Fundamentals of Heat Engines E-Book

Jamil Ghojel

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Wiley-ASME Press Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 683

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Summarizes the analysis and design of today's gas heat engine cycles This book offers readers comprehensive coverage of heat engine cycles. From ideal (theoretical) cycles to practical cycles and real cycles, it gradually increases in degree of complexity so that newcomers can learn and advance at a logical pace, and so instructors can tailor their courses toward each class level. To facilitate the transition from one type of cycle to another, it offers readers additional material covering fundamental engineering science principles in mechanics, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and thermochemistry. Fundamentals of Heat Engines: Reciprocating and Gas Turbine Internal-Combustion Engines begins with a review of some fundamental principles of engineering science, before covering a wide range of topics on thermochemistry. It next discusses theoretical aspects of the reciprocating piston engine, starting with simple air-standard cycles, followed by theoretical cycles of forced induction engines, and ending with more realistic cycles that can be used to predict engine performance as a first approximation. Lastly, the book looks at gas turbines and covers cycles with gradually increasing complexity to end with realistic engine design-point and off-design calculations methods. * Covers two main heat engines in one single reference * Teaches heat engine fundamentals as well as advanced topics * Includes comprehensive thermodynamic and thermochemistry data * Offers customizable content to suit beginner or advanced undergraduate courses and entry-level postgraduate studies in automotive, mechanical, and aerospace degrees * Provides representative problems at the end of most chapters, along with a detailed example of piston-engine design-point calculations * Features case studies of design-point calculations of gas turbine engines in two chapters Fundamentals of Heat Engines can be adopted for mechanical, aerospace, and automotive engineering courses at different levels and will also benefit engineering professionals in those fields and beyond.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Preface

Preface

Glossary

About the Companion Website

Part I: Fundamentals of Engineering Science

1 Review of Basic Principles

1.1 Engineering Mechanics

1.2 Fluid Mechanics

1.3 Thermodynamics

Engineering Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics

Thermodynamics

2 Thermodynamics of Reactive Mixtures

2.1 Fuels

2.2 Stoichiometry

2.3 Chemical Reactions

2.4 Thermodynamic Properties of the Combustion Products

2.5 First Law Analysis of Reacting Mixtures

2.6 Adiabatic Flame Temperature

2.7 Entropy Change in Reacting Mixtures

2.8 Second Law Analysis of Reacting Mixtures

2.9 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium

2.10 Multi‐Species Equilibrium Composition of Combustion Products

Part II: Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines

3 Ideal Cycles for Natural‐Induction Reciprocating Engines

3.1 Generalised Cycle

3.2 Constant‐Volume Cycle (Otto Cycle)

3.3 Constant Pressure (Diesel) Cycle

3.4 Dual Cycle (Pressure‐Limited Cycle)

3.5 Cycle Comparison

4 Ideal Cycles for Forced‐Induction Reciprocating Engines

4.1 Turbocharged Cycles

4.2 Supercharged Cycles

4.3 Forced Induction Cycles with Intercooling

4.4 Comparison of Boosted Cycles

5 Fuel‐Air Cycles for Reciprocating Engines

5.1 Fuel‐Air Cycle Assumptions

5.2 Compression Process

5.3 Combustion Process

5.4 Expansion Process

5.5 Mean Effective Pressure

5.6 Cycle Comparison

6 Practical Cycles for Reciprocating Engines

6.1 Four‐Stroke Engine

6.2 Two‐Stroke Engine

6.3 Practical Cycles for Four‐Stroke Engines

6.4 Cycle Comparison

6.5 Cycles Based on Combustion Modelling (Wiebe Function)

6.6 Example of Wiebe Function Application

6.7 Double Wiebe Models

6.8 Computer‐Aided Engine Simulation

7 Work‐Transfer System in Reciprocating Engines

7.1 Kinematics of the Piston‐Crank Mechanism

7.2 Dynamics of the Reciprocating Mechanism

7.3 Multi‐Cylinder Engines

7.4 Engine Balancing

8 Reciprocating Engine Performance Characteristics

8.1 Indicator Diagrams

8.2 Indicated Parameters

8.3 Brake Parameters

8.4 Engine Design Point and Performance

8.5 Off‐Design Performance

Part III: Gas Turbine Internal Combustion Engines

9 Air‐Standard Gas Turbine Cycles

9.1 Joule‐Brayton Ideal Cycle

9.2 Cycle with Heat Exchange (Regeneration)

9.3 Cycle with Reheat

9.4 Cycle with Intercooling

9.5 Cycle with Heat Exchange and Reheat

9.6 Cycle with Heat Exchange and Intercooling

9.7 Cycle with Heat Exchange, Reheat, and Intercooling

9.8 Cycle Comparison

10 Irreversible Air‐Standard Gas Turbine Cycles

10.1 Component Efficiencies

10.2 Simple Irreversible Cycle

10.3 Irreversible Cycle with Heat Exchange (Regenerative Irreversible Cycle)

10.4 Irreversible Cycle with Reheat

10.5 Irreversible Cycle with Intercooling

10.6 Irreversible Cycle with Heat Exchange and Reheat

10.7 Irreversible Cycle with Heat Exchange and Intercooling

10.8 Irreversible Cycle with Heat Exchange, Reheat, and Intercooling

10.9 Comparison of Irreversible Cycles

11 Practical Gas Turbine Cycles

11.1 Simple Single‐Shaft Gas Turbine

11.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Air

11.3 Compression Process in the Compressor

11.4 Combustion Process

11.5 Expansion Process in the Turbine

12 Design‐Point Calculations of Aviation Gas Turbines

12.1 Properties of Air

12.2 Simple Turbojet Engine

12.3 Performance of Turbojet Engine – Case Study

12.4 Two‐Spool Unmixed‐Flow Turbofan Engine

12.5 Performance of Two‐Spool Unmixed‐Flow Turbofan Engine – Case Study

12.6 Two‐Spool Mixed‐Flow Turbofan Engine

12.7 Performance of Two‐Spool Mixed‐Flow Turbofan Engine – Case Study

13 Design‐Point Calculations of Industrial Gas Turbines

13.1 Single‐Shaft Gas Turbine Engine

13.2 Performance of Single‐Shaft Gas Turbine Engine – Case Study

13.3 Two‐Shaft Gas Turbine Engine

13.4 Performance of Two‐Shaft Gas Turbine Engine – Case Study

14 Work‐Transfer System in Gas Turbines

14.1 Axial‐Flow Compressors

14.2 Radial‐Flow Compressors

14.3 Axial‐Flow Turbines

14.4 Radial‐Flow Turbines

15 Off‐Design Performance of Gas Turbines

15.1 Component‐Matching Method

15.2 Thermo‐Gas‐Dynamic Matching Method

Bibliography

Appendix A Thermodynamic Tables

Appendix B Dynamics of the Reciprocating Mechanism

Appendix C Design Point Calculations – Reciprocating Engines

C.1. Engine Processes

Appendix D Equations for the Thermal Efficiency and Specific Work of Theoretical Gas Turbine Cycles

Nomenclature

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Equations of motion for linear and rotational motions.

Table 1.2 Symbols, units, and dimensions of common physical quantities.

Table 1.3 Coefficients of Eq. (1.99) for the calculation of

of combustion produ...

Table 1.4 Coefficients of Eq. (1.100) for the calculation of

of air.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Typical carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur mass contents of common fuels.

Table 2.2 Composition of air.

Table 2.3 Volume composition of some gaseous fuels.

Table 2.4 Typical carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur mass contents of common l...

Table 2.5 Stoichiometric reactions of the elements of a liquid or solid fuel.

Table 2.6 Coefficients

a

n

in Eq. (2.38) for specific heats at constant pressure o...

Table 2.7 Coefficients

a

n

in Eq. (2.47) for internal energies of air and combusti...

Table 2.8 Composition and heating values of some liquid, gaseous, and solid fuel...

Table 2.9 Coefficients

a

n

in Eq. (2.62) for air and combustion products (

T

 = 300–...

Table 2.10 Adiabatic flame temperature of octane (

C

8

H

18

) vs. relative air‐fuel r...

Table 2.11 Entropy change data for combustion of methane.

Table 2.12 Equilibrium constant

for the reaction

aA + bB ⇄ cC + dD

...

Table 2.13 Equilibrium constants for dissociation reactions in products with six...

Table 2.14 Equilibrium constants for dissociation reactions in products with 11 ...

Table 2.15 Equilibrium constants for dissociation reactions in products with 18 ...

Table 2.16 Adiabatic flame temperature for frozen and equilibrium compositions o...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Typical values of the parameters of the compression process in real en...

Table 5.2 Typical values of the parameters of the expansion process in real engi...

Table 5.3 Operating and performance parameters of fuel‐air and air‐standard cycl...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Operating and performance parameters of the dual‐combustion air‐standa...

Table 6.2 Double Wiebe parameter values.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Data for calculations of forces on piston and crank pin.

Table 7.2 Effect of the number of cylinders on the torque uniformity factor and ...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Examples of engine test standards.

Table 8.2 Constants for the empirical Eq. 8.34.

Table 8.3 Constants for the empirical Eq. 8.35.

Table 8.4 Constants for the empirical Eq. 8.36.

Table 8.5 Constant coefficients for Eq. (8.41) (SI engine).

Table 8.6 Constant coefficients for Eq. (8.42) (CI engine).

Table 8.7 CI engine fuel rate map.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Comparison of all theoretical cycles (

a

 = 6

,

rc = 20

...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Comparison of all irreversible cycles (

a

 = 6

,

rc = 20

...

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 The values of coefficient

B

n

in Eq. (11.1).

Table 11.2 Flammability limits for some hydrocarbon fuels at standard atmospheri...

Table 11.3 Coefficients of polynomial (11.8) for the enthalpies of the gaseous p...

Table 11.4 Coefficients of Eq. (11.9a) for different types of hydrocarbon fuels ...

Table 11.5 The coefficients for Eqs. (11.17a) and (11.17b) for dodecene (

C

12

H

24

)...

Table 11.6 Spreadsheet solution for Method 2.

Table 11.7 Coefficients for Eq. (11.18) for dodecene combustion without dissocia...

Table 11.8 Effect of calculation method on the value of the predicted combustion...

Table 11.9 Coefficients for Eq. (11.18) for dodecene combustion with dissociatio...

Table 11.10 Effect of dissociation on the combustion temperature of dodecene (

T2

...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Data for the calculation of the turbojet engine performance character...

Table 12.2 Operating conditions for variable flight Mach numbers at constant

T

4

t

 ...

Table 12.3 Operating conditions at

T

4

t

 = 1757 

K

for variable altitude at

M

1

 = 0.8...

Table 12.4 Station numbering in the unmixed‐flow turbofan engine.

Table 12.5 Data for the calculation of the turbofan engine performance character...

Table 12.6 Station numbering in the simple mixed‐flow turbofan engine.

Table 12.7 Data for the calculation of the mixed‐flow turbofan engine performanc...

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Data for design point calculations for single‐shaft gas turbine

λ

Table 13.2 Data for design point calculations for a single‐shaft gas turbine

T

3

=...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Designation of non‐dimensional parameters for different gas‐turbine e...

Appendix A

Table A.1 Specific heat at constant pressure

C

p

as per the correlations in Table ...

Table A.2 Internal energy

U

T

as per the correlations in Table 2.7 (enthalpy refer...

Table A.3 Enthalpy change

Δ

H

T

 = 

H

 − 

H

0

(

T

ref

)

Table A.4 Absolute entropy

s

o

as per the correlations in Table 1.3 (reference pre...

Table A.5 Equilibrium constant

for the reaction

aA + bB ⇄ cC + dD

...

Table A.6 Coefficients of correlations for enthalpies of reactants

HR = a + bT2 +

...

Table A.7 Coefficients of correlations for enthalpies of products

HP = a + bT3 + 

...

Table A.8 Coefficients of adiabatic flame temperature correlations for some hydr...

Table A.9 Enthalpy of formation of selected chemical substances (

Tref = 298.15 K

...

Appendix B

Table B.1 Unbalanced inertial forces and moments in four‐stroke inline engines...

Table B.2 Unbalanced inertial forces and moments in two‐stroke inline engines.

Table B.3 Unbalanced inertial forces and moments in four‐stroke V‐engines.

Table B.4 Unbalanced inertial forces and moments in two‐stroke V‐engines.

Appendix C

Table C.1 Engine and fuel specifications.

Table C.2 Assumed data.

Table C.3 Calculated engine speed characteristics.

Appendix D

Table D.1 Thermal efficiency and specific output work for the ideal air‐standard...

Table D.2 Thermal efficiency and specific output work for the irreversible air‐s...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Non‐uniform circular motion in Cartesian coordinates: (a) initial p...

Figure 1.2 Rigid‐body rotational motion.

Figure 1.3 Definitions of moment, couple, and torque.

Figure 1.4 Kinetics of rotating shaft: (a) accelerating shaft; (b) deceleratin...

Figure 1.5 Angular momentum of a rigid body.

Figure 1.6 Fluid flow through a control volume.

Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram of a thermodynamic system.

Figure 1.8 Application of process equations in theoretical cycles: (a) Diesel ...

Figure 1.9 Sign convention for heat and work.

Figure 1.10 Steady‐state, steady‐flow control volume.

Figure 1.11 Schematic diagrams of a (a) nozzle; (b) diffuser.

Figure 1.12 The reciprocating internal combustion engine as a steady‐flow syst...

Figure 1.13 Schematic diagram of a turbine.

Figure 1.14 Schematic diagram of air compressor.

Figure 1.15 Schematic arrangements of a (a) heat engine; (b) heat pump or refr...

Figure 1.16 Ideal Carnot engine cycle in (a) p‐V and (b) T‐s coordinate system...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Relative air‐fuel ratio as a function of power output.

Figure 2.2 Coefficient of molar change versus relative air‐fuel ratio for some...

Figure 2.3 U‐T diagram of the non‐flow combustion process.

Figure 2.4 Steady‐state, steady‐flow combustion process without change of stat...

Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of the steady‐flow system with chemical reactions...

Figure 2.6 H‐T diagram of the steady‐state, steady‐flow combustion process.

Figure 2.7 H‐T diagram of the steady‐state combustion process for different in...

Figure 2.8 Adiabatic flame temperature of octane (

C

8

H

18

) as a function of λ an...

Figure 2.9 Constant‐volume process in a U‐T diagram.

Figure 2.10 Otto cycle with inlet conditions at the reference point

T

0

and

p

0.

Figure 2.11 Criteria for chemical equilibrium.

Figure 2.12 Frozen composition of the combustion products of octane

(

C

8

H

18

)

.

Figure 2.13 Equilibrium composition for the combustion of octane

(

C

8

H

18

)

(six ...

Figure 2.14 Equilibrium composition for the combustion of octane

(

C

8

H

18

)

(11 s...

Figure 2.15 Equilibrium composition for the combustion of octane

(

C

8

H

18

)

in ai...

Figure 2.16 Effect of dissociation on the adiabatic flame temperature of isooc...

Figure 2.17 Effect of mixture pressure on the AFT of liquid octane (

C

8

H

18

,

λ =

...

Figure 2.18 Effect of initial mixture temperature on AFT of liquid octane (

C8H

...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 First law representation of the heat engine.

Figure 3.2 The generalised cycle in (a)

p

 − 

V

and (b)

T − s

...

Figure 3.3

T

 − 

s

diagram of the generalised cycle (a) spec...

Figure 3.4 The Otto cycle in

p

 − 

V

(a) and

T − s

...

Figure 3.5 Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle as a function of compression r...

Figure 3.6 Mean effective pressure of the Otto cycle as a function of compress...

Figure 3.7 Mean effective pressure of the Otto cycle as a function of ratio of...

Figure 3.8 The Diesel cycle in

p

 − 

V

(a) and

T − s

...

Figure 3.9 Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle: (a) as a function ɛ and γ a...

Figure 3.10 Mean effective pressure of the Diesel cycle as a function of compr...

Figure 3.11 Mean effective pressure of the Diesel cycle as a function of β, ɛ,...

Figure 3.12 The dual cycle in

p

 − 

V

(a) and

T − s

...

Figure 3.13 Thermal efficiency of the dual cycle and β as functions of α at gi...

Figure 3.14 Mean effective pressure of the dual cycle and β as functions of α ...

Figure 3.15 Thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure of the dual cycle a...

Figure 3.16 Carpet plot for the effect of α, β, and ɛ on the thermal efficienc...

Figure 3.17 Carpet plot for the effect of α, β, and ɛ on the mean effective pr...

Figure 3.18 Effect of compression ratio on cycle pressures

p

2

and

p

3

(

q

in

=

...

Figure 3.19

p

 − 

V

diagrams for the dual cycle at three com...

Figure 3.20 Effect of the compression ratio on the temperatures of four points...

Figure 3.21 Comparison of the thermal efficiency for the Otto, Diesel, and dua...

Figure 3.22 Comparison of the mean effective pressures of the Otto, Diesel, an...

Figure 3.23

p

 − 

V

and

T

 − 

s

 diagrams of ...

Figure 3.24

p

 − 

V

and

T

 − 

s

diagrams of ...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of a turbocharged engine with constant‐pressure t...

Figure 4.2 Combined dual cycle and constant‐pressure turbine cycle in

p − V

...

Figure 4.3 Mean effective pressure of the dual cycle with constant‐pressure tu...

Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of a turbocharged engine with variable‐pressure t...

Figure 4.5 Combined dual cycle and variable‐pressure turbine cycle in p‐V and ...

Figure 4.6 Thermal efficiency of the dual cycle with variable‐pressure turboch...

Figure 4.7 Mean effective pressure of the dual cycle with variable‐pressure tu...

Figure 4.8 Schematic diagram of a supercharged engine: E, engine; G, gearing; ...

Figure 4.9 Supercharged dual combustion cycle in

p

 − 

V

and

T

...

Figure 4.10 Thermal efficiency of the dual cycle with supercharging (

εcomp = 1

...

Figure 4.11 Mean effective pressure of the dual cycle with supercharging (

εcom

...

Figure 4.12 Schematic diagram of a turbocharged and intercooled engine: E, eng...

Figure 4.13

p

 − 

V

and

T

 − 

s

diagrams for...

Figure 4.14

p

 − 

V

and

T

 − 

s

diagrams for...

Figure 4.15 Schematic diagram of a supercharged engine with intercooling: E, e...

Figure 4.16

p

 − 

V

and

T

 − 

s

diagrams of ...

Figure 4.17 Comparison of the thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure o...

Figure 4.18 Effect of the pressure ratio in the compressor on the performance ...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Dual fuel‐air cycle.

Figure 5.2 Combustion processes in fuel‐air cycles: (a) dual‐combustion (b) co...

Figure 5.3 Comparison of the air‐standard and fuel‐air dual cycles.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Indicator diagrams of a CI engine at partial load operating at 2000...

Figure 6.2 Four‐stroke engine induction (a, c) and compression (b, d) processe...

Figure 6.3 Four‐stroke engine combustion

/

expansion (a, c) and exhaust (b, d) p...

Figure 6.4 Two‐stroke engine processes: compression

5 − 1

(a...

Figure 6.5 Two‐stroke engine processes: exhaust only

2 − 3

(...

Figure 6.6 Practical cycle model of the compression ignition engine: (a) raw p...

Figure 6.7 Pressure drop during induction process in four‐stroke piston engine...

Figure 6.8 Fuel injection and combustion schemes in CI engines: (a, b, c, d) d...

Figure 6.9 Calculated practical cycle and measured

p

 − 

V

dia...

Figure 6.10 Practical cycle model of the SI engine.

Figure 6.11 Fuel delivery and combustion scheme in an actual SI engine.

Figure 6.12 Calculated practical cycle and measured p‐V diagram for a SI engin...

Figure 6.13 Practical cycle model for a low‐speed CI engine.

Figure 6.14 Comparison of the air‐standard, fuel‐air, and practical dual‐combu...

Figure 6.15 Wiebe cumulative heat release (a) and rate of heat release (b) for...

Figure 6.16 Wiebe cumulative heat release (a) and rate of heat release (b) for...

Figure 6.17 Wiebe cumulative heat release (a) and rate of heat release (b) for...

Figure 6.18 Schematic diagrams of pressure development during combustion: (a)

Figure 6.19 Schematic diagram of the application of the Wiebe function to comb...

Figure 6.20 Piston‐crank mechanism of the reciprocating engine.

Figure 6.21 Comparison of estimated heat‐transfer coefficients in reciprocatin...

Figure 6.22 Heat‐release characteristics for a SI engine (16 

kW

@ 4000 

rpm

): (...

Figure 6.23 Calculated and predicted indicator diagrams for a SI engine (16 

kW

Figure 6.24 Heat‐release characteristics for a CI engine (57.6 

kW

@ 2200 

rpm

):...

Figure 6.25 Calculated and predicted indicator diagrams for a CI engine (57.6 

Figure 6.26 Double Wiebe representation of the experimental heat‐release rate ...

Figure 6.27 Some CFD modelling results for a direct injection compression igni...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 (a) Piston‐connecting rod‐crankshaft assembly of a six‐cylinder inl...

Figure 7.2 Schematic of the piston‐crank mechanism with the definitions used i...

Figure 7.3 Kinematics of the reciprocating CI engine (

R = 59 mm, τ = 0.325

...

Figure 7.4 Dynamically equivalent mass distribution of the piston‐crank mechan...

Figure 7.5 Forces acting at the piston pin and crank pin: (a) direct forces; (...

Figure 7.6 Forces acting on the piston pin at A in a CI engine (

D = 104 mm, pm

...

Figure 7.7 Forces acting on the crank pin at B in a CI engine (

D = 104 mm, pma

...

Figure 7.8 Forces and moments acting on the crankshaft supports at O.

Figure 7.9 The resultant force

F

cp

acting on the crank pin at B.

Figure 7.10 Force

N

versus force

F

t

for a CI engine: (a) 2000 

rpm

; (b) 4000 

rp

...

Figure 7.11 Schematic diagram for the determination of

F

cp

from the polar diag...

Figure 7.12 Polar diagram for the SI engine in Table 7.1.

Figure 7.13 Construction of the crank pin wear diagram.

Figure 7.14 Force

F

cp

as a function of crank angle θ.

Figure 7.15 Determination of the resultant force

F

c

acting on the crankshaft b...

Figure 7.16 Forces acting on a crankshaft with two cranks at an angle of 120°.

Figure 7.17 Inline‐type engines: (a) four‐cylinder engine with γ = 180°; (b) s...

Figure 7.18 (a) V‐engines with articulated connecting rod; (b) side‐by‐side co...

Figure 7.19 Eight‐cylinder V 90° engine.

Figure 7.20 Cycle overlap and firing sequence of an eight‐cylinder V‐type engi...

Figure 7.21 Construction of the resultant torque for a four‐stroke, four‐cylin...

Figure 7.22 Effect of the number of cylinders on the torque profile and mean t...

Figure 7.23 Effect of the number of cylinders on the mean torque and torque un...

Figure 7.24 Fluctuations of the torque and angular velocity of a multi‐cylinde...

Figure 7.25 Balancing a single‐cylinder engine: (a) centrifugal inertial force...

Figure 7.26 Balancing a two‐cylinder inline engine.

Figure 7.27 Inertia forces in a two‐cylinder V‐engine.

Figure 7.28 Balancing forces and moments in an eight‐cylinder V‐engine: (a) fr...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Parameters of actual engine cycles: (a) SI engine; (b) CI engine.

Figure 8.2 p‐V indicator diagrams of pumping losses in naturally aspirated eng...

Figure 8.3 Variable‐speed characteristics: (a) SI engine; (b) CI engine. (1 – ...

Figure 8.4 Variable‐power characteristics of a typical automotive SI engine.

Figure 8.5 Effect of test conditions on engine brake power at different speeds...

Figure 8.6 Variation of engine parameters with engine speed at full throttle.

Figure 8.7 Indicated efficiency

η

i

and the ratio

η

i

/

α

versus th...

Figure 8.8 SI engine performance characteristics:

S = 95.25 mm, D = 86.36 mm,

...

Figure 8.9 3‐D representation of the load characteristics of an SI engine:

N

 =...

Figure 8.10 2‐D load characteristics of the SI engine in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.11 Fuel map for an SI engine derived using Eq. (8.41).

Figure 8.12 3‐D representation of the power characteristics for a CI engine:

N

Figure 8.13 2‐D power characteristics of a CI engine for the ranges

N

 = 800–22...

Figure 8.14 Fuel map for the generic CI engine derived from Eq. 8.42

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Simple gas turbine cycle: (a) engine schematic; (b) T‐s diagram of ...

Figure 9.2 Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle for three working fluids.

Figure 9.3 Specific output work versus pressure ratio and temperature ratio

T3

...

Figure 9.4 T‐s diagrams of the Brayton cycle with different pressure ratios.

Figure 9.5 Effect of temperature ratio on the specific output work at two cons...

Figure 9.6 Cycle with heat exchange: (a) engine layout; (b) cycle T‐s diagram ...

Figure 9.7 Cycle with heat exchange: (a) thermal efficiency; (b) specific outp...

Figure 9.8 Cycle with reheat: (a) engine layout; (b) cycle T‐s diagram (C – co...

Figure 9.9 Cycle with reheat: (a) thermal efficiency; (b) specific output work...

Figure 9.10 Cycle with intercooling: (a) engine layout, (b) cycle T‐s diagram ...

Figure 9.11 Cycle with intercooling: (a) thermal efficiency; (b) specific outp...

Figure 9.12 Cycle with heat exchange and reheat: (a) engine layout; (b) cycle ...

Figure 9.13 Cycle with heat exchange and reheat: (a) thermal efficiency; (b) s...

Figure 9.14 Cycle with heat exchange and intercooling: (a) engine layout, (b) ...

Figure 9.15 Cycle with heat exchange and intercooling: (a) thermal efficiency;...

Figure 9.16 Cycle with heat exchange, reheat, and intercooling: (a) engine lay...

Figure 9.17 Cycle with heat exchange, reheat, and intercooling: (a) thermal ef...

Figure 9.18 Comparison of all theoretical cycles.

Figure 9.19 Comparison of all theoretical cycles (

a

 = 5

,

rc = va

...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Irreversible cycle of a single‐shaft gas turbine: (a) engine schem...

Figure 10.2 Isentropic and irreversible compression processes in a compressor.

Figure 10.3 Isentropic and irreversible expansion processes in a turbine.

Figure 10.4 Infinitely small multistage compression.

Figure 10.5 Variation of compressor isentropic efficiency with the compressor ...

Figure 10.6 Infinitely small multistage expansion.

Figure 10.7 Variation of turbine isentropic efficiency with the turbine pressu...

Figure 10.8 The simple air‐standard irreversible cycle.

Figure 10.9 Comparison of air‐standard cycles with and without losses (

a = 5

...

Figure 10.10 Irreversible cycle with pressure losses and irreversibilities acc...

Figure 10.11 Work components, input heat, and efficiency of the irreversible s...

Figure 10.12 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange: (a) engine schematic; (b) ...

Figure 10.13 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange: (a) thermal efficiency; (b...

Figure 10.14 Effect of heat‐exchanger effectiveness

ε

on the thermal effi...

Figure 10.15 Irreversible cycle with reheat and losses in the compressor, turb...

Figure 10.16 Irreversible cycle with reheat: (a) thermal efficiency; (b) outpu...

Figure 10.17 Irreversible cycle with intercooling: (a) engine schematic, (b) c...

Figure 10.18 Irreversible cycle with intercooling: (a) thermal efficiency; (b)...

Figure 10.19 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange and reheat: (a) engine sche...

Figure 10.20 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange and reheat: (a) thermal eff...

Figure 10.21 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange and intercooling: (a) engin...

Figure 10.22 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange and intercooling: (a) therm...

Figure 10.23 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange, reheat, and intercooling: ...

Figure 10.24 Irreversible cycle with heat exchange, reheat, and intercooling: ...

Figure 10.25 Comparison of irreversible cycles (

a

 = 6,

r

c

 = 20

).

Figure 10.26 Thermal efficiency of irreversible cycles compared with the Brayt...

Figure 10.27 Specific output work of irreversible cycles compared with the sim...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Basis for design‐point calculations of the single‐shaft gas turbin...

Figure 11.2 Molar specific heat of air at constant pressure and ratio of speci...

Figure 11.3 Combustion chamber for a stationary gas turbine: 1 – swirl vanes; ...

Figure 11.4 Annular combustion chamber in a turbojet engine.

Figure 11.5 Ratio of specific heats of the combustion products of kerosene (

C1

...

Figure 11.6 Combustion system in gas turbines.

Figure 11.7 3‐D graphical representation of the enthalpy of the products of co...

Figure 11.8 3‐D graphical representation of Eq. (11.18) for dodecene.

Figure 11.9 Combustion temperature chart: combustion temperature versus relati...

Figure 11.10 Combustion temperature chart: combustion temperature versus equiv...

Figure 11.11 Combustion temperature chart: combustion temperature versus fuel/...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Plots of ISA pressure, temperature, and density of air versus alti...

Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram of a turbojet engine.

Figure 12.3 Stagnation temperature and pressure at an altitude of 10 000 

m

as ...

Figure 12.4 Simple turbojet engine cycle with

T

 − 

s

diagram.

Figure 12.5 Variation of temperature

T

and pressure

p

in the simple turbojet e...

Figure 12.6 Variation of specific heat

c

p

and ratio of specific heats γ in the...

Figure 12.7 Specific thrust of the turbojet engine at

H

 = 10 000 

m

, compressor...

Figure 12.9 Propulsive efficiency of the turbojet engine for different turbine...

Figure 12.10 Performance map in terms of sfc vs. specific thrust for the turbo...

Figure 12.11 Performance map in terms of

η

p

vs. specific thrust for the t...

Figure 12.12 3‐D surface plot of the performance of the simple turbojet engine...

Figure 12.13 Specific thrust of the turbojet engine vs. compressor pressure ra...

Figure 12.14 Specific fuel consumption of the turbojet engine vs. compressor p...

Figure 12.15 Propulsive efficiency of the turbojet engine vs. compressor press...

Figure 12.16 Specific thrust and specific fuel consumption vs. flight Mach num...

Figure 12.17 Specific thrust of the turbojet engine vs. compressor pressure ra...

Figure 12.18 Specific fuel consumption of the turbojet engine vs. compressor p...

Figure 12.19 Specific fuel consumption of the turbojet engine vs. compressor p...

Figure 12.20 Propulsive efficiency of the turbojet engine vs. compressor press...

Figure 12.21 Configuration of a simple unmixed‐flow turbofan engine with separ...

Figure 12.22 Two‐spool (a) and three‐spool (b) unmixed‐flow turbofan engine co...

Figure 12.23 T‐s diagrams of the processes in the core engine of the two‐spool...

Figure 12.24 T‐s diagrams of the processes in the bypass section of two‐spool,...

Figure 12.25 Temperature and pressure profiles in the turbofan engine (

H = 10 

...

Figure 12.26 Mean specific heats and ratios of specific heats across different...

Figure 12.27 Specific thrust vs. compressor pressure ratio of the turbofan eng...

Figure 12.29 Propulsive efficiency vs. compressor pressure ratio of the turbof...

Figure 12.30 Specific thrust and specific fuel consumption versus the bypass r...

Figure 12.31 Performance map in terms of

sfc

vs. specific thrust for the turbo...

Figure 12.32 Performance map in terms of

sfc

vs. specific thrust for the high‐...

Figure 12.33 3‐D surface plot of the performance of the turbofan engine (

H

 = 1...

Figure 12.34 Relative thrust and specific fuel consumption versus bypass ratio...

Figure 12.35 Specific thrust and specific fuel consumption vs. fan pressure ra...

Figure 12.36 Configuration of a simple mixed‐flow turbofan engine: D – diffuse...

Figure 12.37 Schematic T‐s diagram for the mixed‐flow turbofan engine.

Figure 12.38 T‐s diagram of the processes in the diffuser, core engine, mixer,...

Figure 12.39 T‐s diagram of the processes in the diffuser, fan, and cold jet t...

Figure 12.40 Effect of the fan‐root pressure ratio and overall pressure ratio ...

Figure 12.41 Temperature and pressure profiles in the engine (

H

 = 10 675 

m

,

M

1

Figure 12.42 Profiles of the specific heat and ratio of specific heats (

H

 = 10...

Figure 12.43 Specific thrust and specific fuel consumption of the mixed‐flow t...

Figure 12.44 Effect of the overall compression pressure ratio on the T‐s diagr...

Figure 12.45 Thermal, propulsive, and overall efficiencies of the mixed‐flow t...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Single‐shaft industrial gas turbine engine: (a) engine schematic; ...

Figure 13.2 T‐s diagrams of the simple cycle for λ = 4 at different pressure r...

Figure 13.3 Performance characteristics of single‐shaft gas turbine versus com...

Figure 13.4 Performance map for the single‐shaft gas turbine:

sfc

vs. specific...

Figure 13.5 Performance map for the single‐shaft gas turbine:

η

th

vs. spe...

Figure 13.6 T‐s diagrams of the simple cycle for

T

3

 = 1490 

K

at different pres...

Figure 13.7 Performance characteristics of a single‐shaft gas turbine vs. comp...

Figure 13.8 Performance map for the single‐shaft gas turbine: specific fuel co...

Figure 13.9 Performance map for the single‐shaft gas turbine:

η

th

vs. spe...

Figure 13.10 3‐D surface plot of the specific fuel consumption as a function o...

Figure 13.11 Thermal efficiencies of the irreversible air‐standard and practic...

Figure 13.12 Output work of the irreversible air‐standard and practical (desig...

Figure 13.13 Two‐shaft gas turbine cycle: (a) engine schematic; (b) T‐s diagra...

Figure 13.14 T‐s diagrams of the two‐shaft practical gas turbine cycle for λ =...

Figure 13.15 Calculated performance characteristics of the two‐shaft gas turbi...

Figure 13.16 Performance map for the two‐shaft gas turbine: specific fuel cons...

Figure 13.17 T‐s diagrams of the practical two‐shaft gas turbine cycle for

T

3

 ...

Figure 13.18 Calculated performance characteristics of the two‐shaft gas turbi...

Figure 13.19 Performance map for the two‐shaft gas turbine: specific fuel cons...

Figure 13.20 Performance map for the two‐shaft gas turbine: efficiency vs. spe...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 2‐D and 3‐D representation of rotor and stator blades and variatio...

Figure 14.2 Velocity diagrams of air flow in an axial compressor stage.

Figure 14.3 Combined velocity diagrams of flow in and out of rotor blades: (a)...

Figure 14.4 Symmetrical velocity diagram of an axial compressor stage with 50%...

Figure 14.5 Compressor performance map on a single pair of coordinates.

Figure 14.6 Typical axial‐compressor characteristics.

Figure 14.7 Radial‐flow compressor with a single‐sided impeller and diverging ...

Figure 14.8 Radial compressor diffuser with tangential diverging passages.

Figure 14.9 Schematic of radial compressor characteristics.

Figure 14.10 Schematic diagrams of an axial‐flow reaction turbine stage.

Figure 14.11 Velocity diagrams of an axial reaction turbine stage.

Figure 14.12 Superimposed velocity diagrams of the flow through the rotor: (a)...

Figure 14.13 Reaction turbine with two stages.

Figure 14.14 Fluid flow passage in moving blades at exit

w

– blade width,

p

– ...

Figure 14.15 Blade profiles: (a) velocity diagrams at the root and tip of a un...

Figure 14.16 Velocity diagrams for the rotor in a turbine stage with 50% degre...

Figure 14.17 Velocity diagram for maximum utilisation.

Figure 14.18 Effect of the blade velocity ratio on utilisation factor for a gi...

Figure 14.19 Effect of the blade velocity ratio on utilisation factor for vari...

Figure 14.20 Variation of the measured stage efficiency for axial‐flow turbine...

Figure 14.21 Generic axial turbine characteristics with choking in the stator:...

Figure 14.22 Generic axial turbine characteristics with choking in the rotor.

Figure 14.23 Single‐curve models for axial turbine mass flow characteristic.

Figure 14.24 Turbocharged reciprocating (IC) piston engine:

RT

–

radial turbin

...

Figure 14.25 Radial‐flow turbine with a single‐sided impeller (velocity diagra...

Figure 14.26 Velocity diagrams of radial inflow turbines: (a) radial impeller ...

Figure 14.27

T

 − 

s

diagram for the radial‐flow turbine in ...

Figure 14.28 Radial‐flow turbine characteristics.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Component‐matching scheme requirements: (a) compressor characteris...

Figure 15.2 Schematic diagram of a single‐shaft gas turbine.

Figure 15.3 Variable‐pitch propeller load characteristics.

Figure 15.4 Operating lines on the compressor characteristic of a constant‐pit...

Figure 15.5 Schematic diagram of a two‐shaft gas turbine.

Figure 15.6 Power‐turbine characteristics.

Figure 15.7 Power‐turbine operating lines on compressor characteristics.

Figure 15.8 Operating lines for a propeller, a car, and a generator superimpos...

Figure 15.9 Schematic diagram of a simple turbojet engine.

Figure 15.10 Compressible flow through nozzle.

Figure 15.11 Nozzle characteristics for the flow of combustion products (

γ = 

...

Figure 15.12 Schematic diagram of the intake duct in the turbojet engine.

Figure 15.13 Compressor characteristics with running lines for a turbojet engi...

Figure 15.14 Turbojet engine off‐design performance characteristics for two Ma...

Figure 15.15 Off‐design performance of a single‐shaft gas turbine.

Figure 15.16 Matching the compressor turbine and power turbine in the two‐shaf...

Figure 15.17 Off‐design power and characteristic cycle temperatures as functio...

Figure 15.18 Off‐design compressor and compressor‐turbine pressure ratios as f...

Figure 15.19 Predicted compressor pressure ratio (a) and compressor‐turbine en...

Figure 15.20 Predicted specific fuel consumption tendency with engine output l...

Figure 15.21 Matching the compressor turbine and propelling nozzle in the turb...

Figure 15.22 Predicted compressor operating line with the compressor turbine c...

Figure 15.23 Predicted turbine entry temperature as a function of the compress...

Figure 15.24 Effect of temperature ratio

T

4

t

/

T

2

t

on the compressor pressure ra...

Figure 15.25 Modified scheme for matching the compressor turbine and the nozzl...

Part 2

Chart II.1 Piston engine types covered in Part II are highlighted.

Part 3

Chart III.1 Gas turbine engine types covered in Part III are highlighted.

Appendix B

Figure B.1 Forces acting on the crank mechanism in a SI engine (

D = 78 mm, pma

...

Figure B.2 V‐engine cylinder and crank‐throw numbering method used in Tables B...

Appendix C

Figure C.1 Dual‐combustion cycle with rounding‐off.

Figure C.2 Estimated speed characteristics of a direct injection CI engine.

Guide

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Fundamentals of Heat Engines

Jamil Ghojel (PhD)

This Work is a co-publication between John Wiley & Sons Ltd and ASME Press

Copyright

This edition first published 2020

© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

This Work is a co‐publication between John Wiley & Sons Ltd and ASME Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Ghojel, Jamil, author.

Title: Fundamentals of heat engines: reciprocating and gas turbine internal combustion engines / Jamil Ghojel.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

    2020. | Series: Wiley-ASME press series | Includes bibliographical

    references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019047568 (print) | LCCN 2019047569 (ebook) | ISBN

    9781119548768 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119548782 (adobe pdf) | ISBN

    9781119548799 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Heat-engines.

Classification: LCC TJ255 .G45 2020 (print) | LCC TJ255 (ebook) | DDC

    621.402/5 – dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019047568

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019047569

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Turbine Blades © serts/Getty Images, Rad sports car silhouette © Arand/Getty Images

Series Preface

The Wiley‐ASME Press Series in Mechanical Engineering brings together two established leaders in mechanical engineering publishing to deliver high‐quality, peer‐reviewed books covering topics of current interest to engineers and researchers worldwide.

The series publishes across the breadth of mechanical engineering, comprising research, design and development, and manufacturing. It includes monographs, references and course texts.

Prospective topics include emerging and advanced technologies in Engineering Design; Computer‐Aided Design; Energy Conversion & Resources; Heat Transfer; Manufacturing & Processing; Systems & Devices; Renewable Energy; Robotics; and Biotechnology.

Preface

The reciprocating piston engine and the gas turbine engine are two of the most vital and widely used internal combustion heat engines ever invented. Piston engines are still dominant in the areas of land and marine transportation, mining, and agricultural industries. They also play a significant role in light aircraft and stand‐by power‐generation applications. Power that can be generated by piston engines ranges from a fraction of a kilowatt to more than 80 MW, with thermal efficiencies approaching 50%. Gas turbines are dominant in civil and military aviation and play a major role in base, midrange, and peak load electric power generation ranging from small stand‐by units up to 300 MW per engine with thermal efficiencies approaching 40% at the upper range and 500 MW in combined cycle configurations with thermal efficiencies approaching 60%. Gas turbines are also ideal as power plants operating in conjunction with large renewable power plants to eliminate intermittency.

Demand for power and mobility in its different forms will continue to increase in the twenty‐first century as hundreds of millions of people in the developing world become more affluent, and the cheapest and most efficient means of satisfying this demand will continue to be the heat engine. As a consequence, the heat engine will most likely remain an active area of research and development and engineering education for the foreseeable future. Traditionally, the piston engine has been an ideal tool for teaching mechanical engineering, as it features fundamental principles of the engineering sciences such as thermodynamics, engineering mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemistry (more specifically, thermochemistry), etc. In this book, gas turbine engine theory, which is based on the same engineering principles, is combined with piston engine theory to form a single comprehensive tool for teaching mechanical, aerospace, and automotive engineering in entry‐ and advanced‐level undergraduate courses and entry‐level energy‐related postgraduate courses. Practicing engineers in industry may also find some of the material in the book beneficial.

The book comprises 3 parts, 15 chapters, and 4 appendices. The first chapter in Part I is a review of some principles of engineering science, and the second chapter covers a wide range of thermochemistry topics. The contribution of engineering science to heat engine theory is fundamental and is manifested over the entire energy‐conversion chain, as this figure shows.

Part II covers theoretical aspects of the reciprocating piston engine starting with simple air‐standard cycles, followed by theoretical cycles of forced induction engines and ending with more realistic cycles that can be used to predict engine performance as a first approximation. Part III on gas turbines also covers cycles with gradually increasing complexity, ending with realistic engine design‐point and off‐design calculation methods.

Representative problems are given at the end of each chapter, and a detailed example of piston‐engine design‐point calculations is given in Appendix C. Also, case studies of design‐point calculations of gas turbine engines are provided in Chapters 12 and 13.

The book can be adopted for mechanical, aerospace, and automotive engineering courses at different levels using selected material from different chapters at the discretion of instructors.

Jamil Ghojel

Glossary

Symbols

A

Area, air, Helmholtz function

a

Acceleration, speed of sound, correlation coefficient

B

Bulk modulus, correlation coefficient, bypass ratio

C

Gas velocity, molar specific heat

c

Mass specific heat, speed of sound

D

Diameter, degree of reaction in reaction turbines

E

Total energy, utilization factor in reaction turbines, modulus of elasticity

F

Force, thrust, fuel

f

Specific thrust

G

Gibbs free energy

g

Gravitational acceleration

H

Enthalpy, heating value of fuel

h

Specific enthalpy, blade height

I

Moment of inertia

i

Number of cylinders

j

Number of strokes

K

Degrees Kelvin, equilibrium constant, force, mole ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide

L

Length

l

Length, blade length

M

Quantity in moles, Mach number, moment of force

m

Mass

Mass flow rate

N

Rotational speed in revolution per minute, force

n

Polytropic index (exponent), number of moles

p

Pressure, cylinder gas pressure

Q

Heat transfer, force

q

Specific heat transfer

Rate of heat transfer

R

Radius, gas constant, crank radius

Universal gas constant

r

Pressure ratio

S

Entropy, stroke

s

Specific entropy

T

Absolute temperature, torque, fundamental dimension of time

t

Time, temperature

U

Internal energy, blade speed

u

Specific internal energy

V

Volume, velocity, relative velocity

v

Specific volume, piston speed

W

Work

Power

w

Specific work, blade row width, rate of heat release

x

Distance, mass fraction, number of carbon atoms in a fuel, cumulative heat release

Linear velocity

Linear acceleration

y

Number of hydrogen atoms in a fuel

z

Number of oxygen atoms in a fuel, height above datum

Greek Symbols

α

Angle, pressure ratio in constant‐volume combustion, angular acceleration

β

Angle, volume ratio in constant‐pressure combustion

γ

Ratio of specific heats, V‐angle (engine crank)

Δ

Symbol for difference

δ

Expansion ratio in an engine cylinder

ε

Compression ratio (volume ratio)

ε

Heat‐exchanger effectiveness

η

Efficiency

θ

Angle, crank angle

Angular velocity

Angular acceleration

κ

Compressibility

λ

Relative air‐fuel ratio

μ

Dynamic viscosity, coefficient of molecular change

ν

Kinematic viscosity

Π

Non‐dimensional group

ρ

Density, volume ratio during heat rejection at constant volume (generalized air‐standard cycle)

σ

Stress, rounding‐off coefficient in piston engine cycles

τ

Ratio of crank radius to connecting rod length

φ

Flow coefficient, crank angle (Wiebe function), equivalence ratio

ϕ

Angle (Wiebe function), heat utilization coefficient

ψ

Loading coefficient, coefficient of molar change

ω

Angular velocity, degree of cooling

Subscripts

a

Air, actual, total volume

b

Brake

C

Carbon mass fraction in liquid or solid fuel

c

Compressor, clearance (volume), crank

com

Compressor (volume ratio)

cp

Crank pin

cr

Critical

ct

Compressor turbine

cw

Crank web

e

exit

f

Fuel, frictional, formation

g

Gas, gravimetric

H

Hydrogen mass fraction in liquid or solid fuel

h

Higher

i

Inlet, intake, indicated, species, inertia

l

Liquid, lower

m

Mean

N

Nitrogen mole fraction in gaseous fuel

n

Nozzle

O

Mass fraction of oxygen in liquid or solid fuel

P

Product of combustion

p

Piston, propulsive

pc

Compressor polytropic efficiency

pp

Piston pin

pt

Turbine polytropic efficiency, power turbine

R

Reactants (air plus fuel)

r

Rod (connecting rod)

S

Sulfur mass fraction in liquid or solid fuel

s

Isentropic, stoichiometric, swept (volume)

t

Turbine, total (stagnation) condition

w

Whirl (velocity)

Superscripts

g

Gravimetric

0

Reference state (pressure)

v

Volumetric

Abbreviations

A/F

Air‐fuel ratio

AFT

Adiabatic flame temperature

BDC

Bottom dead centre

ca

Crank angle

CI

Compression ignition

F/A

Fuel‐air ratio

bmep

Brake mean effective pressure

GT

Gas turbine

bsfc

Brake specific fuel consumption

imep

Indicated mean effective pressure

ICE

Internal combustion engine

isfc

Indicated specific fuel consumption

mep

Mean effective pressure

NI

Natural‐induction (engine)

Re

Reynolds number

rpm

Revolutions per minute

SI

Spark ignition

TDC

Top dead centre

TET

Turbine entry temperature

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Part IFundamentals of Engineering Science

Introduction I: Role of Engineering Science

For the last 200 years or so, humans have been living in the epoch of power in which the heat engine has been the dominant device for converting heat to work and power. The development of the heat engine was for most of that time slow and chaotic and carried out mainly by poorly qualified practitioners who had no knowledge of basic theories of energy and energy conversion to mechanical work. In the field of engineering mechanics, drawings of early steam engines depict various, at times strange, inefficient mechanisms to convert steam power to mechanical power, such as the walking beam and sun and planet gear systems. The piston‐crank mechanism was first used in a steam engine in 1802 by Oliver Evans (Sandfort 1964) despite a design being proposed as early as 1589 for converting the rotary motion of an animal‐driven machine to reciprocating motion in a pump. The first internal combustion engine (ICE) to be made available commercially was Lenoir's gas engine in 1860. This engine was also the first to employ a piston‐crank mechanism to convert reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion, which has become, despite its shortcomings, a fixed feature and highly efficient mechanism in modern reciprocating engines. However, engine designers were never fully satisfied with this mechanism due to the need to balance numerous parasitic forces generated during operation and were constantly looking for alternative ways of obtaining direct rotary motion. This is said to have been one of the stimuli to develop steam and gas turbines in which a fluid, flowing through blades, causes the shaft to rotate, thus eliminating the need for a crankshaft. The results are smoother operation, lower levels of vibration, and low‐cost support structures. All of these developments occurred over a very long period of time with advances in the science of engineering mechanics (more specifically, engineering dynamics), together with other engineering science branches such as fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Examples of the principles of fluid mechanics of relevance to the topics of Parts I and II in the book include the momentum equation used to calculate thrust in aircraft gas turbine engines, Bernoulli's equation to calculate flow in the induction manifold of piston engines, and dimensional analysis to determine the characteristics of turbomachinery for gas turbines.

The great scientific breakthroughs in the development of heat‐engine theory came with the development of the science of thermodynamics, starting with the pioneering work of Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) and followed by the monumental contributions of Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888) and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin, 1824–1907). Ever since, knowledge of thermodynamics has become essential to improving existing heat engine designs and developing new types of engine processes for superior economy and reduced emissions. At the same time, the heat engine, particularly the reciprocating ICE, has become an ideal tool for teaching mechanical and automotive engineering, as it features, in addition to thermodynamics, fundamental principles of engineering mechanics and fluid mechanics as discussed earlier.

A chapter on thermochemistry (Chapter 2) is included in Part I, dealing with fuel properties and the chemistry of combustion reactions and the effect of control of the combustion temperature through control of air‐fuel ratios in order to preserve the mechanical integrity of engine components. Extensive numerical data on gas properties and adiabatic flame temperature calculations are included, which can be used for preliminary design‐point calculations of practical piston and gas turbine engine cycles.

1Review of Basic Principles

1.1 Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics deals with the response of bodies to the action of forces in general, and dynamics is a branch of mechanics that studies bodies in motion. The principles of dynamics can be used, for example, to solve practical problems in aerospace, mechanical, and automotive engineering. These principles are basic to the analysis and design of land, sea, and air transportation vehicles and machinery of all types (pumps, compressors, and reciprocating and gas‐turbine internal combustion engines). A review of some principles relevant to heat engines is presented here.

1.1.1 Definitions

Particle. A conceptual body of matter that has mass but negligible size and shape. Any finite physical body (car, plane, rocket, ship, etc.) can be regarded as a particle and its motion modelled by the motion of its centre of mass, provided the body is not rotating. The motion of a particle can be fully described by its location at any instant in time.

Rigid body. An assembly of a large number of particles that remain at a constant distance from each other at all times irrespective of the loads applied. To fully describe the motion of a rigid body, knowledge of both the location and orientation of the body at any instant is required. Gas turbine shafts are rigid bodies that are rotating at high speeds. The reciprocating piston‐crank mechanism in piston engines is a complex system comprising rotating crank shaft and sliding piston connected through a rigid rod describing complex irregular motion.

Kinematics. Study of motion without reference to the forces causing the motion and allowing the determination of displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the body.

Kinetics