, principles from earlier in the textbook and prior coursework are correlated and applied to slow flight, aircraft stability, and high-speed flight. A new chapter on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) flight theory is included.

The text features extensive instructor resources including detailed PowerPoint slides for each chapter, step-by-step guidance for end of chapter calculations, sample test bank questions for each chapter, and application sections within each chapter that allow the instructor to challenge the student with additional real-world scenarios based on chapter content.

Flight Theory and Aerodynamics includes information on:

• Elements of the flight environment, covering forces, mass, scalar and vector quantities, linear and rotational motion, friction, and power
• Atmosphere, altitude, and airspeed measurement, covering properties of the atmosphere, Bernoulli’s equation, and pitot-static system advantages and disadvantages
• Jet aircraft performance, covering principles of propulsion, fuel flow, specific fuel consumption, and thrust-required curves
• Aircraft stability and control, covering oscillatory motion, weight and balance, and airplane reference axes
• Rotary-wing flight theory, airfoil selection, and helicopter control
• UAV flight theory, including UAV design considerations, the aerodynamics of UAV fuselage design, UAV powerplant design, and the future of UAV design and aerodynamics
• End of chapter questions focused on scenario-based learning as applied to the performance analysis of a Diamond DA50 and corresponding chapter material.

In addition to degree-oriented college programs, this latest edition of Flight Theory and Aerodynamics is also an essential resource for pilot training programs ranging from student pilots to flight instructors as well as practicing professionals flying a wide range of aircraft.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

About the Authors

Preface

About the Companion Website

1 Introduction to the Flight Environment

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY OF AERODYNAMICS

BASIC QUANTITIES

FORCES

MASS

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

MOMENTS

EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

ENERGY AND WORK

POWER

FRICTION

INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR MOTION

INTRODUCTION TO ROTATIONAL MOTION

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

2 Atmosphere, Altitude, and Airspeed Measurement

PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT

CONTINUITY EQUATION

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

3 Structures, Airfoils, and Aerodynamic Forces

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

AIRFOILS

DEVELOPMENT OF FORCES ON AIRFOILS

AERODYNAMIC FORCE

AERODYNAMIC PITCHING MOMENTS

AERODYNAMIC CENTER

ACCIDENT BRIEF: AIR MIDWEST FLIGHT 5481

SYMBOLS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

4 Lift

INTRODUCTION TO LIFT

ANGLE OF ATTACK

BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

REYNOLDS NUMBER

ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT

AIRFLOW SEPARATION

STALL

AERODYNAMIC FORCE EQUATIONS

LIFT EQUATION

AIRFOIL LIFT CHARACTERISTICS

HIGH COEFFICIENT OF LIFT DEVICES

EFFECT OF ICE AND FROST

LIFT DURING FLIGHT MANEUVERS

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

5 Drag

INDUCED DRAG

GROUND EFFECT

PARASITE DRAG

DRAG EQUATION

TOTAL DRAG

LIFT‐TO‐DRAG RATIO

DRAG REDUCTION

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

6 Jet Aircraft Performance

THRUST‐PRODUCING AIRCRAFT

THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE

PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION

THRUST‐AVAILABLE TURBOJET AIRCRAFT

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

FUEL FLOW

THRUST‐AVAILABLE/THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVES

ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

VARIATIONS IN THE THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

7 Propeller Aircraft Performance

POWER AVAILABLE

PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION

POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES

ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

VARIATIONS IN THE POWER‐REQUIRED CURVE

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

8 Takeoff Performance

NORMAL TAKEOFF

IMPROPER LIFTOFF

REJECTED TAKEOFFS

INITIAL CLIMB

LINEAR MOTION

FACTORS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

9 Landing Performance

PRELANDING PERFORMANCE

NORMAL LANDING

IMPROPER LANDING PERFORMANCE

HAZARDS OF HYDROPLANING

LANDING DECELERATION, VELOCITY, AND DISTANCE

LANDING EQUATIONS

LANDING ENVIRONMENT

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

10 Slow‐Speed Flight

REGION OF REVERSED COMMAND

STALLS

SPINS

HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR

AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE IN LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR

HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – TURBULENCE

EQUATION

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

11 Maneuvering Performance

GENERAL TURNING PERFORMANCE

LOAD FACTOR

THE

V

–

G

DIAGRAM (FLIGHT ENVELOPE)

LOAD FACTOR AND FLIGHT MANEUVERS

ENERGY MANAGEMENT

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

12 Longitudinal Stability and Control

DEFINITIONS

OSCILLATORY MOTION

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

AIRPLANE REFERENCE AXES

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

PITCHING TENDENCIES IN A STALL

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

13 Directional and Lateral Stability

STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL

MULTI‐ENGINE FLIGHT PRINCIPLES

LATERAL STABILITY AND CONTROL

STATIC LATERAL STABILITY

LATERAL CONTROL

DYNAMIC DIRECTIONAL AND LATERAL COUPLED EFFECTS

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

14 High‐Speed Flight

THE SPEED OF SOUND

HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT

DESIGN FEATURES FOR HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT

TRANSONIC FLIGHT

SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

SYMBOLS

EQUATIONS

KEY TERMS

PROBLEMS

15 Rotary‐Wing Flight Theory

MOMENTUM THEORY OF LIFT

AIRFOIL SELECTION

FORCES ON ROTOR SYSTEM

THRUST DEVELOPMENT

HOVERING FLIGHT

GROUND EFFECT

ROTOR SYSTEMS

DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT IN FORWARD FLIGHT

HIGH FORWARD SPEED PROBLEMS

HELICOPTER CONTROL

HELICOPTER POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES

POWER SETTLING, SETTLING WITH POWER, AND VORTEX RING STATE

AUTOROTATION

DYNAMIC ROLLOVER

PROBLEMS

16 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Flight Theory

UAV CATEGORIZATION

UAV DESIGN

AERODYNAMICS OF UAV FUSELAGE DESIGN

UAV POWERPLANT DESIGN

THE FUTURE OF UAV DESIGN AND AERODYNAMICS

KEY TERMS

Answers to Problems

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 10

CHAPTER 11

CHAPTER 12

CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER 14

CHAPTER 15

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1. Standard atmosphere table.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1. Wing profile drag based on aircraft type.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1. Parametric data for Southwest Airlines Flight 1248....

Table 9.2. ICAO correlation of the measured runway braking action...

Table 9.3. CRFI index values published by Transport Canada.

Table 9.4. Braking action assessment using RCAM.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1. Load factors at various bank angles.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1. Aircraft stability derivatives.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1. NASA multicopter test vehicles.

Table 16.2. Test vehicle baseline thrust and rotor RPM.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1. Flying replica of Sir George Cayley's 1853 glider....

Figure 1.2. Otto Lilienthal in flight.

Figure 1.3. Orville Wright at the controls of the first flight....

Figure 1.4. Supersonic wind tunnel experiment.

Figure 1.5. Four forces on an airplane in unaccelerated, level f...

Figure 1.6. Resolved forces of lift and drag in steady flight....

Figure 1.7. Vector of an eastbound aircraft.

Figure 1.8. Vector of a north wind.

Figure 1.9. Vector addition.

Figure 1.10. Right triangle.

Figure 1.11. Vector of an aircraft in a climb.

Figure 1.12. Vectors of groundspeed and rate of climb.

Figure 1.13. Balance Lever.

Figure 1.14. Coefficients of friction for airplane tires on a r...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. Station pressure converted to sea level pressure....

Figure 2.2. Properties of a standard atmosphere.

Figure 2.3. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scale comparison....

Figure 2.4. Field elevation versus pressure altitude.

Figure 2.5. Pressure altitude conversion and density altitude ch...

Figure 2.6. Flow of air through a pipe.

Figure 2.7. Pressure change in a venturi tube.

Figure 2.8. Velocities and pressures on an airfoil superimposed ...

Figure 2.9. Airfoil with ideal fluid flow. (a) Airflow about a s...

Figure 2.10. Flow around a symmetrical object.

Figure 2.11. Schematic of a pitot–static airspeed indicator....

Figure 2.12. Air data computer and pitot–static sensing.

Figure 2.13. Blocked pitot tube and drain hole.

Figure 2.14. Compressibility correction chart.

Figure 2.15. Altitude and EAS to TAS correction chart.

Figure 2.16. IAS, CAS, and TAS comparison.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1. Modern transport category control surfaces.

Figure 3.2. Helicopter flight controls.

Figure 3.3. Differential ailerons.

Figure 3.4. Frise‐type ailerons.

Figure 3.5. Horizontal stabilizer with elevators.

Figure 3.6. Adjustable horizontal stabilizer.

Figure 3.7. Rudder movement.

Figure 3.8. Ruddervators on a Beechcraft Bonanza.

Figure 3.9. Ruddervator movement. (a) Aircraft in straight and le...

Figure 3.10. Canards on a Beechcraft Starship.

Figure 3.11. Common flap designs.

Figure 3.12. Ground spoilers deployed.

Figure 3.13. Speed brakes.

Figure 3.14. Trim tabs on primary flight controls.

Figure 3.15. Antiservo tab.

Figure 3.16. Secondary control surfaces and their location.

Figure 3.17. Airfoil section.

Figure 3.18. Airfoil terminology.

Figure 3.19. Longitudinal terms with the aircraft descending....

Figure 3.20. Cambered versus symmetrical airfoil.

Figure 3.21. Examples of airfoil design.

Figure 3.22. NACA airfoils (NACA data).

Figure 3.23. Cambered and symmetrical airfoil comparison.

Figure 3.24. Development of the supercritical airfoil.

Figure 3.25. Effect of pressure disturbances on airflow around a...

Figure 3.26. Velocity changes around an airfoil.

Figure 3.27. Static pressure on an airfoil (a) at zero AOA, and ...

Figure 3.28. Components of aerodynamic force.

Figure 3.29. Pressure forces on (a) nonrotating cylinder and (b)...

Figure 3.30. Pitching moments on a symmetrical airfoil (a) at ze...

Figure 3.31. Pitching moments on a cambered airfoil: (a) zero li...

Figure 3.32. Flaps extended pitching moments.

Figure 3.33. Aerodynamic center is independent of AOA.

Figure 3.34. Beech 1900D pitch control system.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1. Pressure distribution on an airfoil with AOA.

Figure 4.2. United States Air Force F‐16 AOA display system.

Figure 4.3. Critical angle of attack, stall, and angle of attack ...

Figure 4.4. Cambered and symmetrical airfoil

C

L

versus AOA.

Figure 4.5. Boundary layer composition.

Figure 4.6. Laminar boundary layer.

Figure 4.7. Turbulent boundary layer.

Figure 4.8. Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles.

Figure 4.9. Reynolds number effect on airflow on a smooth flat pl...

Figure 4.10. Adverse pressure gradient.

Figure 4.11. Airflow separation velocity profiles.

Figure 4.12. Sphere wake drag: (a) smooth sphere and (b) rough s...

Figure 4.13. Critical angle of attack and stall. (a) Increasing ...

Figure 4.14.

C

L

versus AOA airfoil comparison.

Figure 4.15.

C

L

versus AOA for a symmetrical airfoil.

Figure 4.16.

C

L

versus AOA for a cambered airfoil.

Figure 4.17. Thickness effect.

Figure 4.18. Camber effect.

Figure 4.19. High‐

C

L

devices.

Figure 4.20. Common leading edge high‐

C

L

devices.

Figure 4.21. Effect of a camber changer on the

CL–α

...

Figure 4.22. Effect of leading‐edge devices on the

CL–α

...

Figure 4.23. Micro‐vortex generators.

Figure 4.24. Fixed slot at (a) low AOA and (b) high AOA.

Figure 4.25. Effect of an energy adder on the

CL–α

...

Figure 4.26. Diamond DA50RG hinged, double‐slotted flap.

Figure 4.27. Effect of ice and frost on

C

L

and AOA.

Figure 4.28. Effect of ice and frost on

C

D

and AOA.

Figure 4.29. Forces in a banked turn.

Figure 4.30. Force vectors during a stabilized climb.

Figure 4.31. False lift during balloon ascent.

Figure 4.32. False heavy during balloon descent.

Figure 4.33. DA50RG wing airfoil

C

L

versus AOA curve.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1. Wing planform examples.

Figure 5.2. Wing planform terminology.

Figure 5.3. Aspect ratio.

Figure 5.4. Induced drag due to wingtip vortices.

Figure 5.5. Airflow about an infinite wing.

Figure 5.6. Vertical velocity vectors of an infinite wing.

Figure 5.7. Vertical velocity vectors of a finite wing.

Figure 5.8. Airflow about a finite wing.

Figure 5.9. Relative wind and force vectors on a finite wing.

Figure 5.10. Induced drag versus velocity.

Figure 5.11. Wingtip vortex at altitude versus near the ground....

Figure 5.12. Downwash at altitude versus near the ground.

Figure 5.13.

T

r

and

C

L

curves in ground effect.

Figure 5.14. Ground effect.

Figure 5.15. Microscopic surface of a wing.

Figure 5.16. Effect of insects on skin friction drag.

Figure 5.17. Comparison of drag characteristics of conventional ...

Figure 5.18. Energizing the boundary layer.

Figure 5.19. Form drag.

Figure 5.20. Interference drag at the wing root.

Figure 5.21. Parasite drag–airspeed curve.

Figure 5.22.

C

L

versus AOA and

C

D

versus AOA.

Figure 5.23. Drag vector diagram.

Figure 5.24. Total drag curve.

Figure 5.25. Calculating best glide airspeed and best glide rati...

Figure 5.26. Calculating glide ratio for a given airspeed.

Figure 5.27.

(

L

/

D

)

max

.

Figure 5.28. Cambered and symmetrical airfoil

C

L

/

C

D

versus AOA....

Figure 5.29. Typical lift‐to‐drag ratios.

Figure 5.30. Wingtip vortex reduction methods.

Figure 5.31. Whitcomb winglet design.

Figure 5.32. Wingtip deflection analyses with

C

L

.

Figure 5.33. Winglets.

Figure 5.34.

C

L

/

C

D

versus AOA wing airfoil curve of a Diamond DA...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1. Aircraft in equilibrium flight.

Figure 6.2. Turbojet engine.

Figure 6.3. Turbofan engine.

Figure 6.4. Dual‐spool axial‐flow compressor.

Figure 6.5. Jet engine compressor stall.

Figure 6.6. T‐38 drag curve.

Figure 6.7. T‐38 thrust required.

Figure 6.8. Engine thrust schematic.

Figure 6.9. Propulsion efficiency.

Figure 6.10. Variation of thrust with rpm.

Figure 6.11. Typical jet acceleration times.

Figure 6.12. T‐38 installed thrust.

Figure 6.13. T‐38 thrust variation with altitude.

Figure 6.14. T‐38

c

t

–rpm.

Figure 6.15. T‐38

c

t

–altitude.

Figure 6.16. T‐38 fuel flow–altitude.

Figure 6.17. T‐38 thrust available–thrust required.

Figure 6.18. Forces acting on a climbing aircraft.

Figure 6.19. Velocity for maximum climb angle.

Figure 6.20. Wind effect on the climb angle to the ground.

Figure 6.21. Obstacle clearance for jet takeoff.

Figure 6.22. Climb angle and rate of climb.

Figure 6.23. Rate of climb velocity vector.

Figure 6.24. Velocity for maximum rate of climb.

Figure 6.25. Finding maximum endurance velocity.

Figure 6.26. Finding the maximum SR velocity.

Figure 6.27. Wind effect on specific range.

Figure 6.28. Total range calculation.

Figure 6.29. Effect of weight change on induced drag.

Figure 6.30. Effect of weight change on the

T

r

curve.

Figure 6.31. Effect of weight change on specific range.

Figure 6.32. Effect of configuration on parasite drag.

Figure 6.33. Effect of configuration on the

T

r

curve.

Figure 6.34. Effect of altitude on

T

r

and

T

a

, curves.

Figure 6.35. Range improvement using cruise–climb.

Figure 6.36. Variable area exhaust nozzle.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1. Airfoil sections of a propeller blade.

Figure 7.2. Propeller tip speed versus propeller hub.

Figure 7.3. Propeller blade angle.

Figure 7.4. Geometric pitch versus effective pitch.

Figure 7.5. Blade angle in flight.

Figure 7.6. Propeller blade pitch versus rpm.

Figure 7.7. Various blade angle ranges.

Figure 7.8. Thrust from a propeller.

Figure 7.9. Propeller pitch angle configurations.

Figure 7.10. Propeller range positions.

Figure 7.11. (a) Thrust‐required and (b) power‐required curves....

Figure 7.12. Power required.

Figure 7.13. Power available curve.

Figure 7.14. Power required and power available.

Figure 7.15. Fixed‐shaft turboprop engine.

Figure 7.16. Split shaft/free turbine engine.

Figure 7.17. Turbocharged engine.

Figure 7.18. Forces on a climbing aircraft.

Figure 7.19. Thrust versus climb angle.

Figure 7.20. Climb angle versus velocity.

Figure 7.21. Comparison of maximum AOC between jet and propeller...

Figure 7.22. Rate of climb velocity vector.

Figure 7.23. Comparison of maximum ROC between jet and propeller...

Figure 7.24. Finding the maximum rate of climb.

Figure 7.25. Finding the maximum endurance and range.

Figure 7.26. Effect of wind on range.

Figure 7.27. Effect of weight change on a

P

r

curve.

Figure 7.28. Effect of weight change on a specific range.

Figure 7.29. Effect of configuration on the

P

r

curve.

Figure 7.30. Effect of altitude on a

P

r

curve.

Figure 7.31.

V

X

versus

V

Y

with altitude.

Figure 7.32. Effect of altitude on specific range.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1. Takeoff distance graph.

Figure 8.2. Using interpolation to calculate takeoff distance....

Figure 8.3. Normal takeoff and climb.

Figure 8.4. Crosswind takeoff.

Figure 8.5. Coordinated use of flight controls during a crosswind...

Figure 8.6. Short‐field takeoff

.

Figure 8.7. Soft‐field takeoff.

Figure 8.8. Water drag and propeller thrust on takeoff.

Figure 8.9. Hydrodynamic lift while on the step.

Figure 8.10. Premature takeoff due to ground effect.

Figure 8.11. Accelerate‐stop distance, accelerate‐go distance, a...

Figure 8.12. Balanced field length.

Figure 8.13. FAA declared distances.

Figure 8.14. Runway application of declared distances.

Figure 8.15. Single‐engine velocity–distance profiles.

Figure 8.16. Multi‐engine velocity–distance profiles.

Figure 8.17. FAR takeoff field length.

Figure 8.18. RTO and tire failure.

Figure 8.19. RTO initiation events leading to accident/incident ...

Figure 8.20. Establishing AFM transition time during an RTO.

Figure 8.21. Effect of speedbrake usage during RTO.

Figure 8.22. Retarding forces during RTO.

Figure 8.23. Performance chart examples.

Figure 8.24. Jet takeoff and departure profile.

Figure 8.25. Segmented one‐engine climb graph.

Figure 8.26. Forces on an airplane during takeoff.

Figure 8.27. Takeoff distance with altitude change.

Figure 8.28. Takeoff distance reduced by headwind.

Figure 8.29. Effect of wind on takeoff.

Figure 8.30. Takeoff distance chart with runway surface adjustme...

Figure 8.31. U.S. Chart Supplement information.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1. Landing distance graph.

Figure 9.2. Using interpolation to calculate landing distance....

Figure 9.3. Forces in equilibrium.

Figure 9.4. Forces acting in a power‐off glide.

Figure 9.5. Glide ratio vector diagram.

Figure 9.6. Jet approach and landing profile.

Figure 9.7. FAR landing field length required.

Figure 9.8. Stabilized approach for a jet aircraft.

Figure 9.9. Approach glide paths.

Figure 9.10. Approach glide path views from the flight deck.

Figure 9.11. Lift from (a) propellers and (b) turbojets.

Figure 9.12. Coefficient of lift comparison for flap extended an...

Figure 9.13. Effect of flaps on final approach.

Figure 9.14. Changing angle of attack during landing.

Figure 9.15. Improper drift correction.

Figure 9.16. Sideslip during crosswind.

Figure 9.17. Short‐field approach and landing over an obstacle....

Figure 9.18. Soft/rough‐field approach and landing.

Figure 9.19. High round out.

Figure 9.20. Bouncing during touchdown.

Figure 9.21. Porpoising during round out.

Figure 9.22. Go‐around procedure.

Figure 9.23. Forces on the tire: (a) static condition, (b) rolli...

Figure 9.24. Hydroplaning forces on the tire: (a) low speed, (b)...

Figure 9.25. Net forces on a decelerating military aircraft.

Figure 9.26. Forces acting on an airplane during landing.

Figure 9.27. Aerodynamic braking and wheel braking.

Figure 9.28. Normal and friction forces.

Figure 9.29. Coefficient of friction versus wheel slippage.

Figure 9.30. Effect of runway condition on coefficient of fricti...

Figure 9.31. Thrust reversers.

Figure 9.32. Thrust reverser activation.

Figure 9.33. Effect of wind on landing.

Figure 9.34. Effect of headwind during landing approach.

Figure 9.35. Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 post‐accident.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1. Effect of sweepback on

C

L

–

α

curves.

Figure 10.2. Regions of normal and reversed command.

Figure 10.3. Constant airspeed climb. Stick or throttle?

Figure 10.4. Region of reversed command for a power producer....

Figure 10.5. Spanwise lift distribution.

Figure 10.6. Wing spanwise lift distribution.

Figure 10.7. Stall patterns.

Figure 10.8. Stall recovery template.

Figure 10.9. Power‐off stall and recovery.

Figure 10.10. Secondary stall due to improper stall recovery....

Figure 10.11. Stall speed chart.

Figure 10.12. Skid, slip, and coordinated flight.

Figure 10.13. Spin entry and recovery.

Figure 10.14. Stall hitting the horizontal tail.

Figure 10.15. Swept wings stall at tips first.

Figure 10.16. Aerodynamics of spin for straight‐wing aircraft....

Figure 10.17. Aerodynamics of spin for sweptwing aircraft.

Figure 10.18. Wind shear caused by a downdraft.

Figure 10.19. “Bursts” caused by a thunderstorm.

Figure 10.20. Thunderstorm gust front.

Figure 10.21. Temperature inversion LLWS.

Figure 10.22. Tailwind wind shear encountered on takeoff: (a) f...

Figure 10.23. Tailwind shear encountered in landing approach: (...

Figure 10.24. Impact of shear level altitude on landing aircraf...

Figure 10.25. Wingtip vortices behind an aircraft.

Figure 10.26. Helicopter vortices.

Figure 10.27. Wake turbulence avoidance.

Figure 10.28. Wake turbulence avoidance procedures. (a) Upwind ...

Figure 10.29. Mechanical turbulence.

Figure 10.30. Thermal changes due to varying surface conditions...

Figure 10.31. Low‐level Mountain wave turbulence.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1. Slip, skid, and coordinated flight.

Figure 11.2. Overbanking tendency.

Figure 11.3. Turning airplane and centripetal force.

Figure 11.4. Forces on an aircraft in a coordinated level turn....

Figure 11.5. Load factors at various bank angles.

Figure 11.6. Forces on an aircraft during a 90° roll.

Figure 11.7. Increase in stall speed with load factor.

Figure 11.8. Load factor and stall speed.

Figure 11.9. First‐stage construction of a

V–G

diagram.

Figure 11.10. Second‐stage construction of

V–G

diagram.

Figure 11.11. Normal versus utility category.

Figure 11.12. Antisymmetrical loading.

Figure 11.13. Maneuver speed.

Figure 11.14. Ultimate load factors.

Figure 11.15. Power required curve and load factor.

Figure 11.16. Stall speed and turn radius with varying angle of...

Figure 11.17. Rate and radius of a turn.

Figure 11.18. Constant altitude turn performance.

Figure 11.19. Forces on the complete aircraft.

Figure 11.20. Thrust‐limited turn radius.

Figure 11.21. Energy balance equation.

Figure 11.22. Energy state map.

Figure 11.23. Energy state matrix.

Figure 11.24. Corrective actions for the energy state matrix....

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1. Types of static stability.

Figure 12.2. Dynamic stability.

Figure 12.3. Positive static and negative dynamic stability.

Figure 12.4. Positive static and neutral dynamic stability.

Figure 12.5. Positive static and positive dynamic stability.

Figure 12.6. Key weight and balance locations on an aircraft....

Figure 12.7. Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).

Figure 12.8. Weight and balance diagram and computational method...

Figure 12.9. Effect of load distribution on balance.

Figure 12.10. Airplane reference axes.

Figure 12.11. Establishing positive moment direction.

Figure 12.12. Airplane axes and moment directions.

Figure 12.13. Movement of the longitudinal axis in pitch.

Figure 12.14. Positive static longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.15. Types of static longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.16. Degrees of positive static stability.

Figure 12.17. Aircraft static longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.18. Effect of CG and AC location on static longitudin...

Figure 12.19. Static longitudinally stable flying wing in equil...

Figure 12.20. Airplane with static longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.21. Pressure distribution about a body of revolution....

Figure 12.22. Thrust line and longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.23. Power changes and longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.24. Pitching forces of a high thrust line.

Figure 12.25. Engine nacelle location contribution to pitch sta...

Figure 12.26. Lift of the horizontal stabilizer produces a stab...

Figure 12.27. Effect of speed on tail‐down force.

Figure 12.28. Typical buildup of aircraft components.

Figure 12.29. Neutral point and static margin.

Figure 12.30. Effect of CG location on static longitudinal stab...

Figure 12.31. Stick free–stick fixed stability.

Figure 12.32. B‐1A Lancer with T‐38 escort.

Figure 12.33. Phugoid longitudinal dynamic mode.

Figure 12.34. Short‐period dynamic mode.

Figure 12.35. Forces on a pitching plane.

Figure 12.36. Wing wake influences on a low‐tail aircraft.

Figure 12.37. Wing wake influences on a sweptwing T‐tail aircra...

Figure 12.38. Change in pressure distribution at stall.

Figure 12.39. Sweptwing stall characteristics.

Figure 12.40. Forces producing moments during takeoff.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1. (a) Negative yawing moment and (b) positive yawing ...

Figure 13.2. (a) Unstable and (b) stable in yaw.

Figure 13.3. Static directional stability.

Figure 13.4. Static directional stability at high sideslip angle...

Figure 13.5. Effect of wing sweepback on directional stability....

Figure 13.6. Directional instability of fuselage.

Figure 13.7. The vertical tail is stabilizing in yaw.

Figure 13.8. The dorsal fin decreases drag and increases stabili...

Figure 13.9. Typical buildup of component effects on static dire...

Figure 13.10. Rudder‐fixed–rudder‐free yaw stability.

Figure 13.11. Loss of directional stability at high AOA.

Figure 13.12. Slipstream rotation causes yaw.

Figure 13.13. Asymmetrical loading.

Figure 13.14. Contra‐rotating propellers.

Figure 13.15. Yawing moment due to asymmetrical thrust.

Figure 13.16. Forward slip during landing.

Figure 13.17. Sideslip during landing.

Figure 13.18. Yawing moment due to critical engine.

Figure 13.19. Sideslip into the failed engine.

Figure 13.20. Propeller drag contribution.

Figure 13.21. Zero sideslip with proper control application....

Figure 13.22. Effect of rearward CG on yaw.

Figure 13.23. Relationship of

V

MC

to

V

S

.

Figure 13.24. Rolling moment caused by sideslip.

Figure 13.25. (a) Stable, (b) neutral, and (c) unstable static ...

Figure 13.26. Static lateral stability.

Figure 13.27. Dihedral angle.

Figure 13.28. Dihedral producing static lateral stability.

Figure 13.29. C‐17 Globemaster III.

Figure 13.30. Dihedral effect of sweepback.

Figure 13.31. NASA X‐29 aerodynamic features.

Figure 13.32. Vertical tail effect on lateral stability.

Figure 13.33. Adverse yaw.

Figure 13.34. High AOA: (a) upgoing wing: (b) downgoing wing.

Figure 13.35. Coupled ailerons and rudder.

Figure 13.36. Yaw damper impact on Dutch roll characteristics....

Figure 13.37. Flight paths due to coupled dynamic effects: (a) ...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1. (a) Subsonic flow and (b) supersonic flow.

Figure 14.2. Airflow over a wing section.

Figure 14.3. Comparison of supercritical and laminar flow airfoi...

Figure 14.4. Effect of wing sweep on a

C

L

−

α

curve.

Figure 14.5. Vortex generators.

Figure 14.6. High‐speed subsonic flight control surfaces.

Figure 14.7. Inboard and outboard ailerons.

Figure 14.8. Closed‐loop system.

Figure 14.9. Force divergence effect on

C

D

.

Figure 14.10. Force divergence effect on

C

L

.

Figure 14.11. Thick airfoils and drag‐divergence Mach.

Figure 14.12. Normal shock wave on bottom of the wing.

Figure 14.13. Aerodynamic center location shift.

Figure 14.14. Stick forces versus Mach number.

Figure 14.15. Normal shock waves move to trailing edge.

Figure 14.16. Unattached bow wave at transonic speed.

Figure 14.17. Formation of an oblique shock wave.

Figure 14.18. Formation of an expansion wave.

Figure 14.19. Summary of supersonic wave characteristics.

Figure 14.20. Double‐wedge airfoil in supersonic airflow: (a) w...

Figure 14.21. Double‐wedge airfoil developing lift: (a) wave pa...

Figure 14.22. Circular arc airfoil in supersonic flow: (a) wave...

Figure 14.23. Effect of wing sweep on

C

D

.

Figure 14.24. Variable sweep and drag‐divergence Mach.

Figure 14.25. Mach cone.

Figure 14.26. Swept wing in supersonic flight.

Figure 14.27. The area rule. (a) Cigar‐shaped fuselage (b) Wais...

Figure 14.28. Subsonic control surface.

Figure 14.29. Supersonic control surface.

Figure 14.30. Normal shock engine inlet.

Figure 14.31. Divided‐entrance inlet ducts.

Figure 14.32. Inlet duct acting as a diffuser.

Figure 14.33. “Spike” oblique shock engine inlets.

Figure 14.34. Stagnation temperatures.

Figure 14.35. Effect of temperature on tensile strength of meta...

Figure 14.36. Specific tensile strength as a function of use te...

Figure 14.37. CFD use in the development of the Boeing 787.

Figure 14.38. X‐59 low boom flight demonstrator.

Figure 14.39. Decibel levels for common noise sources.

Figure 14.40. LBFD and CFD research.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1. Momentum theory airflow: (a) schematic and (b) pres...

Figure 15.2. NACA 0012 airfoil.

Figure 15.3. Location of critical forces on an airfoil.

Figure 15.4. Centrifugal force straightens rotor blade.

Figure 15.5. Lift force and centrifugal force.

Figure 15.6. Resultant of lift and centrifugal forces.

Figure 15.7. Forces acting on a lifting blade.

Figure 15.8. Entire lifting rotor system.

Figure 15.9. Hovering helicopter at light weight.

Figure 15.10. Hovering helicopter at heavyweight.

Figure 15.11. Forward flight forces.

Figure 15.12. Lift component of 10000‐lb total thrust at 15°....

Figure 15.13. Rotor velocity distribution in hover.

Figure 15.14. Lift distribution on a twisted/untwisted blade.

Figure 15.15. Hovering out of ground effect.

Figure 15.16. Hovering in ground effect.

Figure 15.17. Antitorque rotor.

Figure 15.18. Correction for antitorque rotor drift.

Figure 15.19. Rigid rotor system.

Figure 15.20. Semirigid rotor system.

Figure 15.21. Articulated rotor system.

Figure 15.22. Rotor tip velocities in a hover.

Figure 15.23. Blade‐tip velocity in forward flight.

Figure 15.24. Rigid rotor rolling moment in forward flight.

Figure 15.25. Angle of attack and flight path changes: (a) adva...

Figure 15.26. CG radius change with flapping motion.

Figure 15.27. Hunting motion of a fully articulated blade.

Figure 15.28. AOA distribution during a retreating blade stall....

Figure 15.29. Gyroscopic precession.

Figure 15.30. Swash plate schematic.

Figure 15.31. Rotor flapping caused by cyclic stick movement.

Figure 15.32. Tail rotor dissymmetry of lift.

Figure 15.33. Helicopter power available and power required.

Figure 15.34. Running/rolling takeoff.

Figure 15.35. Vortex ring state.

Figure 15.36. Height/velocity diagram.

Figure 15.37. Induced flow velocity in a hover.

Figure 15.38. Airflow and force vectors in forward flight.

Figure 15.39. Airflow and forces in steady‐state descent.

Figure 15.40. Airflow and forces during autorotative flare.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1. UAS categorization by the Department of Defense....

Figure 16.2. RQ‐4 Global Hawk.

Figure 16.3. Lateral movement forces of a quadcopter.

Figure 16.4. Newton's third law and a quadcopter.

Figure 16.5. Quadcopter lift versus weight.

Figure 16.6. DJI Phantom 3 mounted in wind tunnel.

Figure 16.7. Full vehicle thrust test data.

Figure 16.8. Full vehicle hover thrust coefficient.

Figure 16.9. Propeller incidence angle.

Figure 16.10. General atomics aeronautical systems MQ‐9 predato...

Figure 16.11. UAM corridor with passing zones.

Figure 16.12. AAM concept vehicle.

Figure 16.13. Activation of eVTOL active turbulence suppression...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

About the Authors

Preface

About the Companion Website

Begin Reading

Answers to Problems

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

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FLIGHT THEORY AND AERODYNAMICS

A Practical Guide for Operational Safety

FIFTH EDITION

Brian A. JohnsonGuilford Technical Community College and Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical UniversityGreensboro, North Carolina, United States

Philip R. FittanteGuilford Technical Community CollegeGreensboro, North Carolina, United States

Copyright © 2026 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2026 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:

Hardback ISBN: 9781394282296

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Devrimb/Getty Images

The authors would like to thank their contacts at Wiley for their continuous support throughout this revision, as well as the support of colleagues and families. Without the support and patience of our wives, Jane Fittante and Kim Johnson, this latest revision would not have been possible.

Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge the previous work of Charles E. Dole and James E. Lewis, the original authors for the first two editions of this textbook, as well as the late Joseph R. Badick, co‐author of the third and fourth editions of this textbook who was taken from this life way too early. It is with respect and admiration that we acknowledge the contribution of all three previous authors to improving aviation safety through education and practical application.

About the Authors

Philip R. Fittante is a retired US Air Force Lieutenant Colonel. He is a graduate of Euro‐NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training and the US Air Force Test Pilot School. He served as a T‐38 Instructor Pilot, B‐1B Evaluator Pilot, and Chief Developmental Test Pilot for both the B‐1B and B‐2 bombers. As a US Navy civilian Flight Test Engineer and Test Pilot, he conducted developmental testing of the P‐8A and MQ‐4C UAS. A member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots since 1998, he is a current flight instructor and aircraft owner with an airline transport pilot certificate. He holds an MS in aeronautical science from Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical University, an MS in computer science from Midwestern State University and an MA in National Security and Strategic Studies from the Naval War College. An author of two novels, he currently serves as an Adjunct Professor for the Career Pilot/Aviation Management degree program at Guilford Technical Community College in Greensboro, NC.

Brian A. Johnson is a former regional airline and corporate pilot who holds an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate with a multi‐engine land rating, in addition to commercial pilot single‐engine land/single‐engine sea ratings and a small Unmanned Aircraft System (sUAS) certificate. He is an active instrument and multiengine gold seal flight instructor and serves as a regional FAASTeam representative. He holds a master's degree in aeronautical science from Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical University. He most recently served as program director and chief ground instructor for Guilford Technical Community College's Career Pilot/Aviation Management degree program in Greensboro, NC, and as of 2025, is in his 14th year as an adjunct faculty member for the Aeronautics Department serving Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical University's Worldwide campus. He currently serves as a full‐time company pilot based out of Greensboro, NC.

Preface

The fifth edition of Flight Theory and Aerodynamics was revised to further refine the textbook's goal of serving as an introductory guide to the principles of flight, focused on entry‐level collegiate aeronautical and engineering programs, which require a practical application of physics and aerodynamics to the “hands‐on” world of flight. Each chapter balances the guiding aerodynamic principles in use today using formulas and examples as they apply to not only the design of aircraft but also the maneuvering and operational safety of modern‐day aircraft. This textbook was enhanced from the previous versions to not only serve as a foundation textbook for those with a limited aviation background interested in the basic principles of flight, but also as a resource for more advanced engineers and aviators who may want a review of guiding aerodynamic principles after years of industry experience.

The fifth edition of the textbook includes multiple figure and content updates to all chapters and includes the addition of a new chapter based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) due to the exponential increase of UAVs within the aviation industry, and the trend of unmanned aircraft to takeover roles once performed by manned aircraft. The step‐by‐step “math” examples introduced in the fourth edition have been reinforced in most chapters to make the formula introduction even easier for students to follow and apply. Additional Application examples have been added to further prove the correlation of the introduced aerodynamic principles to real‐world flight application. In many chapters, additional end‐of‐chapter questions have been added, along with an entirely new section, Correlation Through Scenario‐Based Learning, which requires the application of chapter material to the operation of a Diamond DA50.

Enhancements to the fifth edition:

Chapter 1

adds an expanded introduction to the history of the key pioneers of flight who contributed significantly to the subject of aerodynamics. The chapter also includes an introduction to geometry when evaluating vector resolution.

Chapters 2

offers updated figures and the expanded use of example problems, while

Chapter 3

adds additional sections on secondary control systems and the classification of airfoils.

Chapter 4

includes a more detailed review of angle of attack and coefficient of lift, an accident review of Air France 447, updates to the lift equation examples, added information concerning slats, and a section on lift as applied to flight of hot air balloons.

Chapter 5

expands on the impact of aspect ratio on drag, laminar flow airfoils, lift to drag ratio for gliding flight, and winglet design, in addition to multiple figure updates.

Chapter 6

includes multiple minor updates on T‐38 performance data, and an added section on afterburners and vectored thrust.

Chapter 7

expands on the explanation of horsepower as related to propeller and rotor‐driven aircraft and includes multiple figure updates.

Chapters 8

and

9

build on the takeoff and landing aerodynamic principles introduced within previous editions, with notable updates on declared distance introduction, rejected takeoff aerodynamics, accident brief on Southwest Airlines Flight 1248, and an assessment on runway braking action.

Chapter 10

adds a detailed discussion on uncoordinated flight as related to stalls and spin entry, updates to the spin recovery section, expansion of wind shear to include vertical shear, and a breakdown of low‐level turbulence.

Chapter 11

includes multiple figure updates as well as minor updates to each section, then ends with a detailed introduction to energy management and the airplane as an energy management system.

Chapters 12

and

13

offer multiple updates on aircraft stability and respective application to modern aircraft. Updates include a summary of stability derivatives, a section on mean aerodynamic chord, an introduction to aircraft accidents related to Boeing's MCAS, additions to the static margin and neutral point discussion, accident brief on a B‐1A static margin test, and expansion of the section on single‐engine flight due to engine failure and the impact on lateral stability for multi‐engine aircraft.

Chapter 14

includes a new section on flight control augmentation systems, low boom flight development, and multiple figure updates.

Chapter 15

includes minor updates to content and figures.

Chapter 16

adds a new chapter to the latest textbook edition, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Flight Theory. This chapter summarizes the categorization of UAVs, the aerodynamics of UAV fuselage and power plant design, and the future of UAV design and aerodynamics.

Phillip R. Fittante, Lt Col (Ret)Adjunct Faculty, Guilford Technical Community College,Greensboro, NC, USA

Brian A. JohnsonAdjunct Faculty, Embry‐Riddle Aeronautical University,Daytona Beach, FL, USA

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

  www.wiley.com/go/flighttheoryandaerodynamics5e 

This website includes:

End‐of‐Chapter Solutions

Summary of DA50 End of Chapter Questions

Test Questions

Presentation Slides

1Introduction to the Flight Environment

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Define basic units of measurement used in the introduction to aerodynamics in flight and convert from one unit of measurement to another.

Identify the four forces on an airplane in constant altitude, unaccelerated flight.

Calculate the mass of an aircraft.

Define vector addition and apply it to an aircraft in a climb.

Describe Newton's laws of motion and recognize how they apply to an introduction to aerodynamics.

Define the purpose of linear motion in relation to constant acceleration, and then calculate aircraft acceleration, takeoff distance, and takeoff time.

Describe the difference between energy and work and calculate the potential and kinetic energy of an aircraft in flight.

Calculate the equivalent horsepower of an aircraft from a known thrust and speed.

Define friction as it applies to an aircraft.

A basic understanding of the physical laws of nature that affect aircraft in flight and on the ground is a prerequisite for the study of aerodynamics. Modern aircraft have become more sophisticated, and more automated, using advanced materials in their construction requiring pilots to renew their understanding of the natural forces encountered during flight. Understanding how pilots control and counteract these forces better prepares pilots and engineers for the art of flying for harnessing the fundamental physical laws that guide them. Although at times this textbook will provide a quantitative approach to various principles and operating practices with formulas and examples using equations, it is more important that the reader understand WHY a principle of flight theory is discussed and how that subject matter intertwines with other materials presented; thus, a qualitative approach is used throughout this textbook.

Perhaps your goal is to be a pilot, who will “slip the surly bonds of earth,” as John Gillespie Magee wrote in his classic poem “High Flight.” Or you may wish to build or maintain aircraft as a skilled technician. Or possibly you wish to serve in another vital role in the aviation industry, such as manager, dispatcher, meteorologist, engineer, teacher, or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operator. Whichever area you might be considering, this textbook will build on what you already know and will help prepare you for a successful aviation career.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with a review of the basic principles of physics and concludes with a summary of mechanical energy, power, and linear motion. A working knowledge of these areas, and how they relate to basic aerodynamics, is vital as we move past the rudimentary “four forces of flight” and introduce thrust and power‐producing aircraft, lift and drag curves, stability and control, maneuvering performance, slow‐speed flight, and other topics.

You may already have been introduced to the four basic forces acting on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Now, we must understand how these forces change as an aircraft accelerates down the runway, or descends on final approach to a runway and gently touches down even when traveling twice the speed of a car on the highway. Once an aircraft has safely made it into the air, what effect does weight have on its ability to climb, and should the aircraft climb up to the flight levels or stay lower and take “advantage” of the denser air closer to the ground?

By developing an understanding of the aerodynamics of flight, and of the ways in which design, weight, load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during flight maneuvers from stalls to high‐speed flight, the pilot learns how to control the balance between these forces. This textbook will help clarify these concepts among others, leaving you with a better understanding of the flight environment.

HISTORY OF AERODYNAMICS

The history of aerodynamics started well before the Wright brothers' first flight on December 17, 1903. In fact, a full accounting of the history of aerodynamics would warrant an entire textbook, so we offer a brief history of the primary pioneers and groups that had a hand in introducing aerodynamic principles covered in this textbook. Throughout the subsequent chapters, we will introduce additional historical tie‐ins to relevant material when applicable.

During the Italian Renaissance the painter Leonardo da Vinci sketched many designs of various types of flying machines, including a design of a wing‐flapping machine called the ornithopter. Many of his designs were based around the flight of birds but were only theoretical in nature as the flapping wings of a heavier‐than‐air device driven by only human muscle would never fly. Leonardo da Vinci even sketched an early design of what later would resemble a helicopter. Contracted by the Milanese court to research military technology, da Vinci eventually became intrigued by aerial reconnaissance and flying machines. Because his work was not published until centuries later in 1892 in a notebook entitled Codice sul volo degli uccelli (Codex on the Flight of Birds), his sketches were not part of the design basis for nineteenth‐century aviation pioneers.

Sir George Cayley is widely credited with designing the modern airplane, an aircraft with vertical and horizontal control surfaces on the rear of the aircraft, a fuselage with a place for the pilot, and a propulsion system that he termed “assisters.” He is also considered, by many, to be the world's first aeronautical engineer. Like many aviation pioneers to follow, Cayley used the concept of windmills and kites to develop gliders. He built a glider that included an empennage, a tail with a rudder, and an elevator, and he recognized the importance of the center of gravity (CG). In the mid‐nineteenth century, Cayley even designed a glider large enough to carry a person and is credited with the earliest‐known manned heavier‐than‐air flight (Figure 1.1). In Chapter 3, we will further introduce the structure of an airplane using the same design principles as Cayley's early gliders, and in Chapter 12, we will expand upon the importance of CG in modern aircraft.

Figure 1.1.  Flying replica of Sir George Cayley's 1853 glider.

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation (2023a)/Public Domain.

The first notable attempt at providing a propulsion system beyond using gravity or human‐generated power was by two Englishmen, John Stringfellow and William Henson. They designed a 20‐foot model that used a steam engine to propel two six‐bladed pusher propellers. The model failed to achieve sustained flight under its own power, but it proved that with modifications (lighter weight steam engine) it may be possible to sustain heavier‐than‐air flight. Stringfellow continued with his research and eventually launched a ten‐foot model of an unmanned aircraft that hung on a wire. With improvements in the power‐to‐weight ratio of the steam engine, pioneers were now getting closer to heavier‐than‐air, sustained, manned flight.

Otto Lilienthal, considered by Wilbur Wright to be the most influential aviation pioneer in the nineteenth century, completed as many as 2 000 glider flights before dying in a glider crash in 1896. Many of those who followed him used his notes on aerodynamic data to develop their own wings or gliders. Experimenting with cambered wings, a rear elevator, and ornithopter wingtips, Lilienthal used hilltops to prove man could fly heavier‐than‐air aircraft without an engine (Figure 1.2). The development of a new type of engine, along with an improved power‐to‐weight ratio, gave way to the most famous aviation pioneers in history, the Wright brothers.

Figure 1.2.  Otto Lilienthal in flight.

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation (2023a)/Public Domain.

The two bicycle mechanics from Dayton, OH, Wilbur and Orville Wright, first developed a biplane kite in 1899, based predominately on the aeronautical writings of aviation pioneers such as Otto Lilienthal and engineer and glider designer Octave Chanute. The glider included wings that could be warped in flight using cords to bank the glider, a fixed horizontal stabilizer, and wings that could be adjusted forward and backward to adjust for the CG. By moving to the Outer Banks of North Carolina seasonally to take advantage of consistently strong winds off the ocean, and the tall sand dunes for experimenting with gliders, the Wright brothers found that the stronger the headwind, the less power would be required from the engine to develop forward thrust. In Chapters 2–4, we will introduce a more detailed review of how air moves around a wing and why this methodology used by the Wright brothers was successful. The lift formula we will introduce in Chapter 4 is directly related to the equations used by Lilienthal, Chanute, and the Wright brothers. By 1902, the Wright brothers had solved the problem of control and could successively control the glider around the three axes of the airplane (introduced in Chapter 12). By December 1903, their mechanic in Ohio, Charles Taylor, had built a four‐cylinder, 12‐horsepower water‐cooled gasoline engine that finally solved the final piece of the puzzle, and with two counter‐rotating pusher propellers, the Wright brothers achieved heavier‐than‐air, sustained manned flight with the Wright Flyer (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3.  Orville Wright at the controls of the first flight.

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation (2023a)/Public Domain.

Other aviation pioneers deserve recognition for their contribution to aerodynamics. In the United States, Glenn Curtiss arguably may have contributed more to the development of modern aircraft than the Wright brothers, using his expertise in engine development to improve propulsion systems including both pusher and tractor propellers. From his use of ailerons instead of wing‐warping to the development of early seaplanes (hydroplanes), Curtiss' influence on military and commercial aviation was instrumental to the development of a robust aviation industry in the US post‐World War I. Glenn Curtiss has even been referred to as the “Father of Naval Aviation.” In Europe in the early twentieth century and leading up to World War I, many aviation pioneers led the way with aerodynamic innovation, including the development of the first monocoque shell, surpassing the advancements made in the United States and placing the forefront of aircraft development in Europe. In 1906, Alberto Santos‐Dumont completed the first airplane flight in Europe and was believed by many for a short time to be the “first to fly,” eventually moving on to setting records in dirigibles. Gabriel and Charles Voisin, influenced by the Wright brothers, developed a pusher biplane with a forward elevator and went on to design aircraft for the French military in preparation for World War I. In Great Britain, the Short brothers built upon the Wright brothers' design and progressed to developing seaplanes with folding wings. Igo Etrich, an Austrian, designed the Taube monoplane with a bird‐like wing (washed‐out wingtips) and tail design, which eventually became a German production airplane leading up to World War I. In Russia, Igor Sikorsky built the S‐2 and taught himself to fly, even experimenting with the first helicopter design before continuing with fixed‐wing aircraft. In 1913, Sikorsky designed and flew the first four‐engine airplane, The Grand, and in 1914, he designed the largest seaplane in the world. And most notably, returning to rotorcraft flight, but now in the United States, in 1939, Sikorsky flew the VS‐300 helicopter with a single main rotor and tail rotor, which marked the birth of the entire helicopter industry. Chapter 15 will explore more about the aerodynamics surrounding rotorcraft design.

Finally, in the United States, no other group had a larger influence on modern aerodynamics, aircraft, and engine development than the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Lagging Europe in airplane technology in every area, Congress founded the NACA in March 1915 as an independent government agency reporting directly to the President. NACA conducted many flight tests of aircraft models in wind tunnels (Figure 1.4) as well as full‐scale aircraft, even winning the Collier Trophy in 1929 for the NACA “low drag” cowling which involved streamlining the front of the aircraft to increase speed. As we will expand upon in Chapter 3, the NACA was instrumental in airfoil design, especially leading up to and during World War II and many modern airfoil designs can still be traced back to research completed at this time. After World War II, and many modern airfoil designs can still be traced back to research completed at this time. After World War II, the NACA was instrumental to early supersonic aircraft design, including modifying fuselage and tail design as well as “sweeping” the wings. In Chapter 14, we will introduce Dr. Richard Whitcomb, a NACA engineer, who in 1951 designed a “trimmed” midsection of a fuselage that allowed an aircraft to finally reach supersonic speeds. The NACA even experimented with Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) airplanes, which will be expanded on in Chapter 16