125,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
FUNDAMENTALS OF TURFGRASS MANAGEMENT
THE PREMIER TURFGRASS MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK—UPDATED AND EXPANDED
Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management is the longstanding authority on all aspects of the science and practices behind world-class turfgrass care. This fully revised Fifth Edition comes enriched by two new authors who share their cutting-edge research and real-world expertise on such topics as growth, soil testing, nutrition, herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. Coverage throughout is refreshed with new illustrations and charts, as well as:
- Expanded coverage on professional lawn care programs, including cool-season and warm-season turfgrasses, establishing methods and costs, cultivation, sand topdressing, and more
- Enhanced material on the most up-to-date thinking and practices in weed management
- Brand-new chapters on the environmental, economic, and quality-of-life benefits of well-maintained turf, as well as the influence of light on turf health
Whether you’re earning a degree or a paycheck, Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management, Fifth Edition remains the most complete, respected guidebook of solutions for developing and maintaining the finest-standards of turfgrass.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 1056
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Benefits of Turf and Its Management
Environmental Benefits
Societal Benefits
Economic Benefits
Net Benefits
Literature Cited
Part I: Grasses
Chapter 2: Introduction to the Grasses
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Photosynthetic Pathways
Species Adaptation
Latin Names
Morphology
Growth Habit
Leaves
Roots
Identification of Grasses
Cultivars
Literature Cited
Chapter 3: Cool-Season Grasses
Bluegrasses (
Poa
)
Fescues
Bentgrass (
Agrostis
L.)
Ryegrass (
Lolium
L.)
Other Cool-Season Grasses
Broadleaf Species Used in Lawns
Literature Cited
Chapter 4: Warm-Season Grasses
Less Commonly Utilized Warm-Season Turfgrasses
Broadleaf Species Used in Lawns
Literature Cited
Chapter 5: Ornamental Grasses
Cool-Season Ornamental Grasses
Warm-Season Ornamental Grasses
Site Selection, Soil Preparation, and Establishment
Care and Maintenance
Literature Cited
Part II: Turf Culture
Chapter 6: Establishment
Soil Preparation
Starter Fertilizer
The Seed
Seeding
Irrigation for Seeded Areas
Mulching
Postgermination Care
Winter Overseeding
Interseeding
Sodding
Sprigging and Stolonizing
Plugging
Renovation
Literature Cited
Chapter 7: Soil Testing and Soil Amendments
Soil Testing
Plant Analysis and Tissue Testing
Literature Cited
Chapter 8: Turf Nutrition and Fertilization
Fertilizer Analysis
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Fertilizer Analyses for Turf
Deficiencies of Other Nutrients
Micronutrients
Literature Cited
Chapter 9: Mowing, Rolling, and Plant Growth Regulators
Modern Mowing Equipment
Turf Response to Mowing
Rolling
Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs)
Literature Cited
Chapter 10: Irrigation
How Much Water Does Turf Need?
How Often Should Water Be Applied?
When Should Water Be Applied?
Can Too Much Water Be Applied?
How Long Can Grass Survive Flooding?
Management Practices to Conserve Water
Recycled Water Sources
Treatment of Irrigation Water with Acid
Calculation of Water Needs
Literature Cited
Chapter 11: Thatch, Cultivation, and Topdressing
Thatch
Soil Compaction
Cultivation
Topdressing
Topdressing Calculations
Literature Cited
Chapter 12: Light Requirements and Shade Management
Shade
Selecting Turfgrasses for Shaded Environments
Managing Shaded Turf
Alternative Options in Shade
Literature Cited
Part III: Turf Pest Management
Chapter 13: Turf Weed Management
Controlling Weeds
Most Common or Troublesome Turf Weed Species
Literature Cited
Chapter 14: Turf Insect Management
Life Cycles
Turfgrass Insects
Insect Control
Literature Cited
Chapter 15: Turf Disease Management
Disease Descriptions
Fungal Diseases of Foliage
Fungal Diseases of Foliage and/or Roots
Fungal Diseases of Roots
Diseases Caused by Other Pathogens
Moss and Algae
Cultural Disease Control
Chemical Control
Resistance Management
Literature Cited
Part IV: The Turf Industry
Chapter 16: Careers in the Turfgrass Industry
The Golf Industry
Sports Turf Management
Professional Lawn Care
Sod Production
Grounds and Parks Maintenance
Sales
Other Fields
Advanced Degrees
Internships
Literature Cited
Chapter 17: Sports Turf Management
Species Choice
Establishment
Repairing Existing Fields
Winter Overseeding
Fertilization
Mowing
Irrigation
Pesticide Use
Managing Soil Compaction
Liability Issues
Construction and Soil Modification
Fertilization of Sand-Based Fields
Modular Turf Systems
Movable Fields
Stabilization of Sand Rootzones
Modifying the Environment
Synthetic Turf
Literature Cited
Chapter 18: Sod Production
Species Selection
Establishment
Reestablishment
Irrigation
Fertilization
Mowing
Pest Management
Sod Harvesting
Sod Shelf Life
Sod Netting
Washed Sod
Sod Certification
Business Considerations
Literature Cited
Chapter 19: Professional Lawn Care
History
Application Technology
Soil Health
Lawn Care Programs
Other Services
Literature Cited
Chapter 20: Golf Course Maintenance
Turfgrass Selection
Putting Green Construction
Putting Green Heating Systems
Fertility Programs for Sand-Based Putting Greens
Fertilization of Other Areas
Fertigation
Cultivation and Topressing
Putting Green Performance
Environmental Issues
Organic Golf Course Management
Literature Cited
About the Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
ii
iii
vii
viii
ix
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
109
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
285
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
379
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
Guide
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Benefits of Turf and Its Management
Figure 1.1 The turf on Slater Hill on the Purdue University campus allows for a steep sloping area to be used as a park and natural amphitheater.
Figure 1.2 A concentric circle pattern around these shrubs is achieved in the turf by using turfgrass cultivars with different genetic color near Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China.
Figure 1.3 An intricate mowing pattern on a baseball field that provides aesthetic appeal without influencing the playability.
Chapter 2: Introduction to the Grasses
Figure 2.1 Rushes are round in cross section; sedges are triangular in cross section with a three-ranked leaf arrangement; and grasses are rolled or folded in cross section with a two-ranked leaf arrangement. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.2 Seasonal shoot growth patterns of cool- and warm-season grasses under irrigated and nonirrigated conditions. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.3 Climatic zones of turfgrass adaptation for the United States. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.4 Parts of a typical grass plant, including the leaf blade and leaf sheath. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.5 Nodes, buds, and internode of a grass plant (stolon shown) with attached leaf.
Figure 2.6 Microscopic view of a Kentucky bluegrass crown.
Figure 2.7 Bunch-type grass with tillers. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 2.8 Spreading grass with stolons. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 2.9 Spreading grass with rhizomes. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 2.10 Kentucky bluegrass plant from (
a
) side view and (
b
) top view. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 2.11 Arrangement of turfgrass leaves by age. Ranked from the oldest (
a
) to youngest (
f
). The oldest leaf (
a
) is senescing while active growth and photosynthesis is occurring in the youngest leaf (
f
). (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.12 Common structures of a grass useful for identification. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.13 Sheaths of the grasses, showing closed, split, and split-partway types.
Figure 2.14 Hairy ligule, membranous ligule, and grass without a ligule.
Figure 2.15 Long, clasping auricles, short auricles, and grass with no auricles.
Figure 2.16 Blunt leaf tip, pointed leaf tip and leaf tip like the keel of a boat. A true boat-shaped tip will split into two parts. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.17 Rolled and folded vernation. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 2.18 Types of inflorescences found in common turfgrasses. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Chapter 3: Cool-Season Grasses
Figure 3.1 Turfgrass morphology: Color plates for vegetative identification of the common cool-season turfgrasses.
Figure 3.2 Kentucky bluegrass.
Figure 3.3 Rough bluegrass. Ligule usually absent on improved cultivars.
Figure 3.4 Annual bluegrass.
Figure 3.5 Canada bluegrass.
Figure 3.6 Tall fescue.
Figure 3.7 Fine fescue.
Figure 3.8 Creeping bentgrass.
Figure 3.9 Colonial bentgrass.
Figure 3.10 Velvet bentgrass.
Figure 3.11 Redtop.
Figure 3.12 Annual ryegrass.
Figure 3.13 Perennial ryegrass.
Figure 3.14 Smooth brome.
Figure 3.15 Wheatgrass.
Figure 3.16 Timothy.
Figure 3.17 Orchardgrass.
Chapter 4: Warm-Season Grasses
Figure 4.1 Turfgrass morphology: Color plates for vegetative identification of the common warm-season turfgrasses.
Figure 4.2 Bermudagrass.
Figure 4.3 Zoysiagrass.
Figure 4.4 St. Augustinegrass.
Figure 4.5 Bahiagrass.
Figure 4.6 Seashore paspalum.
Figure 4.7 Buffalograss.
Figure 4.8 Centipedegrass.
Figure 4.9 Carpetgrass.
Figure 4.10 Kikuyugrass.
Chapter 5: Ornamental Grasses
Figure 5.1 Blue lymegrass
(Leymus arenarius)
.
Figure 5.2 Blue fescues
(Festuca glauca)
.
Figure 5.3 Blue oatgrass
(Helictotrichon sempervirens)
.
Figure 5.4 Feather reedgrass
(Calamagrostis x acutiflora)
.
Figure 5.5 Ribbongrass
(Phalaris arundinacea)
.
Figure 5.6 Tufted hairgrass
(Deschampsia caespitosa)
.
Figure 5.7 Big bluestem
(Andropogon gerardii)
.
Figure 5.8 Blue grama
(Bouteloua gracilis)
.
Figure 5.9 Fountain grass
(Pennisetum alopecuroides)
.
Figure 5.10 Indian grass
(Sorghastrum nutans)
.
Figure 5.11 Indian woodoats
(Chasmanthium latifolium)
.
Figure 5.12 Japanese blood grass
(Imperata cylindrica var. koenigii)
.
Figure 5.13 Japanese silvergrass
(Miscanthus sinensis)
.
Figure 5.14 Little bluestem
(Schizachyrium scoparium)
.
Figure 5.15 Sand lovegrass
(Eragrostis trichodes)
.
Figure 5.16 Prairie dropseed
(Sporobolus heterolepis)
.
Figure 5.17 Sideoats grama
(Bouteloua curtipendula)
.
Figure 5.18 Switchgrass
(Panicum virgatum)
.
Chapter 6: Establishment
Figure 6.1 Topsoil placed on subgrade.
Figure 6.2 Sample seed label.
Figure 6.3 Example of a blue tag seed label (left). Blue tag certified guarantees you are buying the cultivar (variety) specified on the label as well as good purity and low weed seed and other crop seed. Example of a gold tag seed label (right). Gold tag, sod quality certification requires more rigorous testing of the seed lot for contaminants than blue tag, and gold tag labeling provides the buyer a seed lot with a reduced likelihood of undesirable weed or other crop seed.
Figure 6.4 Common turfgrass seeds. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.5 Ventral (front) view of the grass floret (pictured left) is a whole grass seed (floret) encompassing the caryopsis (grain); pictured right are front (ventral) and back (dorsal) views. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 6.6 Broadcast spreader (left) and drop spreader (right) used for both seeding and fertilizing turf.
Figure 6.7 Hydroseeding being applied to form a new turf. (Courtesy of Dr. James Robbins)
Figure 6.8 Germination process of a grass seed.
Figure 6.9 Seed blankets used as mulching material to prevent erosion and retain moisture to enhance germination. (Courtesy of Dr. James Robbins)
Figure 6.10 Sod should be cut thin (0.2 to 0.4 in.; 5 to 10 mm). (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.11 Sod should be staggered in a bricklike pattern. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.12 Sod rolls should be laid perpendicular to the slope and staggered to prevent movement. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.13 Roll to ensure good contact between sod and soil. Rolling eliminates air pockets and improves establishment. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.14 Stakes can be used to prevent sod movement on steeper slopes. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 6.15 Bermudagrass stolons being placed in a lawn.
Figure 6.16 Bermuda sprigs being used to establish a golf course putting green.
Figure 6.17 Zoysiagrass plugs being placed in lawn.
Figure 6.18 Strip sodding of zoysiagrass on a golf course fairway.
Chapter 7: Soil Testing and Soil Amendments
Figure 7.1 Cation exchange sites in the soil.
Figure 7.2 The pH scale.
Figure 7.3 The effect of pH on the availability of essential elements. (After Troug, 1946.)
Figure 7.4 Ca
+2
replaces H
+
on the cation exchange sites.
Figure 7.5 Buffering capacity and resistance to pH change. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 7.6 The Ca
+2
from gypsum dislodges Na
+
from the cation exchange sites.
Chapter 8: Turf Nutrition and Fertilization
Figure 8.1 Nitrogen cycle. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 8.2 Example fertilizer analysis.
Figure 8.3 Structural formula of urea and the pathway by which urease hydrolyzes urea and the protonation of NH
3
to NH
4
+
.
Figure 8.4 Reaction products of urea and formaldehyde. F = formaldehyde, M = methylene group, U = urea.
Figure 8.5 Chemical structure of triazone.
Figure 8.6 Phosphorus is relatively immobile in the soil and does not readily move to the roots of germinating seedlings.
Chapter 9: Mowing, Rolling, and Plant Growth Regulators
Figure 9.1 Sheep being used to maintain the turf on the central campus of Iowa State University in the early 1900s. (From the ISU archives.)
Figure 9.2 Picture from India taken in the 1970s of a mower similar to Mr. Budding's Machine, being operated by three people.
Figure 9.3 Steam-powered mower used in the 1890s.
Figure 9.4 Reel and rotary mowers. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 9.5 The effect of mowing height on root growth and turf density. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 9.6 Not more than one-third of the tissue above should be removed in a single mowing. (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 9.7 Lightweight rolling of a golf course putting green. (Courtesy of Dr. Mike Richardson.)
Chapter 10: Irrigation
Figure 10.1 Relative amounts of available and unavailable water in various soil textures. (Redrawn from Cassell, 1983.)
Figure 10.2 Syringing of a drought-stressed golf course putting green.
Figure 10.3 Effects of irrigation water that contains Na
+
only (left) and water that contains Na
+
, Mg
++
, and Ca
++
(right). (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Chapter 11: Thatch, Cultivation, and Topdressing
Figure 11.1 Thatch layer in Kentucky bluegrass turf.
Figure 11.2 Typical undisturbed soil (left) and compacted soil (right).
Figure 11.3 Core aerification of a golf course putting green.
Figure 11.4 Solid tines used on aerification equipment.
Figure 11.5 Deep-tine aerification unit for the alleviation of deep compaction.
Figure 11.6 Deep-drill aerifier.
Figure 11.7 HydroJect water injection aerifier. (Used with permission of Toro, Inc.)
Figure 11.8 Vertical mower with blades mounted solidly on the axle.
Figure 11.9 Power rake with blades that are allowed to move freely on the axle.
Figure 11.10 Spiker unit.
Figure 11.11 Topdressing a bermudagrass baseball field with sand.
Figure 11.12 Layers formed in a newly constructed golf course putting green by improper (too infrequent) topdressing.
Figure 11.13 Buried thatch layer in a golf course green. (Used with permission of the Crop Science Society of America.)
Chapter 12: Light Requirements and Shade Management
Figure 12.1 A logarithmic (by wavelength) gradient of the visible light spectrum.
Figure 12.2 Hand-held quantum light sensor for measuring PAR. This meter measures PAR using units of photosynthetic photon flux density (μmol m
−2
s
−1
).
Figure 12.3 Seasonal variation in daily light integral in the continental United States (Korczynski et al., 2002). (Courtesy of James E. Faust, Clemson University.)
Figure 12.4 Building shade is a common source of turf stress on residential and commercial properties.
Figure 12.5 Fine fescues are performing well under this shade tree in a parking lot island.
Figure 12.6 Foot traffic at a post office from the parking lot to the front door through a very shaded lawn. Notice that there is little to no turf growing in this walk path. The sidewalk pictured in the far right of this picture is largely unused by patrons.
Figure 12.7 Artificial lighting used to improve turf quality of a shaded golf course tee box.
Figure 12.8 Use ground covers in areas too heavily shaded to grow turfgrass.
Figure 12.9 Use mulch under the dripline of trees where it is too shaded to manage high-quality turf.
Chapter 13: Turf Weed Management
Figure 13.1
Large crabgrass
(Digitaria sanguinalis).
Figure 13.2
Smooth crabgrass
(Digitaria ischaemum).
Figure 13.3
Goosegrass
(Eleusine indica).
Figure 13.4
Annual bluegrass
(Poa annua).
Figure 13.5
Bermudagrass
(Cynodon dactylon).
Figure 13.6
Dallisgrass
(Paspalum dilatatum).
Figure 13.7
Nimblewill
(Muhlenbergia schreberi).
Figure 13.8
Tall fescue
(Schedonorus arundinaceus, formerly Festuca arundinacea).
Figure 13.9
Torpedograss
(Panicum repens).
Figure 13.10
Purple nutsedge
(Cyperus rotundus).
Figure 13.11
Yellow nutsedge
(Cyperus esculentus).
Figure 13.12
Prostrate spurge
(Euphorbia maculata).
Figure 13.13
Common chickweed
(Stellaria media).
Figure 13.14
Henbit
(Lamium amplexicaule).
Figure 13.15
Purple deadnettle
(Lamium purpureum).
Figure 13.16
Broadleaf plantain
(Plantago major).
Figure 13.17
Buckhorn plantain
(Plantago lanceolata).
Figure 13.18
Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense).
Figure 13.19
Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale).
Figure 13.20
Ground ivy
(Glechoma hederacea).
Figure 13.21
Mouse-ear chickweed
(Cerastium vulgatum).
Figure 13.22
Virginia buttonweed
(Diodia virginiana).
Figure 13.23
White clover
(Trifolium repens).
Figure 13.24
Wild violet
(Viola papilionacea).
Figure 13.25 Attendees utilizing the weed garden during the Purdue Turf and Landscape Field Day.
Figure 13.26 Herbicide example label showing WSSA classification system for herbicide mode of action.
Chapter 14: Turf Insect Management
Figure 14.1 Indirect turf damage caused by raccoons feeding on grubs.
Figure 14.2 White grub (larvae) with pupa stage.
Figure 14.3 A green June beetle crosses a sidewalk on its back.
Figure 14.4 Bluegrass billbug larvae.
Figure 14.5 Damage from a hunting billbug larvae to zoysiagrass.
Figure 14.6 Sod webworm damage on Kentucky bluegrass research plots.
Figure 14.7 Aerification hole kept open by feeding of cutworm on golf course green.
Figure 14.8 Fall armyworm caterpillar with a lengthwise yellow-white stripe.
Figure 14.9 Greenbug aphids on Kentucky bluegrass leaf.
Figure 14.10 Greenbug feeding damage on Kentucky bluegrass/perennial ryegrass lawn.
Figure 14.11 Lawn damaged by chinch bug feeding.
Figure 14.12 Zoysiagrass mite damage to zoysiagrass has a distinctive “buggy-whip” symptom.
Figure 14.13 Insecticide example label showing the IRAC group classification for insecticide mode of action. This insecticide example contains two modes of action.
Chapter 15: Turf Disease Management
Figure 15.1 Leaf lesions caused by tall fescue infected by
Rhizoctonia solani
, the organism that causes brown patch disease.
Figure 15.2 Brown patch damage to a tall fescue lawn.
Figure 15.3 Dollar spot lesion on a turfgrass leaf.
Figure 15.4 Significant dollar spot injury occurs on creeping bentgrass putting greens without the use of fungicides.
Figure 15.5 Rust is a common disease in turf caused by many species. (Photo provided by Dr. Mike Richardson.)
Figure 15.6 Typhula blight injury following winter.
Figure 15.7 Anthracnose on annual bluegrass in a creeping bentgrass putting green.
Figure 15.8 Large patch disease on a zoysiagrass fairway.
Figure 15.9 Kentucky bluegrass lawn damaged by leaf spot.
Figure 15.10 Cottony mycelium of a Pythium blight pathogen on tall fescue. (Photo provided by Dr. Mike Richardson.)
Figure 15.11 Summer patch symptoms in Kentucky bluegrass.
Figure 15.12 Fairy ring in a lawn with mushrooms (basidiocarps).
Figure 15.13 Fungicide example label showing the FRAC code for fungicide mode of action.
Chapter 16: Careers in the Turfgrass Industry
Figure 16.1 Golf course maintenance is one of the most popular areas of turfgrass management with many attractive career opportunities.
Figure 16.2 Sports turf management is a profession that is attracting more students every year as new fields are built and job opportunities increase. Here students are learning about managing professional baseball fields.
Figure 16.3 Professional lawn care is an area of turfgrass management that continues to attract students with entrepreneurship opportunities.
Figure 16.4 Sod production offers professional jobs to turf management students and provides them with the opportunity to start their own businesses or be a part of a diverse enterprise.
Figure 16.5 Graduate students benefit the turf industry by solving real-world problems and advancing our scientific understanding of turfgrasses through new discoveries.
Figure 16.6 Graduate students are often given the opportunity to speak to professional and scientific groups as part of their education and career development.
Chapter 17: Sports Turf Management
Figure 17.1 Field hockey field showing serious traffic damage in the center of the playing area.
Figure 17.2 Modern Kentucky bluegrass football field.
Figure 17.3 Modern bermudagrass football field overseeded with perennial ryegrass.
Chapter 18: Sod Production
Figure 18.1 Sod should be cut thin (0.2 to 0.4 in.; 5 to 10 mm). (Drawing by J. M. Lenahan.)
Figure 18.2 Sod washer used to remove the soil from sod and washed sod showing roots and rhizomes.
Chapter 19: Professional Lawn Care
Figure 19.1 Lesco Chemlawn “gun” is commonly used by applicators to apply fertilizer and other products to lawns. (Photo provided by Dr. John Boyd).
Figure 19.2 Ride-on spreader/sprayer which can apply liquid or dry products individually or apply both simultaneously.
Chapter 20: Golf Course Maintenance
Figure 20.1 Profile of a USGA-style putting green with an intermediate layer.
Figure 20.2 Profile of a USGA-style putting green without an intermediate layer.
Figure 20.3 California method of putting green construction.
Figure 20.4 Purr-wick system of putting green construction. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
Figure 20.5 Portable blower used to force air through a SubAir soil profile.
Figure 20.6 Heating tubes placed on the subgrade of a golf course putting green before the rootzone is placed. (Courtesy of Dr. David Minner.)
List of Tables
Chapter 2: Introduction to the Grasses
Table 2.1 Vegetative Characteristics of the Common Cool-Season Turfgrasses
Table 2.2 Vegetative Characteristics of Other Cool-Season Grasses Found in Low-Maintenance, Forage, and Temporary Turf or as Weeds in Managed Turf. Summer Annual Grasses Are Not Listed
Table 2.3 Vegetative Characteristics of the Common Warm-Season Turfgrasses
Chapter 3: Cool-Season Grasses
Table 3.1 Comparison of Cool-Season Turfgrass Species Commonly Used
Table 3.2 Characteristics of Fine Fescue Species
Table 3.3 Relative turf density among creeping bentgrass cultivars
Chapter 4: Warm-Season Grasses
Table 4.1 Comparison of Warm-Season Turfgrass Species Commonly Used
Chapter 5: Ornamental Grasses
Table 5.1 Origin of Ornamental Grass Species
Chapter 6: Establishment
Table 6.1 Phosphorus (P) Recommendations for Newly Planted Turf Using a Mehlich III Soil Test
Table 6.2 Definitions of Information Commonly Found on a Seed Label
Table 6.3 Recommended Standards for Turfgrass Seed
Table 6.4 Characteristics That Can Be Used to Identify Seed of Cool-Season Grasses
Table 6.5 Characteristics That Can Be Used to Identify Seed of Warm-Season Grasses
Table 6.6 Seeding Rate and Days to Germination of Commonly Used Cool- and Warm-Season Turfgrasses
Table 6.7 Herbicide Useful for Controlling Weeds in Newly Planted Turf
Table 6.8 Summary of Zoysiagrass Establishment Methods and Costs
Chapter 7: Soil Testing and Soil Amendments
Table 7.1 Selection of Cations That Play an Important Role in Soil Chemistry
Table 7.2 Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil Components and Textures
Table 7.3 Amount of CaCO
3
, or Its Equivalent, in Pounds per Acre Required to Raise pH to 6.5 Based on Buffer pH
Table 7.4 Phosphorus Soil Test Interpretations and Recommendations for Established Turf
Table 7.5 Potassium (K) Recommendations for trafficked and Nontrafficked Turf Based on Soil Test Using Mehlich III Extractant
Table 7.6 Minimum Level of Sustainable Nutrition (MLSN) Soil Test Guidelines Based on Mehlich III Soil Extraction Method
Table 7.7 Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), and Boron (B) Recommendations for Fertilization of Established Turf Based on Mehlich III Soil Extraction Method
Table 7.8 Likelihood of Salinity Problems Based on Soil Electrical Conductivity
Table 7.9 Information Provided on Standard Soil Test Reports
Table 7.10 Sufficiency and Survey Ranges for Tissue Nutrient Content of Several Turfgrass Species
Chapter 8: Turf Nutrition and Fertilization
Table 8.1 Seventeen Essential Nutrient Elements Required for Growth of Plants
Table 8.2 Factors That Influence Creation of Fertility Programs
Table 8.3 Nitrogen Fertility Program Examples for Cool-Season Turfgrasses
Table 8.4 Moderate- to High-Maintenance Nitrogen Fertility Program Examples for Warm-Season Turfgrasses
Table 8.5 Urea Formaldehyde Reaction Products and Trade Names
Table 8.6 Selected Natural Organic Fertilizers Available for Use in Turf
Table 8.7 Application Rates of Several Micronutrients to Be Used for Testing for Potential Deficiencies in Small-Plot Areas
Chapter 9: Mowing, Rolling, and Plant Growth Regulators
Table 9.1 Recommended Mowing Heights for Turfgrass Species
Table 9.2 Plant Growth Regulators Used for Turf
Chapter 10: Irrigation
Table 10.1 Average Monthly Bermudagrass Evapotranspiration (ET
turf
), Precipitation, and Supplemental Irrigation Requirement for a Lawn in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Table 10.2 General Soil Water Properties in Various Soil Textures
Table 10.3 Relative Drought Resistance of Turfgrasses
Table 10.4 Guidelines for EC
W
and TDS for Irrigation Water Used on Turf
Table 10.5 Guideline for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation Using Both Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Electrical Conductivity (EC
w
)
Chapter 11: Thatch, Cultivation, and Topdressing
Table 11.1 Percent Surface Area Affected by Various Hypothetical Aerification Tine Sizes (Internal Diameter) and Spacings
Table 11.2 Benefits of Cultivation by Type
Table 11.3 Influence of Tine Size and Spacing on Sand Volume and Mass Needed to Fill Core Aerification Holes
Table 11.4 Approximate Depths and Amounts (Mass/Area or Volume/Area) for Topdressing Turf
Chapter 12: Light Requirements and Shade Management
Table 12.1 Shade Tolerance of Turfgrasses
Table 12.2 Recommended Cultivars of Each Species Known to Perform Well in Shade
a
Table 12.3 Suggested Seed Mixtures for Shady Sites
Chapter 13: Turf Weed Management
Table 13.1 Common Weed Species Found in Turf in the United States
Table 13.2 Common Indicator Weeds in Turf
Table 13.3 Herbicide Classification According to Mode of Action
Table 13.4 Common and Trade Names of Herbicides Used in Turf Industry with Their Chemical Family and Mode of Action
Table 13.5 Weed Control Ratings for Preemergence (PRE) Herbicides
Table 13.6 Weed Control Ratings for Postemergence (POST) Broadleaf Herbicides
Table 13.7 Weed Control Ratings for Postemergence (POST) Grass and Sedge Herbicides
Table 13.8 Tolerance of Most Commonly Used Turfgrass Species to Selective Preemergence and Postemergence Herbicides
Table 13.9 Most Common and Most Troublesome (Hard-to-Control) Turf Weeds in Southern and Northern United States
Chapter 14: Turf Insect Management
Table 14.1 Habitat Occupied by Turfgrass-Damaging Insects and Mites
Table 14.2 White Grub Species That Attack Turf
Table 14.3 Billbugs That Attack Turf
Table 14.4 Sod Webworms That Are Pests of Turf
Table 14.5 Cutworm Pests of Turf
Table 14.6 Armyworm Species That Damage Turf
Table 14.7 Mole Crickets That Damage Turf
Table 14.8 Chinch Bugs That Damage Turf
Table 14.9 Other Pests That May Damage Grass in Some Situations or May Be a Nuisance in Turf without Directly Damaging Turfgrass
Table 14.10 Insecticides, Miticides, Nematicides, and Biologicals Used in Turf
Table 14.11 Partial List of Insecticide, Miticide, Nematicide, and Biological Products and Pests They Control in Turf
Chapter 15: Turf Disease Management
Table 15.1 Turf Diseases and Causal Organisms
Table 15.2 Turfgrass Fungicides: Their Chemical Family and Mode of Action
Table 15.3 Selected Fungicides and Diseases for Which They Control
Table 15.4 FRAC Codes and Risk of Resistance for Various Fungicide Classes by Resistance Risk Level
Chapter 17: Sports Turf Management
Table 17.1 Time Elapsed from Planting of New Fields Until Fields Can Be Safely Used for Sports
Table 17.2 Recommended Nitrogen Fertility Programs for Cool-Season and Warm-Season Grasses on Sports Fields
Chapter 18: Sod Production
Table 18.1 Nitrogen Fertilization Program for Cool-Season Grass Sod Production
Chapter 19: Professional Lawn Care
Table 19.1 Lawn Care Program for Cool-Season Turf
Table 19.2 Lawn Care Program for Warm-Season Turf
Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management
Fifth Edition
Nick E. ChristiansAaron J. PattonQuincy D. Law
Copyright © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with the respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising here from.
For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Names: Christians, Nick, 1949-, author. | Patton, Aaron J., 1978-, author. | Law, Quincy D., 1987-, author.
Title: Fundamentals of turfgrass management / Nick E. Christians, Aaron J. Patton, Quincy D. Law.
Description: Fifth edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016026516 (print) | LCCN 2016030897 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119204633 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119205661 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119205562 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Turf management.
Classification: LCC SB433 .C55 2016 (print) | LCC SB433 (ebook) | DDC 635.9/642—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016026516
Cover image: Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) leaf tip with guttation fluid. Photo by Aaron J. Patton.
Cover design: Wiley
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
I would like to dedicate this book to my wife, Marla, who helped with editing and proofreading of the text during its preparation, and to my sons, Lance and Tim. It is also dedicated to the many academic advisers, teachers, friends, and coworkers who taught me the things that I know about the turfgrass industry.
—Nick E. Christians
I would like to dedicate this book in memory of David Marron. David was my high school librarian who gifted me my very first turfgrass book when I was a junior in high school. He passed away shortly thereafter, but I will forever appreciate his friendship, kindness, and support of my academic interests.
—Aaron J. Patton
For my parents, whose boundless love, support, and guidance made this possible. My mother, Leslie, is a school teacher who demonstrates that teaching and learning extend beyond the classroom. My father, Randy, is an agronomist who cultivated my love for the land. All of my accomplishments have been attained from standing upon their shoulders.
—Quincy D. Law
Preface
When I (Dr. Nick Christians) graduated from the Colorado State University School of Forestry in 1972, I quickly found that employment opportunities were very limited in my chosen field. Fortunately, I had taken courses in agronomy and horticulture, including turfgrass management. I had also worked part time in the sod industry for two years and had developed an interest in the turfgrass profession. The turf industry was booming in the early 1970s, and I found a job as an assistant golf course superintendent under certified superintendent Tom Rogers at Flatirons Country Club in Boulder, Colorado.
I quickly found that the real world of broken irrigation heads, tight budgets, and constantly changing greens committees was much different from the academic world of quick, easy answers. I also found how little four years of college had taught me that I would need to know. The next year I became the superintendent of Pueblo West Golf Course in Pueblo, Colorado. This further opened my eyes to the reality of personnel management and the political realities of the business world.
Later, I had the chance to go to graduate school and then to establish a teaching and research program at Iowa State University. I decided that my teaching would reflect the realities that I had experienced in the industry and that my students would get as much real-world exposure as they could through my teaching, through internships, and from other practical experience.
This is the same philosophy infused into this text. While no academic course or textbook will ever take the place of hands-on experience, there are perspectives that practical experience—and only practical experience—can bring to a book. When I began my career on the golf course, I found many things that I wished I had been taught and that I later had to learn on my own. Where possible, I have tried to incorporate those things into my teaching and writing.
One of the most important of these was mathematics. Calculation of application rates of fertilizers and pesticides, irrigation calculations, topdressing problems, and other mathematically related subjects are an important part of every turfgrass manager's job. While some mathematical subjects are covered in this book, those who would like a more in-depth coverage of the subject are directed to The Mathematics of Turfgrass Maintenance, 4th ed., by N. E. Christians and M. L. Agnew (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2008).
The primary objective of this book is to introduce the principles of turfgrass management. It begins at a level suitable for those just entering the field, but also contains beneficial information for experienced turfgrass managers. The goal is to present the information in a straightforward way that readers can easily understand. There is an emphasis on explaining why certain management practices are needed. Hopefully, the text will help readers with a fundamental understanding of turfgrass management so that they can adapt and apply what they have learned to the varied situations in the field.
This fifth edition contains extensive updates and significant revision. Two new authors (Dr. Aaron J. Patton and Quincy D. Law, M.S.) add their field and research experience to enhance this new edition. Their additions and updates to each chapter provide valuable insights. The text is updated throughout to reflect the latest research-based information and trends in the turfgrass industry.
—Nick E. Christians
Specific changes to this edition include the following:
Two new chapters (
Chapter 1
: Benefits of Turf and Its Management and
Chapter 12
: Light Requirements and Shade Management)
Multiple new and revised figures throughout the book
Increased discussion and description of cool-season and warm-season turfgrasses
Extra information on establishment methods and costs
Updated information on soil testing and turf nutrition
Expanded content on cultivation and sand topdressing
Enhanced weed management information
Added information on professional lawn care programs
New information on fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and plant growth regulators
Acknowledgments
There were a number of individuals who helped edit parts of the text and provided advice during its preparation and revision. They include Dr. Mike Agnew, Mr. B. J. Bilas, Dr. Prasanta Bohmick, Dr. Douglas Brede, Dr. Leah Brilman, Dr. Joe DiPoala, Dr. Mark Gleason, Mr. Matt Heiss, Dr. Clinton Hodges, Mr. Daryle Johnson, Dr. Young Joo, Dr. Kevin Kenworthy, Mr. Mark Kuiper, Dr. Donald Lewis, Mr. Mike Loan, Dr. David Martin, Dr. Lee Miller, Dr. David Minner, Dr. Justin Moss, Dr. Mike Richardson, Dr. Doug Richmond, Dr. Trey Rogers, Dr. Clark Throssell, Dr. Bryan Unruh, and Dr. Donald White.
I also thank my wife, Marla Christians. I would also like to give special acknowledgment to Jennifer Craig, the artist who drew many of the grass pictures in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 and the soil profile pictures in Chapter 20, and to Jane M. Lenahan, who produced many of the other drawings in the text.
— Dr. Nick E. Christians
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Then, he said “Let the earth bring forth grass” (NKJV). I am grateful that my Lord filled me with a passion for the turfgrass He created. He blessed me with a wonderful wife, Ella, and four great children: Elijah, Jacob, Samuel, and Kathryn. I thank them for their encouragement and support during the revision of this text.
— Dr. Aaron J. Patton
Writing a textbook with my two biggest mentors in turf has truly been an honor. I am grateful to have worked so closely with Nick Christians and Aaron Patton and am a better turfgrass scientist for doing so. Thank you for the opportunity.
— Quincy D. Law, M.S.
Chapter 1Benefits of Turf and Its Management
It is not difficult to find beauty in the natural world, especially when considering that much of the splendor arises from living organisms. Though turf is usually not the focal point of a landscape, it can cover a large portion of the managed landscape. In fact, managed turf accounts for approximately 13,840 mi2 (35,850 km2) in the United States (Milesi et al., 2005). Turf and its management benefit the environment, society, and economy in addition to the beauty provided. These benefits are why turf is planted and utilized in so many places in the landscape.
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
As a low-growing groundcover with an extensive, fibrous root system, turf benefits the environment by improving the air (atmosphere), water, and soil. Given the interconnectivity of an ecosystem, many of these benefits are collective. Further, managed turf is usually located in urban and suburban environments where pollution is likely to occur.
Turf benefits the atmosphere. By absorbing atmospheric pollutants, turf is able to improve air quality. An example currently of great interest is soil carbon sequestration. Soil carbon sequestration is the use of green plants to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide via photosynthesis, which is then stored in the soil as organic carbon. Societies are searching for ways to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, and carbon sequestration is one such method (Follett et al., 2011). Soil carbon sequestration is a collective benefit, as it both reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide and increases soil carbon (discussed below). Grasses are also able to absorb other atmospheric pollutants, including ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and lead (Stier et al., 2013). However, absorbing too much of some of these pollutants can be detrimental to turf health.
Turf benefits water. Turfgrass plants increase the hydraulic resistance of moving water, which reduces surface runoff (Ree, 1949; Gross et al., 1991). Reduced surface runoff allows for greater water infiltration and subsequent groundwater recharge. As water infiltrates and passes through the grass, thatch, and soil, it is filtered and cleansed by microorganisms that digest and degrade organic chemicals or pollutants (Beard and Green, 1994). A buffer strip of Kentucky bluegrass has a similar groundwater recharge rate as a mixed forb and grass prairie and results in a reduction in drainage water volume compared to the absence of a buffer area (Steinke et al., 2009). Turfgrasses also act as vegetative filter strips that reduce the amount of sediment transported to surface streams and waters (Beard and Green, 1994).
Turf benefits soil. Turfgrasses can both conserve and improve soil by reducing sediment losses and adding organic matter to the soil. The extensive fibrous root system helps to knit the soil together. This keeps the soil in place and helps to reduce erosion, dust, and mud. Turf often allows otherwise unsuitable land to be utilized by communities, such as a grassed hillside park and amphitheater (Figure 1.1). Additionally, the turnover of plant tissue adds organic matter to the soil and thus increases soil carbon, nitrogen, and general fertility. Soil organic matter also increases the water holding and cation exchange capacities of the soil. In fact, a high percentage of the world's most fertile soils developed under a native vegetation of grass (Gould, 1968). Soil carbon helps to increase soil aggregate stability, decrease runoff and erosion, and improve water infiltration (Angers and Carter, 1996) as well as decrease soil bulk density (Blevins et al., 1983).
Figure 1.1 The turf on Slater Hill on the Purdue University campus allows for a steep sloping area to be used as a park and natural amphitheater.
SOCIETAL BENEFITS
Societal benefits are also known as ecosystem services, which are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. In this case, it is the benefits people obtain from turfgrass ecosystems. Turfgrass ecosystems are unique in that they usually bridge the gap between disturbed and natural habitats.
Turf provides aesthetic value. A dense, lush turfgrass surface can grow into a nearly perfect, carpet-like groundcover that is visually pleasing. As a part of numerous landscapes, turf provides green color for a large portion of the year. Some turfgrasses still have ornamental value when dormant, such as the straw gold color of dormant zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.). Turfgrasses with different shades of green can even be used to create a pattern in a turf sward (Figure 1.2). Though athletic fields are primarily maintained for recreation, they are often mown into intricate patterns that provide a very attractive appearance for major events (Figure 1.3). The low height of turf gives a feeling of openness that cannot be achieved with trees or shrubs, and it can act as a foreground and/or background for the focal points in a landscape.
Figure 1.2 A concentric circle pattern around these shrubs is achieved in the turf by using turfgrass cultivars with different genetic color near Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China.
Figure 1.3 An intricate mowing pattern on a baseball field that provides aesthetic appeal without influencing the playability.
(Courtesy of Joey Stevenson)
Turf provides recreation. Golf courses, athletic fields, parks, and other areas are often managed with recreation as the specific intent. Home lawns, courtyards, and industrial areas are also used for recreational purposes. Turfgrasses provide a cushioning effect that reduces injuries to participants when compared to poorly or nonturfed soils, especially in contact sports such as football, rugby, and soccer (Gramckow, 1968). Proper turfgrass management is also relevant, as there is a substantial benefit of maintaining quality turf for reducing the hardness of sports fields (Rogers and Waddington, 1992). Turfgrasses have a greater ability to tolerate traffic and reduce surface hardness compared to weeds such as large crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis) and white clover (Trifolium repens) (Brosnan et al., 2014). Many of the recreational opportunities associated with turf provide physical health and fitness benefits for humans as well.
Turf improves the living environment for humans. Through photosynthesis, actively growing turf removes carbon dioxide from the air and produces oxygen in return. Approximately 25 ft2 of turfgrass produces enough oxygen for one person for an entire day (Watschke, 1990). Turf is also able to dissipate radiant heat and provide a cooling effect via evapotranspiration, which can dissipate roughly half of the sun's heat (Watschke, 1990). The structure and density of turf help to reduce noise and glare. Turf absorbs jarring noises better than hard surfaces, and the multidirectional light reflectance between the leaf surfaces reduces glare. Turf can also reduce noxious pests and allergy-related pollens (Beard and Green, 1994), and it offers a less favorable habitat for unwanted nuisance insects and disease vectors (Clopton and Gold, 1993).
Turf improves the mental health of humans. Compared to an urban walk along a busy street, a nature walk through grasslands with scattered shrubs and oak trees lead to decreases in anxiety, rumination, and negative emotions (Bratman et al., 2015). Additionally, organized recreational activities improve mental health, alertness, and resiliency against stress (Street et al., 2007), which are often made possible by turf.
Turf provides a means of waste disposal and conservation. Biosolids are mainly organic, solid materials produced by wastewater treatment processes. Biosolids contain nutrients and thus can be used as a fertilizer. However, due to their origination, biosolids can be high in heavy metals, pathogens, pharmaceuticals, and anything else flushed down a toilet or rinsed down a drain. Further, sewage effluent or recycled water—the wastewater from sewage treatment facilities—is a source of irrigation water widely used for turf. Forty-five percent of golf courses in the Southwest United States use recycled water to conserve drinking water (Gelernter and Stowell, 2015). As such, turf is an ideal crop to use biosolids as a fertilizer and recycled water for irrigation because it is not a food crop and covers a large portion of the landscape where biosolids are produced and water is recycled (urban and suburban areas).
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
Turf benefits the economy. The turfgrass industry provides employment, spends money on inputs, earns income on the sale of turfgrass products and services, and pays taxes. It is through these means that the turfgrass industry directly benefits the economy. The United States turfgrass industry generated an estimated $57.9 billion in revenue and provided 822,849 jobs in 2002 (Haydu et al., 2006). These figures include sod farms, lawn care services, lawn and garden retail stores, lawn equipment manufacturing, and golf courses. Sports turf, which was not included in the study, benefits the economy in many of the same ways. There are other economic benefits, including increased home values. Behe et al. (2005) found that perceived home value increased by 5 to 11% for homes with a good landscape.
NET BENEFITS
The use of irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, and frequent mowing for maintaining turf is often viewed negatively. Though these practices can have a detrimental impact on the environment, they can also enhance the benefits of turf and its management. For example, phosphorus (P) is often the limiting nutrient for algal growth in aquatic ecosystems, so P fertilization is often banned or not recommended for turf. However, P is often necessary for proper turfgrass establishment. Once established, the turf will help reduce soil erosion, which will keep the soil and P in place. Thus, it is important to consider the net benefit of the turf and its management. A single P fertilization event at the time of establishment will likely have much less of a negative impact than the continuous erosion of a P-laden soil.
In addition to the net benefit, the context of the benefits should be considered. As in, to what is the turf being compared? The benefits of turf are more pronounced when compared to impervious asphalt or concrete versus comparing turf and a tallgrass prairie or hardwood forest. Further, the level of maintenance for the turf can have a major impact on both the context and net effect of each benefit.
The focus of the remainder of this textbook is on the proper management of turf. Learning the fundamentals of turfgrass management will help to improve the quality and sustainability of managed turf. Properly managed turf provides the greatest environmental, societal, and economic benefits.
LITERATURE CITED
Angers, D. A., and M. R. Carter. 1996. Aggregation and organic matter storage in cool, humid agricultural soils, in M. R. Carter and B. A. Stewart, eds.,
Structure and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils. Advances in Soil Science
. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 193–211.
Beard, J. B., and R. L. Green. 1994. The role of turfgrasses in environmental protection and their benefits to humans.
J. Environ. Qual
. 23:452–460.
Behe, B., J. Hardy, S. Barton, J. Brooker, T. Fernandez, C. Hall, J. Hicks, R. Hinson, P. Knight, R. McNiel, T. Page, B. Rowe, C. Safley, and R. Schutzki. 2005. Landscape plant material, size, and design sophistication increase perceived home value.
J. Environ. Hort
. 23:127–133.
Blevins, R. L., M. S. Smith, G. W. Thomas, and W. W. Frye. 1983. Influence of conservation tillage on soil properties.
J. Soil Water Conserv
. 38:301–305.
Bratman, G. N., G. C. Daily, B. J. Levy, and J. J. Gross. 2015. The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition.
Landscap. Urban Plan
. 138:41–50.
Brosnan, J. T., K. H. Dickson, J. C. Sorochan, A. W. Thoms, and J. C. Stier. 2014. Large crabgrass, white clover, and hybrid bermudagrass athletic field playing quality in response to simulated traffic.
Crop Sci
. 54:1838–1843.
Clopton, R. E., and R. E. Gold. 1993. Distribution and seasonal and diurnal activity patterns of
Eutrombicula alfreddugesi
(Acari: Trombiculidae) in a forest edge ecosystem.
J. Med. Entomol
. 30:47–53.
Follett, R., S. Mooney, J. Morgan, K. Paustian, L. H. Allen, Jr, S. Archibeque, J. M. Baker, S. J. Del Grosso, J. Derner, and F. Dijkstra. 2011.
Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Agriculture: Challenges and Opportunities
. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST), Ames, IA.
Gelernter, W., and L. Stowell. 2015. New study documents water conservation progress by U.S. golf courses: Since 2005, golf courses in the U.S. have embraced water conservation measures, but additional efforts are needed to meet future challenges.
Golf Course Mgt
. 83(12):68–79.
Gould, F. W. 1968.
Grass Systematics
. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gramckow, J. 1968.
Athletic Field Quality Studies
. Cal-Turf Inc., Camarillo, CA.
Gross, C. M., J. S. Angle, R. L. Hill, and M. S. Welterlen. 1991. Runoff and sediment losses from tall fescue under simulated rainfall.
J. Environ. Qual
. 20:604–607.
Haydu, J. J., A. W. Hodges, and C. R. Hall. 2006. Economic impacts of the turfgrass and lawncare industry in the United States. University of Florida IFAS Extension Pub. FE632.
Milesi, C., S. W. Running, C. D. Elvidge, J. B. Dietz, B. T. Tuttle, and R. R. Nemani. 2005. Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States.
Environ. Mgt
. 36:426–438.
Ree, W. O. 1949. Hydraulic characteristics of vegetation for vegetated waterways.
Agric. Eng
. 30:184–189.
Rogers, J. N., and D. V. Waddington. 1992. Impact absorption characteristics on turf and soil surfaces.
Agron. J
. 84:203–209.
Steinke, K., J. C. Stier, and W. R. Kussow. 2009. Prairie and turfgrass buffer strips modify water infiltration and leachate resulting from impervious surface runoff.
Crop Sci
. 49:658–670.
Stier, J. C., K. Steinke, E. H. Ervin, F. R. Higginson, and P. E. McMaugh. 2013. Turfgrass benefits and issues, in J. C. Stier, B. P. Horgan, and S. A. Bonos, eds.,
Turfgrass: Biology, Use, and Management. Agronomy Monograph 56
. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 105–145.
Street, G., R. James, and H. Cutt. 2007. The relationship between organised physical recreation and mental health.
Health Promot. J. Aust
. 18:236–239.
Watschke, T. L. 1990. The environmental benefits of turfgrass and their impact on the greenhouse effect.
Golf Course Mgt
. 58(2):150–154.
Part I
Grasses
Chapter 2Introduction to the Grasses
A basic part of turfgrass management is to develop a clear understanding of the grasses and how they are used. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the grasses and some of their unique characteristics. It includes information on growth, identification, and regional adaptation, and it introduces some of the terminology that is necessary to understand this diverse group of species.
The grasses belong to a larger group of plants called the monocotyledons, or simply “monocots.” The monocots are flowering plants that have one seed leaf (or cotyledon) in their seed. They usually have parallel veins in their leaves, stems with vascular bundles, and flower parts in multiples of three. Plants in the sedge, rush, and lily families are also monocots and may be mistaken for grasses because of their grasslike appearance. The grasses are distinguished from these by their two-ranked leaf arrangement (Figure 2.1). Each successive leaf of a grass plant is attached at a 180-degree angle from the previous leaf. The leaves of sedges are three-ranked (120-degree angle), and the leaves of rushes are round in cross section (Pohl, 1968). Leaf arrangement in lilies is variable and can be alternate, opposite, whorled, or originating only from the base.
Figure 2.1 Rushes are round in cross section; sedges are triangular in cross section with a three-ranked leaf arrangement; and grasses are rolled or folded in cross section with a two-ranked leaf arrangement. (Drawing by A. Patton.)
There are also several dicotyledonous plants, or “dicots,” found in the landscape. They include many weed plants, such as dandelion, white clover, and ground ivy, as well as many trees and shrubs. They differ from the monocots in that they have two cotyledons in their seeds, a netlike vein arrangement in their leaves, and flower parts in multiples of four or five. As discussed later in Chapter 13, “Turf Weed Management,” the varying response of monocots and dicots to certain herbicides forms the basis for selective control of many dicot weed species in turf.
The grasses are an incredibly diverse group of more than 10,000 individual species (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992). They range from the small, fine-textured plants that attain a mature height of 1 in. (2.5 cm) (Hitchcock and Chase, 1950) to the giant bamboos, which may reach a height of 100 ft. (30 m) and have a stem diameter of up to 1 ft. (30 cm) (Pohl, 1968). Only a very small number of the grasses are suited for use as turf. They are generally the more low-growing members of the group, which are able to form a high density under the continuous defoliation caused by mowing. By definition, a turfgrass is a gramineous (grass), root-bearing plant that covers the land surface and tolerates traffic and defoliation. Approximately 50 grass species in the world fit this criterion. It is this small, select group of turfgrasses that this book will cover.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Plants are able to harvest light energy and convert it to chemical energy through a process known as photosynthesis (Equation (2.1). Photo means “light,” and synthesis means “putting together.” Photosynthesis is the process by which plants form the energy they need to function, which is in the form of
