Folklore of Wales E-Book

Anne Ross

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Folklore
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 294

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2001

Beschreibung

Wales is a Celtic country and the Celts have always treasured oral learning and recitation, with a passion for committing facts to memory rather than the written word. It is no surprise then, that Welsh folklore and story-telling is so rich and varied. The landscape is studded with the remains of ancient monuments, which were seen as the creation of gods and heroes. Every lake had its legend, whether inhabited by a grim, monstrous afanc, or by a beautiful, enchanted maiden. Giants stalked the land, while fairies could be dangerous, demanding propitiation. Omens of potential marriage partners were avidly sought by girls, while ghostly death-lights – corpse candles – could be seen moving relentlessly towards those doomed to die. A whole world of the past can be Individual chapters examine the role of the medieval church in oral tradition; legends associated with place-names; calendar customs; giants and monsters; omens and second sight; witches, ghosts and fairies; supernatural birds and animals; folk healing and herbal remedies.

Leseprobe

For my son, Richard Charles Alexander Feachem

First published 2001, 2011

This edition published 2025

The History Press

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© Anne Ross, 2001, 2011, 2025

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

Acknowledgements

1      Introduction

2      Folk narrative

3      Calendar customs

4      Medieval references to archaic Welsh folklore

5      The Church and the oral tradition in Wales

6      Severed heads, saints, sacred waters and stones

7      Giants, water monsters and inhabitants of the Otherworld

8      Omens, second sight and seers

9      Folk healing, herbal remedies and charms

10    Fairies, supernatural birds and animals

11    The declining years: summary and conclusion

Bibliography

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1    Map – The Background to Wales

2    Arthurian names

3    Silver harp, Caerwys – Pennant

4    Llanidan church, Ynys Môn. Faces to right and left of door

5    Caseg fedi – corn dollies – with example from Scotland

6    The Antrobus Soulers, Cheshire

7    Mari Lwyd, Maesteg and Llangynwyd

8    Callenig, orange dolly new year gift

9    Welsh poppy

10    Linsdorf monster, Haut-Rhin, France

11    Bronze head of bear, St-Dié, France

12    Bear and goddess, Berne, Switzerland

13    Beaucroissant bear cult altar

14    Cath palug

15    Coetan Arthur, Pembrokeshire

16    Welsh dragon, Partrishow, Powys

17    Seagull – Dafydd ap Gwilym

18    Bardsey Island, Pennant

19    Map of Bardsey Island, with location diagram

20    Stone head, Llanbrynmair, Powys

21    Stone head, Llandysul, Ceredigion

22    Stone head, Hendy, Ynys Môn

23    Stone head, Mšecké-Žehrovice, Bohemia

24    Stone head, Brynsiencin, Ynys Môn

25    Llanddyfan church, Ynys Môn, stone face from front and side

26    Llanbedrgoch church, Ynys Môn, faces to right and left of door

27    Stone head, CANOVIVM, Caerhun, Gwynedd

28    Stone head, Ruthin, Clwyd

29    Stone heads, Bron y Garth, Shropshire

30    Stone heads, Holt, Clwyd and MARIDVNVM, Carmarthen

31    Stone head, VENTA SILVRVM, Caerwent, Gwent

32    Higgon’s Well, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire

33    Welsh love spoon by Huw Hughes

34    Stone heads, Llandegla, Clwyd

35    St Teilo’s skull, Llandilo-isaf, Pembrokeshire

36    Cross shaft, Llanbadarn Fawr, Ceredigion

37    Devil’s bridge, Ceredigion

38    Churchyard wall, Ysbyty Cynfyn, Ceredigion

39    St Gofan’s Chapel, Pembrokeshire

40    Map, Myddfai and Llyn-y-Fan Fâch

41    ‘Holy Grail’ cup, Nanteos, Ceredigion

42    Eagle, Kite

43    Hare

44    Pennant Melangell church, Powys

45    Offa’s Dyke

46    Coins of Offa

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is impossible to acknowledge all those who have encouraged me in one way or another in my research into the culture, past and present, of the lovely land of Wales. I must include the many Welsh people who have shared their own inherited folk traditions with me and especially the people of this region of mid-Wales where a great deal of folklore still survives and much of which still awaits collection. This I hope to do while memories of the past still remain amongst the older people and some of those of younger years. All my good neighbours must be thanked, and many Welsh friends from different areas of Wales. Perhaps the most generous of these is John E. Williams of Llanrug, himself a writer and a storehouse of old Welsh traditions, John P. Williams, Brother Gildas of Caldey Island, and countless others. My greatest inspiration comes from the wonderful works of my long-standing friend, Rachel Bromwich, whose magnificent study, Trioedd Ynys Prydein (The Triads of the Island of Britain) – a new edition of which is on the verge of publication – and whose generous sharing of her knowledge and loyal friendship to all has deeply enriched our understanding and enjoyment of some of the oldest literary traditions of Wales.

Each member of my family has contributed to the creation of this work. My husband Richard has added an extra dimension to the book with his fine maps and drawings, Berenice with her tireless expertise on the computer and in many other ways, and Charles by his own computer skill and ungrudging help in every aspect of our daily lives. To them all I extend my heartfelt gratitude.

Finally I would like to thank all the staff of Tempus, and Peter Kemmis Betty whose unfailing good humour and patience ease the inevitable stress of writing to a deadline and make the creation of books for Tempus a pleasure and an exciting venture.

1

INTRODUCTION

Wales is a Celtic country. Many of its people still speak, read and teach the language which has evolved from a branch of ancient Celtic known as Brythonic or P-Celtic, spoken widely on the continent of Europe long before Julius Caesar made his superbly-organised – and ruthlessly aggressive – conquest of the Gauls (Galli) in a series of hard-fought battles, terminating with the defeat in 52 BC of Gaul’s greatest hero the Arvernian Vercingetorix (‘Great King of Heroes’), who raised the revolt against Caesar. This famous Gaulish warrior was forced to surrender to the Romans and was subsequently executed in 46 BC.

It is instructive to cast one’s mind back to this period of European history and the tribal organisation of the Celts in Europe because I believe that at this early period the seeds of the later post-Roman, Celtic world were sown; and many of its singular and unique characteristics originated even before the defeat of Celtic Europe. Much of what we learn of our continental forebears would seem to provide us with a plausible explanation of certain predilections which evolved into enduring motifs in the development of the rich oral literature of the British Isles. It is a strong possibility that Caesar’s initial invasion of southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC – and the presence of a great number of soldiers recruited from the defeated Gaulish protagonists augmented by fighting men from various other outposts of the empire – began the process of moulding the indigenous Celtic traditions and reshaping them into new and perhaps more sophisticated forms.

By AD 70 Wales had become a vibrant part of the Roman Empire (1) and thus the rich early literary traditions of Britain contain many references to the new influences which inevitably appeared. As in all the Celtic countries, genealogy was of first importance and in Wales it was not unusual, as the people became habituated to the new order, to find Roman names being included in genealogical compilations as the initial hostility gave way to acceptance. The Celtic inhabitants of the Island of Britain might have been expected to feel continuing hostility and resentment towards their Roman conquerors whose basic attitudes and very thought processes were so alien to their own – and destructive of the native way of life. However, many benefits were to accrue. The Classical writers, while understandably proud of their military prowess, did make some important comments both in Gaul and Britain, on the nature, appearance and customs of the insular Celts, and showed a considerable interest in Celtic beliefs and religious practices which deeply intrigued them. Indeed, some of these comments can actually help us – the present-day Celts – to understand who we are, from what we are sprung, and to provide us with fresh clues to some of the singular features of our native culture.

1   The Background to Wales. Central western Britannia before and after the arrival of the Roman armies. The pre-Roman names are those of the British tribes, with a selection of hill-forts [circle]. The names of the Roman period are those of the forts and fortlets established during the campaigns [square]. The principal roads are indicated

One of the most striking aspects of the insular Celtic world at all periods down the ages is the passion for learning, religious fervour – pagan, and then Christian – and a deep respect for the aristocratic and priestly leaders. Thinking about the singular survival of the oral traditions of all the Island Celts – and doubtless those in Europe also – it would seem that this distinctive and often quite remarkable facility for oral learning and recitation must stem directly from some archaic discipline imposed upon the then tribal structure of Celtic society at a very early period, perhaps even before the differentiation of the Welsh and Gaelic dialects (Brythonic and Goidelic). It is clear that the people responsible for this deep-rooted intellectual zeal must have been highly organised and educated themselves. Ultimately the chief of these, and the most influential, must have been the Druids, the Vates (prophets) and the Bards (poets). We would not know anything about these orders at such an early period had it not been for the invaluable records of the Classics: Greeks, with whom the Celts were originally at war, and later the Romans. Their accounts of these holy and learned orders and their enormous influence over the Celtic tribes are invaluable and vital for any understanding of both the religious attitudes in Gaul, and – after the Roman invasions of Britain – in this country also.

Of particular importance are the accounts of the Celtic passion for committing facts to the memory rather than relying upon the written word. The Romans moreover displayed a considerable admiration for the remarkable intellectual powers of the enemy. When Tacitus wrote his account of the invasion of Britain by Claudius, he commented upon the very important fact that while the young men of Gaul were extremely receptive of education, the young Britons were even more so (Tacitus, On Britain and Germany, p.72). The fact that these important comments were made by the Classics, combined with the information which is supported by all the insular sources – and the fact that Druids were common both to Gaul and Britain – perhaps provides the key to an understanding as to why oral traditions and oral recitation should be universally practised throughout the Celtic world.

Many oral traditions have been preserved by Celtic peoples who have settled as far afield as, for example, New Zealand, Patagonia, Nova Scotia and elsewhere, and frequently the preservation of oral fragments can help to fill lacunae in the older, indigenous, orally-transmitted literature. It is natural that the Celtic countries still speaking a Celtic language and possessing the most prolific material and the greatest range of subject matter should be given priority in our assessment of this unique heritage of oral material. Nevertheless we must not forget that important traces still remain in the tradition of other parts of the wider Celtic world in, for example, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, and even in parts of rural France and once-Celtic Europe. In this book we shall be concentrating upon the rich and varied folklore and storytelling repertoire of Wales.

2

FOLK NARRATIVE

The Romano-British god Nodons, who appears in early inscriptions on stone, is reflected in the Welsh deity Nudd and must be cognate with the Irish god Nuadu. He is one of the many Irish deities who figure in and whose attributes occur in Welsh folklore. Many of the ancient gods of Britain and Ireland figure in Welsh mythology in the role of superhuman heroes. Fionn MacCumhail is another major Irish heroic figure of clearly divine origins whose popularity must have been almost as great as Arthur’s over the whole European continent, and whose name appears in many Europaean place-names, as does that of Arthur the mythical king par excellence of Welsh tradition (2). The great question is: were such deities and heroic figures essentially an integral part of the Irish tradition and were they then borrowed, in some form, into the Welsh repertoire? Or, as I myself believe to be more likely, were they all gods and heroes at some early pre-textual stage of Irish and Welsh history thus common to both traditions?

(vide Rachel Bromwich, John Carey)

Belyn ap Madoc

Belyn was a prince of Merioneth – the name would seem to stem ultimately from the name of the ancient Celtic god Belinos who figures as Beli Mawr in the Mabinogion – and he had been perusing the Triads and pondered a long while upon one, namely:

The three Blessed Astronomers of the Island of Britain – Idris, the Great; Gwydion, son of Dôn; and Gwyn, son of Nudd – they had a vast knowledge of the stars and of the ways in which they influenced affairs. They were able to foretell whatever anyone might wish to know till the day of judgment.

(Trevelyan p.48ff)

2   Arthur in the names of natural features, ancient monuments and later buildings in Wales. For the most part after C. Grooms, The Giants of Wales, Lampeter, 1993. 1 and 2: Arthur’s Chair; 3: Arthur’s Stone; 4 to 8: Carreg Arthur; 9 and 10: Carreg Carn March Arthur; 11: Cerrig Arthur – Arthur’s Stones; 12: Cerrig Meibion Arthur – Stones of the Sons of Arthur; 13: Cist Arthur – Arthur’s Chest; 14 to 43: Coetan Arthur – Arthur’s Quoit; 44: Craig Arthur; 45: Eisteddfa Arthur – Arthur’s Seat; 46: Fynnon Cegin Arthur – Well of Arthur’s Kitchen; 47 to 51: Maen Arthur – Arthur’s Stone; 52: Parcarthur Farm; 53: Parcarthur House; 54: Pen Arthur – Arthur’s Hill; 55: Pen Arthur Isaf – Arthur’s Small Hill; 56: Pen Arthur; 57: Picel Arthur – Arthur’s Spear; 58: Arthur’s Wern – Arthur’s Alder Tree; 59: Fynnon Arthur – Arthur’s Well

He was particularly fascinated by the statement that this prophet could provide foreknowledge of anything until the day of judgement. Curious though he was, Belyn was not at all anxious to be able to foretell future events as far as the apocalypse. He seemed to be somewhat uneasy at this thought. What he really wanted to know was whether he would become famous and would be a great leader, as legendary as Owen Glendower. He sat and thought and then an old tale came to his mind: the tale of Cadair Idris, a long and impressive mountain round which the rivers Mawddach and Dysynni run, on the boundary between the old kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys. The legend stated that whosoever should sleep for one night on Cadair Idris would either go mad or wake up having the gift of inspiration. It is not clear whether this was poetical inspiration or astrological inspiration but it is likely that it was both of these gifts, as, in Celtic tradition, prophets, poets and madmen, all of whom possess some degree of inspiration, are closely linked.

No matter which of these was imparted by the mountain, Belyn was eager to possess it and he immediately set out to find the right way of obtaining knowledge of the future. He had taken, as he thought, sufficient provisions to keep him going during his quest, and aimed to reach the summit of Cadair Idris soon after midday. It is a magnificent ascent – and is as beautiful and awe-inspiring today, being totally unspoilt. The road wends steeply upward from Dolgellau to become ever wilder and more dramatically hazardous. Below there were long tracts of rich pasture and the slopes were covered with the brilliant yellow of gorse flowers which make so striking an impact when seen against the bright green of the Welsh countryside.

At last Belyn reached the grand summit and was able to look over vast and dramatic tracts of countryside. He waited for some hours, contemplating various matters and gazing upon the dramatic beauty of the vista until the last rays of the sun blazed above the mountain tops and the day drew to a close. That was the time for Belyn to proceed towards Idris’ Chair and there he sat himself down. Eagles flew above him and vultures gathered; kestrels and kites (vide42) circled in the air of the evening. Belyn began to feel that he was becoming quite isolated from the world about him. This is when he took his seat in Idris’ Chair. It grew dark and there was a magnificent display of heavenly bodies which sparkled like jewels in the clear, darkening sky. He began to feel quite fevered and was filled with a terrible restlessness. When he felt himself becoming sleepy he tried to keep awake, fearing the magical sleep which he had come all this way to experience, and believing that he was going mad. A thick darkness fell and he felt a terrible sense of suffocation and terror come over him, and he also felt desperately ill, wishing that he had never set out on this foolish adventure. Then the darkness began to lessen and he saw a faint glimmering of light which grew pale enough to reveal the silhouettes of giants, and he began to think of all the legendary kings and heroes and especially the Grey King (Brenhin Llwyd) who was reputed to sit amongst the mountain tops to discover the secrets of the stars.

Next Belyn heard sounds like those of great flood waters being released; what with the noise of the waters and of several winds competing with each other, he remembered the legend of ‘the fountain of the waters and the cradle of the winds’. He imagined that the lightening of the heavens indicated that dawn was not far away, when he heard a voice which said ‘When you have secrets do you know where to hide them?’, and another, hollow voice replied ‘No.’ The first voice replied: ‘Trust them to the depths of the sea; trust them to the strongholds of the rocky mountains; trust them to the distant lone star, not to a mortal being.’ To Belyn it was a relief if not a pleasure to hear these unearthly voices. ‘Are you ambitious?’ asked the louder voice. ‘Yes, yes’, replied the quieter voice. It gave a cryptic reply, the gist of which was that too much ambition would end ‘in conflict, in death, in dust!’. Then another voice intoned, saying that few people win fame, the monarch may have his crown but it would cause him pain, the warrior his strength but that must leave him eventually, and will have been in vain. Belyn’s heart sank. As we know, it was his ambition to be like Glendower (c.1354–c.1416) and to become a great leader, a renowned warrior and to be famed throughout the wide world. As he sat gloomily one of the strange people seemed to read his thoughts, because after a few moments the greater voice cried:

Take care, hasty youth, keep clear of warfare, of fighting, of sorrow, while there is time. As yet there is no single thread of silver hair amongst your dark and curling locks. We know what you want. You want to go out into battle, to earn a great name, to return to your home full of victory and triumph. But do not be hasty. There are many who will go down that road but few will come back. I say to you, go home and do not try to learn the secrets of the stars. The greatest thing for you is to be caring to your neighbours, as good to them as to yourself; to be true to yourself and to all mankind; to help the helpless, to bring comfort to those who sorrow; to feed the hungry and to succeed in those aspects of life which you were born to.

Then the voice ceased.

The huge figures slowly vanished into the morning mists, and when Belyn roused himself the sun was high. He was cold and stiff and aching after the night he had passed in the Chair of Idris. He began to turn over the events of the night: what had happened during the unearthly happenings? had he dreamt the whole thing? He seemed not to have gone mad, but whatever had happened it had certainly taught him his lesson. He knew he would never again undertake such a dangerous and foolhardy exploit. Slowly but thankfully he descended the great hill and made for home. ‘Where have you been?’, asked some passers-by on the path down the mountain. ‘I have been up to the highest point’, he said. ‘He’s been praying’ – some fellows taunted him but Belyn left them alone. A neighbour nearer home said: ‘Have you been up amongst the eagles?’. Belyn did not answer.

3   ‘A commission for holding an Eisteddfod at Caerwys, in 1568, is still in possession of Sir Roger Mostyn, together with the Silver Harp, which had from time immemorial been in the gift of his ancestors . . . This badge of honour is about five or six inches long, and furnished with strings equal to the number of Muses.’ This commission is dated to 23 October in the ninth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558–1603). From T. Pennant, Tours in Wales, I, 1874, London, 463–7

Eventually he approached his home and now twilight was coming again, slowly from the west. He stopped to look back at Cadair Idris and his eyes sought the very upper-most peaks, and he had a vision of the grey giants once again standing there and looking with kindness down upon him. Their outlines were softer, and they were no longer objects of fear, but appeared to be holding out their arms as if in the act of blessing him. At length he reached the home of his father, the half-ruined strong-hold beyond Dolgellau. He once more became oppressed with his thoughts, for his home, which had been a noble fort during the reign of Edward I, displayed the traces of desperate resistance and inglorious defeat. Belyn then wondered if it were not preferable to live in peace and leave the vagaries of war to the brave, wild warriors of Wales.

Turning all this over in his mind, he suddenly heard sounds of revelry coming from the banqueting hall and the voice of Owain Cyfeiliog, the poet prince of Powys, reached his ears. It was a long speech in praise of battle which ended with: ‘Fill the Hirlais drinking horn . . . and bring it to Tudwr, the Eagle of Battles . . .’ Belyn was puzzled by all the noise and revelry, the sound of the harp (3), the voice of Gruffydd their harpist; and there were wild bursts of applause. (The Welsh, almost always famous for their love of music, customarily played three instruments, namely the harp, the pipe and the crwth – a lyre-like instrument played with a bow.) There was a pause as he went on and because he did not wish to be seen he kept to the shadows and sought the shelter of the garden entrance to the great hall. Gruffydd began to play the harp again and to sing further. Then, to calm down the warlike spirits he had stirred up by his first song, he started to play the harp again. Belyn heard his father’s voice bewailing his absence and, overcome with emotion, he rushed into his father’s arms. When all the greetings were over, Madoc whispered a word to the warrior beside him and placed his son’s hand in the warrior’s. Belyn was taken aback. ‘My son, my only son,’ said Madoc, ‘I proudly give your hand and if necessary your life into the keeping of Owen Glendower.’ Belyn was stunned – where now his dreams of peace? He had been, without any reference to himself, placed in the hands of Owen Glendower, who until recently had been his great hero. After various formalities he discovered that he was pledged to go wherever Owen went and to defend the leader of the great uprising against the English King Henry IV. When he sat down beside his father, the words of the grey giant on the hill rang in his ears. ‘Many will go forward, but few will come back.’

Belyn was no coward, but here were his new dreams of a peaceful world shattered. Not because he wanted this to happen, but because his great father had an iron will. Then he thought of the grim giant who said: ‘Do well in the walk of life to which you were born.’ So Belyn, seeing that his hopes were dashed, then and there made a resolution to try to do his best in whatever situation he might find himself.

Time passed, and eventually the battle started. Terrible screams and desperate cries of the living, and the heart-rending groaning of those who were wounded and dying, combining with the clash of arms, destroyed the peace of the day, and as evening drew near the frenzy only increased. The sea alone was tranquil. Hardly a ripple disturbed the quiet surface of Cardigan Bay. Monks and friars went onto the battlefield as evening fell, to administer such aid and healing as could be given to those who were wounded, and comfort to the dying. Voracious eagles and starving vultures hovered near the site, ready to take whatever carrion was available, and ravens and hooded crows croaked and barked on the lonely seashore while waiting for flesh. In the front of the battle, Owen Glendower urged his men on, while the opposing hosts fought, fell, rallied and wavered as the overwhelming force of the enemy oppressed them. The scene was ghastly, as the evening sunlight fell across the field of battle. Harlech Castle was taken by Glendower; Belyn son of Madoc lay wounded among his comrades.

It was now two years since his father had given him over to Glendower and a life of warfare, and there was not a braver soldier in the field. Now he was wounded and thought he was dying. He found himself, with others, close under the castle where the grass was thick and the shadows were dark. He thought he had been there for nights instead of two hours, when a voice roused him from his semi-conscious state. It said: ‘If you wish for shelter and comfort, follow me.’ ‘I cannot’, replied Belyn, ‘I cannot move; my wounds are too severe.’ So the stranger said ‘I will carry you’, and Belyn found himself in the great arms of someone who had superhuman strength. It was a short way to carry him, and the stranger soon placed him in the warm, comfortable kitchen of an old farmhouse. Belyn was amazed at his good fortune but too badly wounded and weakened to ask any questions. In a few days the enemy had gone, and Glendower’s men held the castle. When peace reigned again, and the wounded recovered or died on the field, Belyn was able to sit up and found he was in the house of a friend he had not seen since childhood. Gwilym ap Hywel had been his father’s closest friend, who had left Dolgellau to inherit estates on Anglesey. However he had fallen upon ill times and had been driven to live in this farmhouse, peacefully, with his good wife and children.

A girl came into the room and asked her father when the stranger would be able to sit with them at mealtimes. Her father told Belyn that this was his small daughter Eluned, and promised that as soon as Belyn could get up Eluned would nurse him, like her mother who nursed the wounded and the sick. When Belyn was able to walk, Eluned helped him and the two became inseparable friends. Belyn was with the family for several weeks. After he left, Eluned pined for him and her parents knew she had fallen in love with Belyn, son of Madoc. In Madoc’s stronghold there was great rejoicing at his only son’s return, and when all the feasting was over his father told him: ‘You shall no longer follow the great Glendower in war, but take a wife and remain here in peace.’ Then he told his father about his love for Eluned and his father was in full agreement with his choice of bride. So Belyn, accompanied by a full retinue, went back to Harlech and asked Gwylim ap Hywel for his daughter’s hand in marriage. When he took his bride home to his father, all were amazed and delighted at her charm and beauty. Belyn now was deeply grateful to his father, who had ‘given him to Glendower’, for otherwise he would never have met his beautiful Eluned.

Never again did Belyn allow himself to be concerned about the Triad which had set him on his journey to Cadair Idris, but he never forgot his experience on the mountain, nor the advice that the Great Shadowy Ones had given to him, ‘Go home and try not to learn the secrets of the stars. The greatest inspiration is to . . . do well in the sphere of life in which thou wast born.’ And so it transpired as we have seen.

In this story there are several elements or motifs which are common to all Celtic storytelling both early and late, and customarily based upon an oral original. There were many reasons for this. The Welsh, like all the Celts, were quick to learn and voracious for knowledge. As we saw in the introduction, this characteristic certainly goes back as far as the time of Julius Caesar, and earlier archaeological monuments testify to them at a period before written documents in the vernacular had become widespread. The Druids passed on their learning by word of mouth, as did the early bards, and this tradition was also current amongst those who tilled the land and did not have the benefit of a fundamental education. The storyteller would hold his audience enthralled as he recounted tales not dissimilar to the one above, lightening the load of heavy physical labour and bringing relaxation, humour and a great deal of knowledge to those who would otherwise be denied it. Perhaps the complexity of the oral tradition is more highly developed in the Gaelic countries but that is not to say that Wales did not at one time have its full share of this tradition, although it would seem that for many obvious reasons it suffered more from political upheavals, invasions and the development, for example, of extensive coal mining in the north and steel-working, as well as coal, in the south. There were many set motifs, as we have seen in the tales, and any deviation from the accepted pattern of storytelling would be immediately checked by the quick minds of the engrossed audience.

In The Lady of the Fountain, a tale about Arthur and many adventures, we learn that the king was at Caerlion in Usk. Arthur said that if the others did not object, he would like to sleep while he waited for his dinner, ‘And for your part, you can tell tales, and get a stoup of mead and chops from Cei’ (Mabinogion, Jones and Jones, p.155-6). And so they sat and ate their meat and drank their mead, and then one of them, Owein, said to Cynon, one of Arthur’s men: ‘Start thou with the most wonderful thing thou knowest.’ ‘I will’ said Cynon, who then embarked on the telling of a long and complex tale. This was a somewhat more sophisticated milieu than that of the small farmer or cotter or crofter, but hardly less enjoyable, and the audience was clearly just as avid for tales as were the humbler elements of society.

In our story we have seen the emphasis laid on Triads and triadic utterances and this is reflected in every aspect of Celtic folklore and tradition. The number three from earliest times was sacred throughout the Celtic world and superstition and belief in the existence and powerful influence of supernatural beings and forces was again a commonplace. This Merioneth tale, the central figure of which is Belyn ap Madoc, shows how the hero’s life is deeply affected and influenced by his reading of an enigmatic Triad which led to a somewhat unnerving adventure on the mountain, Cadair Idris. Here he encounters one after the other, three gigantic beings, grey and sombre. The gods are invariably portrayed as being of great size and they often counsel and advise mortals. Here, although the eager young man is given advice by each of these great men in turn, he is not destined to follow the advice of the last speaker – which is somewhat overlaid with Christian morality. He goes home determined to follow this advice, but fate has a different future in store for him, as we have seen.

Place-names

Archaeology is more and more relevant to our studies of past history and hypotheses about previous religions and cult practices. Almost every week some new object, group of objects or significant site is brought to light by one or other of the current archaeological techniques. It is not perhaps irrelevant then to consider one recent site discovered in an aqueous context on the marshy wilds of Holme Beach, Norfolk, where a circle of oak trees currently dated to the Bronze Age has as its central point a vast oak tree, the whole imbuing this watery wilderness with an eerie atmosphere. Because this enigmatic circle resembles the great stone circles – the most famous of which is, of course, Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain – it has become known as Seahenge.

One antiquarian, namely the renowned Thomas Pennant, travelled widely in Wales in the eighteenth century, recording his many and astute observations on the history, antiquities and folk customs of various periods. In the opinion of the ‘celebrated and learned Mr Henry Rowlands’, former vicar of Llanidan (4), many of the great standing stones and remains of stone circles – often in a poor state of preservation – were of druidic origin. Be that as it may, there is one circle which is perhaps of singular interest: the stones having a cromlech in the centre. Mr Rowlands believed that this was a great temple of the Druids, and that the whole was originally surrounded with a circle of oak trees which formed ‘a deep and sacred grove’. Romantic though this may seem, the Seahenge arboreal circle with a central feature consisting of a vast oak tree may indicate that Rowlands was not in fact far from the truth. Some ancient holy places may indeed have consisted of circles of oaks as the Classics record (vide Ross, Druids). We might also bear in mind the great circle of oaks centred by a complete giant tree of the same species dated by dendrochronology to the first century BC. This remarkable structure, which seems incontrovertibly to have been a great temple or sanctuary, is situated on the summit of the low eminence in County Armagh known as Emain Macha, ‘Macha’s Twins’. The name refers to the cult legend of the goddess Macha who was associated with horses and horse-racing and is a focal point for superstition and legend of every kind down the ages (vide Ross, Druids). There were doubtless many other temples constructed of oak, traces of which have usually gone unrecognised until recent years.

4   Llanidan old church, Môn. Head on right of south door Head on left of south door

One of the most pathetic and tragic medieval Welsh stories is that entitled Branwen Daughter of Llyr