Getting Started in Six Sigma E-Book

Michael C. Thomsett

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: The Getting Started In Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 312

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

The basics behind the Six Sigma quality control technique Six Sigma is designed to achieve excellence in customer service and measure deviation from the ideal. It provides a process for placing value on the intangible nature of quality control. The underlying theories of Six Sigma are highly technical and complex. This book is a basic guide to those who are new to the concept, and though this is a complex subject, the concepts involved are not too complex for readers to grasp. Getting Started in Six Sigma demonstrates how an employee or supervisor can implement Six Sigma successfully without having to become technically familiar with process-oriented models or statistical modeling.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Introduction: Striving for Perfection in an Imperfect World

Chapter 1: The Meaning of Six Sigma

THE ORIGINS OF SIX SIGMA

BUSINESS PROCESS MANAGEMENT (BPM) AS A STARTING POINT

THE THREE PRIMARY ELEMENTS: CUSTOMERS, PROCESSES, EMPLOYEES

ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS: SUBCONTRACTORS AND REGULATORS

THE PARTICIPANTS IN SIX SIGMA

PARTICIPANT WITHIN SIX SIGMA

GOALS OF THE PROGRAM

Chapter 2: The Customer’s Point of View

STARTING WITH THE CUSTOMER: DEFINITIONS

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AS CUSTOMER SERVICE

THINKING LIKE A CUSTOMER

Chapter 3: Outside-In Thinking

A FRESH LOOK AT INTERNAL PROBLEMS

ORGANIZING THE INTERNAL QUALITY PROGRAM

A CUSTOMER’S PERSPECTIVE

MANAGEMENT’S ROLE AND PARTICIPATION

SIX SIGMA: THEORY AND PRACTICE

Chapter 4: The Nature of Quality

THE TACTICS OF QUALITY

GETTING FROM CONCEPT TO QUALITY

APPLYING DMAIC

Chapter 5: Product and Service Defects

MEASURING VARIANCE

VARIANCE AND IMPROVEMENT TESTING

CRITICAL TO QUALITY (CTQ) MEASUREMENTS

THE INTERNAL DEFECT ISSUE—IS IT IMPORTANT?

REEXAMINING INITIAL ASSUMPTIONS—ARE YOU CORRECT?

Chapter 6: Improving Process Systems

FORMS OF VISUAL PROCESS PLANNING

ELEMENTS OF THE FLOWCHART

A DETAILED EXAMPLE

THE FLOWCHART

Chapter 7: Striving for Consistency

THE KEYS TO CUSTOMER SERVICE

PROMISE AND FOLLOW-THROUGH

MAKING THE FLOWCHART EFFECTIVE

THE NARRATIVE/PROCESS DOCUMENT

THE GRAPHIC/NARRATIVE DOCUMENT

Chapter 8: Exceptions and Rules

EFFICIENCY VERSUS COST

THE INVISIBILITY OF THE EFFICIENT SYSTEM

WHAT CUSTOMERS REMEMBER

THE ABSOLUTE NEED FOR A HIGH STANDARD

OVERCOMING THE PROBLEM OF THE EXCEPTION

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1: The Meaning of Six Sigma

TABLE 1.1 Sigma Table

TABLE 1.2 Checklist, Leadership Council Responsibilities

TABLE 1.3 Checklist, Sponsor Responsibilities

Chapter 2: The Customer’s Point of View

TABLE 2.1 Customer Reactions to Defects, Two Versions

Chapter 4: The Nature of Quality

TABLE 4.1 Sigma Table

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: The Meaning of Six Sigma

FIGURE 1.1 Model horizontal flowchart.

FIGURE 1.2 Model horizontal flowchart with variance points.

FIGURE 1.3 Model horizontal flowchart with variance points, timeline, and documents.

FIGURE 1.4 Organization of the Six Sigma program.

Chapter 2: The Customer’s Point of View

FIGURE 2.1 Customer complaint responses.

FIGURE 2.2 Multidepartmental quality problem.

FIGURE 2.3 Customer service and the regulatory environment.

Chapter 3: Outside-In Thinking

FIGURE 3.1 Customer processes and outcomes.

FIGURE 3.2 Components of the internal program.

FIGURE 3.3 The scientific method and Six Sigma.

Chapter 4: The Nature of Quality

FIGURE 4.1 DMAIC process map.

FIGURE 4.2 Stakeholder analysis worksheet.

FIGURE 4.3 Project charter worksheet.

Chapter 5: Product and Service Defects

FIGURE 5.1 CTQ tree.

Chapter 6: Improving Process Systems

FIGURE 6.1 Flowcharting symbols.

FIGURE 6.2 Types of loop operations.

FIGURE 6.3 Sales orders flowchart.

FIGURE 6.4 Inventory orders flowchart.

FIGURE 6.5 Shipping supply flowchart.

FIGURE 6.6 Accounting process flowchart.

Chapter 7: Striving for Consistency

FIGURE 7.1 The graphic/narrative document.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

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e1

The Getting Started in Series

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Getting Started in Six Sigma

by Michael C. Thomsett

Getting Started in Six Sigma

Michael C. Thomsett

Copyright © 2005 by Michael C. Thomsett. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Thomsett, Michael C.

Getting started in six sigma / Michael C. Thomsett.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 0-471-66811-7 (pbk.)

1. Total quality management. 2. Six sigma (Quality control standard)

I. Title.

HD62.15.T524 2005

658.4′013—dc22

2004013486

IntroductionStriving for Perfection in an Imperfect World

Is the goal within the organization to be perfect in every respect? Perfection is elusive, of course, but it can and does represent an enviable goal. More importantly, the concept of perfection helps everyone in the corporation to develop a working model to maximize excellent service at every level.

This is not a theory alone; the suggestion that you can work with other employees and managers to improve service is a crucial requirement in a competitive market. Thus, Six Sigma, as an integrated approach to creating effective working models, is much more than a tool for improving productivity, creating internal teamwork, or reducing costs. In fact, it serves as a model for corporate attitude that goes beyond the whole team approach that has permeated corporate project work for so many years.

Two attributes need to be present in order for any quality control program to work. First, that program cannot be isolated or defined as a function that occurs in the plant alone, or in the office, department, or subsidiary. It has to be a working philosophy that applies from the boardroom to the mail room; everyone can participate in an overall quality control approach to corporate success. In fact, the real success stories in the corporate world have been able to demonstrate effective, corporate-wide quality ideals.

The second attribute is that “quality” itself cannot be applied only to one portion of the corporate environment. Quality control has its root in manufacturing, where it was applied to develop ways to reduce defects, increase productivity, and ensure on-time delivery of goods. Today, quality control is just as important in the service sector, and quality control measures can be used effectively by applying the lessons learned in the manufacturing industries. Six Sigma is a quality control approach that can and should be applied to all interactions: with customers, vendors, other employees, between management and departments, within manufacturing or production departments, and even between corporations and regulatory agencies.

In other words, the idea of quality control is not simply a method by which management tries to cut costs, squeeze out more units of production, or give employees a voice on an internal team. While all of those benefits accrue from a quality control program, they are among the results of a more universally applied and systematic point of view. A traditional organization has boards and officers at the top, operational leadership, and then managers and employees far down the line. The more complex the organizational chain of command, the more difficult it becomes to achieve any meaningful or effective quality control. It becomes easy for a manager to recognize a problem elsewhere, but to shrug it off. “It’s not my problem” is the default position.

With the universal approach to quality, we recognize something that is both obvious and all-important. Any problem within the company is a shared responsibility because, ultimately, defects (whether related to product or service, customer service, communication, or compliance) are going to affect the corporation and all of its employees, officers, and stockholders. In the long term, dynamically organized and effectively managed corporations are going to succeed, and segmented, inert, disorganized, bureaucratic, and ineffective corporations are going to lose customer base. As markets decline, those companies also experience declines in vendor relations, employee morale, and internal communication.

Quality, for all its mundane attributes, can be far more than the trite concept that so many have come to view with well-deserved cynicism. If quality control is only an expression used to describe management’s way of dealing with cost overruns, it has no significance beyond that limited application. A quality control program that demands better results without involving the worker in the broader corporate-wide idea, can be of limited value alone. For those corporations that prefer demanding higher quality without creating a sense of real teamwork, the opportunities are going to be missed. Ultimately, their competitors—who recognize the opportunities to create very effective and dynamic quality programs—are going to take market share away.

Six Sigma is an effective approach to a broad-based quality control program. It is far more than the traditional approach, in which internal teams are created to reduce production defects, solve problems within one department, and address problems in isolation. Six Sigma is more than a quality control program with another name; it is a quality-based system for reorganizing the entire approach to work in every aspect: productivity, communication, involvement at every level, and external service.

Because Six Sigma and its guidelines improve performance and communication on many levels, it changes not only the outcome (service, production, or communication) but affects the very way that we communicate with each other and with customers and vendors. Programs may begin with focus on a single problem, such as errors in customer deliveries or the inability to keep products in inventory, but the solutions are not isolated. If a vice president responds to a problem by insisting that it be fixed at the departmental level—and without examining its broader implications—an opportunity is lost. If that same vice president involves the entire corporation in a study of how and why such problems evolve, they will find more permanent solutions. This does not mean a complex, expensive analysis has to be used; rather, Six Sigma is designed for rapid, simple problem solving that involves all levels and all contacts (employee, customer, vendor).

This book is designed to show, step by step, how Six Sigma works and how it can be used most effectively. Whether you are an executive or manager trying to change your approach to problem solving, or an employee in a corporation with a Six Sigma program, this book is structured to lead you through each step of the process. It includes definitions in margins, placed at the point of discussion. This enables you to master the terminology as you read along. We use many examples, checklists, and graphics to further help you in developing a working knowledge of Six Sigma.

If we hope to become more effective in production, service, and communication, we need not only to improve our internal approach; we also need to help our fellow employees, supervisors, and managers to move along the same path. Effectiveness on every level is the goal and purpose to Six Sigma. The broad-based quality ideal—an appreciation of what is needed to strive for perfection—requires that everyone in the company understands its importance and their part in achieving it.

Chapter 1The Meaning of Six Sigma

Many years ago at Fisherman’s Wharf in San Francisco, I saw a fisherman sewing up holes in his net. The net was quite large and he had lain it out over a wide expanse of the dock. I watched him for quite some time, noticing that he paid careful attention to even the smallest tear, methodically repairing each one in turn. When he took a break I walked over to him. “Why do you have to fix all the tears, even the little ones?” I asked him. He explained, “It only takes one small tear for all of the fish to escape.”

Perfection—impossible to achieve completely and all of the time—is a goal worth keeping in mind. If we set our sights any lower, we deserve what we get. If we settle for 80 percent or 70 percent, we can never expect to reach 95 percent or 98 percent. As the old fisherman explained, even the smallest imperfection affects the entire effort. A small tear in the net becomes a bigger tear and the fish escape as the net is pulled in. The corporate world works in the same way. What might seem a minor imperfection or a flaw in a remote department affects you and your product or service. The solution: We have to find all the tears and repair them, methodically and completely. Yes, new tears will appear in the net, but we cannot shrug and explain, “We found most of them.” We also cannot just shrug and say, “It’s not my job.” Perfection is not a requirement, but it is a goal worth setting. We can then compare our outcomes to the goal, seeing improvement and measuring it against that goal.

THE ORIGINS OF SIX SIGMA

Sigma is the letter in the Greek alphabet used to denote standard deviation, a statistical measurement of variation, the exceptions to expected outcomes. Standard deviation can be thought of as a comparison between expected results or outcomes in a group of operations, versus those that fail.

sigma

the level of variation compared to an average; the Greek letter, σ used by statisticians to denote standard deviation.

standard deviation

the degree of exception, or variation from the average, in a group of outcomes, used to describe exceptions to an expected result.

The measurement of standard deviation shows us that rates of defects, or exceptions, are measurable. Six Sigma is the definition of outcomes as close as possible to perfection. With six standard deviations, we arrive at 3.4 defects per million opportunities, or 99.9997 percent. This would mean that at Six Sigma, an airline would lose only three pieces of luggage for every one million that it handles; or that the phone company would have only three unhappy customers out of every one million who use the phone that day. The purpose in evaluating defects is not to eliminate them entirely, but to strive for improvement to the highest possible level that we can achieve.

Six Sigma

a measurement denoting near perfection, representing six standard deviations or 3.4 million defects per million operations; the ideal against which actual performance is measured.

Key Point We evaluate defects to improve overall performance, knowing that eliminating them completely is unrealistic.

We know that trying to achieve Six Sigma would be impractical on a consistent basis; so while it is a desirable goal, it presents a model against which we can measure our performance. So rather than setting the unrealistic goal of achieving perfection, we can observe (1) our current Sigma level and (2) improvement in that level as changes are made.

Table 1.1 presents an abbreviated summary of Sigma level, defects per million, and yield, or success rate of the outcomes.

You can identify your level of Sigma performance and then compare it to the chart. This is where the benefits of Six Sigma are realized. By comparing your outcomes to the ideal outcome of Six Sigma, you can quantify quality itself.

TABLE 1.1 Sigma Table

Sigma

Defects per Million

Yield

6.0

3.4

99.9997%

5.0

233.0

99.977

4.0

6,210.0

99.379

3.0

66,807.0

93.32

2.5

158,655.0

84.1

2.0

308,538.0

69.1

1.5

500,000.0

50.0

1.4

539,828.0

46.0

1.3

579,260.0

42.1

1.2

617,911.0

38.2

1.1

655,422.0

34.5

1.0

691,462.0

30.9

0.5

841,345.0

15.9

0.0

933,193.0

6.7

Example: Your department performed 535 specific operations last month. Of these, 43 were defective (they fell outside the acceptable range of outcomes). This means that 492 of the operations were successful. The yield was:

Referring to Table 1.1, we discover that this outcome represents Sigma somewhere between 2.5 and 3. If you were able to reduce the number of defects by half, ending up with 21, your acceptable outcomes would then grow to 514 out of 535 operations, and your yield would increase as well:

Now the Sigma is between 3 and 4, a significant improvement. Of course, if you cut defects in half, you are going to know your outcomes have improved, so what purpose does Six Sigma provide beyond the obvious scorekeeping? As the preceding example demonstrates, improvement in quality can be specifically measured. In practice, you may be dealing with a much greater volume of outcomes, and the incremental rate of success is likely to be smaller than that shown in the example; and Six Sigma is far more than a measuring system. It is a way of doing things, a change in cultural attitude that is designed to create a company-wide team in practical terms. As far as the scorekeeping aspects of Six Sigma go, if you begin with an assumption that a change in procedures will produce an expected change in outcomes, you can then compare actual to projected results to judge the success of your work.

Key Point What makes Six Sigma different from most other quality control programs? It is more than just a way to improve performance; it is a method for changing the corporate culture, from top to bottom.

An “operation” can be any function you perform—delivery of goods, telephone contact, balancing accounts, or executing a repair, for example. Any operation is measurable in Sigma terms. The desired outcome represents satisfaction of the customer’s expectation, and any time that expectation is not met, the outcome is defective.

While measuring results is a crucial part of the process, you will be more concerned with how Six Sigma is applied and what role you and other employees will perform within that process. So the idea of Six Sigma is much more than the latest approach to quality control; it represents a change in philosophy that affects everyone. It is designed to bring everyone into a single team with the same overall goals. So many corporate employees—especially in large organizations—have a sense of isolation or view their relatively small department as a realm unto itself. Six Sigma encompasses the entire corporation as a single team and is aimed at removing that sense of isolation.

The concept of Six Sigma began at Motorola in the 1980s. An engineer named Mikel Harry began analyzing variation in outcomes in the company’s internal procedures, and realized that by measuring variation it would be possible to improve working systems. However, whereas other quality systems were designed at only measuring performance, the Six Sigma approach that grew from Harry’s original ideas was different. The procedures were aimed at taking action to change procedures so that overall performance could be improved permanently—and at every level within the company.

Within a few years, the same idea had taken root at General Electric and AlliedSignal. GE decided in 1995 to implement Six Sigma throughout the entire organization. CEO Jack Welch led the company through this implementation, and many divisions of GE experienced impressive improvements in quality during those years. Estimates are that cost savings from Six Sigma application exceeded $320 million within the first two years, and more than $1 billion by 1999.1

Key Point Cost savings are an important aspect of quality control, but they are only one aspect; a permanent, effective, and rewarding quality program requires more work.

So many quality programs have been devised, named, and put into effect over many years. Most fail after a while because employees lose faith in those programs. It becomes obvious to employees that “quality control” really represents management’s attempt to cut costs and expenses and get more work from its labor force. In other words, the program applies to the worker but there is no change in management itself. If the final result of a quality program is to achieve increased efficiency, and that results in layoffs, who benefits? With Six Sigma, everyone is involved and everyone is expected to change (for the better) as part of one overall team. The purpose is not assigned to the rank and file, but is shared from top to bottom.

BUSINESS PROCESS MANAGEMENT (BPM) AS A STARTING POINT

Like all other specialized processes, Six Sigma involves the use of a series of specialized terms. They have specific meaning and are important in distinguishing the roles that people play in executing the successful Six Sigma procedure.

The concept of Six Sigma begins with a process model and its implementation is called Business Process Management (BPM). Using the BPM model allows us to understand how work evolves and to move through the organization from input to output.

BPM (Business Process Management)

an approach to work based on a model (Business Process Model) describing how work moves from step to step through the organization.

To visualize how BPM helps us to (1) design, (2) communicate, and (3) improve systems, we use a flowchart. Those who grew up in the computer age are accustomed to seeing flowcharts that move from top to bottom. We have come to think of work flow in similar terms; but in practice, we can better express the workings of a procedure when we express work flow from left to right. This is not merely the mincing of words or the moving of a vertical flowchart to a horizontal one. In fact, the horizontal BMP model is a powerful tool for identifying likely problem areas within processes and then for taking steps to decrease defects.

The design of the basic model horizontal flowchart is shown in Figure 1.1.

Note that there appear to be three horizontal levels in the process area of this illustration. These represent departments, individuals, or other sub-teams that perform specific functions. Because the exact mix of responsibility is likely to vary from one process to another, these may be described as areas of responsibility.

FIGURE 1.1 Model horizontal flowchart.

A timeline can be added along the bottom, if desired, to indicate how timing comes into play in the process. Additionally, any reports or other generated work documents can be identified with drop-down boxes. This ties the interim output to the area of responsibility, point in the process, and timing of the task.

Key Point The horizontal flowchart is not just a passive work flow summary; it is a working document used for identifying the steps in a process and, most significantly, for highlighting the likely places where variances, or defects, are most likely to occur.

In determining how to best improve quality, we have to first ensure that work flow is logical and complete. The horizontal flowchart used for BPM enables us to examine each step along the way to make sure we understand time requirements, steps and sequence, and specific responsibility. These include determining what has to be received in order to execute a step, and what has to be passed on for the next step. This is a methodical and precise method, both for defining work flow and finding likely variables—where defects or failures are likely to occur. Figure 1.2 highlights these points in the process.

In the figure, we have identified exact steps in the process where we believe variances are most likely to occur, or where defects are likely to be generated. These points are identified as black rectangles. The assumption in a process involving multiple areas of responsibility is that the likely variance points are strongest when processes move from one area to another. As long as a process is confined to a single area of responsibility, its steps can be managed by a limited number of supervisors or managers. When more than one area of responsibility comes into play, we can place emphasis on the points where a step is completed and the process then moves elsewhere. This is where problems are most likely to arise.

FIGURE 1.2 Model horizontal flowchart with variance points.

These include a failure to act in a timely manner, processing with incomplete data, interpretations containing errors, and similar, common variances.

We further expand the horizontal flowchart to identify both a timeline and interim documents generated throughout the process. This is shown in Figure 1.3.

In this expanded version of the horizontal flowchart, we have a complete picture: Areas of responsibility, process flow from one step to another (including changes between areas of responsibility), likely variance and defect points, a timeline, and interim and final reports.

Understanding the essential importance of BPM is a starting point in Six Sigma. For example, if you have a process riddled with defects, the best way to identify the problem—as a starting point—is to prepare the horizontal flowchart. By methodically speaking with each person, department, or team involved in the process, we can put together a complete picture of how it works and how it should work. This highlights variance points leading to identification of likely defect points so that appropriate changes can be made. This is how the Sigma level is effectively raised—by focusing on variance points and enforcing procedures where those occur.

The flowchart approach to defining processes can be used effectively for improving existing procedures, making process changes, merging two or more procedures, or developing new procedures. The flowchart also serves as an excellent training tool. It provides new employees with a view in the context of their roles in a larger procedure, as well as providing steps in sequence. The flowchart identifies each element within the process from beginning to end so that everyone involved can view not only their role, but the roles of others as well. When accompanied with the more traditional procedural documentation, this visualized form of process flow is a powerful internal quality control and training tool. A more detailed example of the horizontal flowchart and its practical application—both as a Six Sigma tool and an internal document—is provided in Chapter 6.

FIGURE 1.3 Model horizontal flowchart with variance points, timeline, and documents.

THE THREE PRIMARY ELEMENTS: CUSTOMERS, PROCESSES, EMPLOYEES

With Six Sigma, the purpose of the whole exercise is to locate defects, identify ways to prevent them, and make improvements permanent. A defect is any outcome that does not satisfy the needs of the “customer.”

defect

any outcome that falls short of the customer’s needs or expectations.

Key Point In defining a customer, many people are surprised to realize that everyone is in the customer service business—even the clerk who never gets out of the windowless basement office.

You may notice that we have placed quotations around the word “customer.” This was done for a good reason: We want to expand the definition of this word. In the widely understood sense, a customer is someone who buys our goods or services. It is usually someone outside the company—a consumer, another company, or the government, for example. In Six Sigma, you may serve a different customer. Those in nonmarketing environments are often described as people who “never see a customer,” but this is not an accurate assumption. We all have customers. As a basic definition of a job, we provide something of value to someone else. So your customer may be another department or a group of employees within your own company.

The accounting department usually has little or no contact outside the company. However, it prepares budgets, reports, and payroll checks for a wide variety of departments and people. If someone does not receive their paycheck on the day expected, it means there is a defect in the process within the payroll accounting department. There is little doubt that the department will hear from its “customer” very quickly.

A shipping and receiving department deals with delivery services, the post office, or a trucking company, and is responsible for making sure that any goods to be received or delivered are expedited in a timely manner. If a package does not show up on either end or is delivered to the wrong address, or the contents are broken in transit, those outcomes have failed to meet the needs of the customer. That customer could be a buyer, a vendor, a clerk in the mail room, or the CEO. We cannot limit the definition of “customer” only to those who buy what our company sells; large numbers of employees deal with other types of customers.

Example: The accounts payable department is responsible for making timely payments to vendors. A marketing employee has promised payment to a valued vendor by the 15th of the month. This promise was mentioned in paperwork forwarded to accounts payable, with a note explaining that the items being purchased were essential for a marketing presentation. The vendor would not make delivery until payment was received. The accounts payable department scheduled payment for the 18th, not realizing that the deadline of the 15th was critical.

In this example, a defect occurred due to a collapse in communication. The flaw in procedure is shared by the marketing employee who did not follow up to ensure that the importance of the timing was comprehended. The accounts payable department assigned a payment date without checking the paperwork thoroughly. This type of failure is typical when process flows from one department to another. The defect cannot be blamed or assigned, because in each case, both sides were involved, and both sides failed to take quality control steps to make sure the defect did not occur. The marketing employee is aware of the customer who requires payment by a specific date, a requisite for timely delivery. The accounts payable employee, however, has not been made aware of his or her customer’s needs, because that customer (the marketing employee) did not communicate well enough to ensure a smooth process.

Key Point For the purpose of identifying quality requirements, we need to first understand the customer’s requirements and expectations.

It is not difficult to see how a relatively simply change in procedure could eliminate virtually all defects in this type of transaction. If anyone requesting payment were to institute a follow-up procedure, it would improve communication at the source (assuming they followed the procedure, of course). If accounts payable were to check paperwork and then follow up to eliminate any uncertainty, it would also do away with the majority of defective outcomes. This doubled-up procedure would reduce the chances for defects. So the marketing department is expected to follow up and ensure timely payment, and accounts payable is supposed to make sure it knows when payments are to be made. If either one follows their procedure, a potential defect will be avoided. The steps to nearly foolproof procedures are often simple, and the resulting changes can be dramatic as well. With human error added into the equation, some defects are going to occur. However, by tracking the flaw, we can again bolster up the procedures so that processes run far more smoothly, and so that human error can be managed and outcomes moved up to a higher Sigma.

Customers, processes, and employees are the three primary elements in operating within the Six Sigma quality control environment. The customer (an end customer in the traditional definition or another department or person in the broader definition) depends on a specific employee or department to operate within the process and to deliver the needed and expected outcome. In this case, the outcome was the timely payment. A late payment is a defect. In the accounts payable environment, a timely payment may be assumed to be 30 days unless otherwise indicated—remembering, however, that assumptions may themselves lead to defects. So if we are to assume that it is universally understood that the 30-day cycle is in operation unless otherwise specified, we have a starting point. The default presumption is in operation unless someone reads instructions on a check requisition, receives a telephone call, or—lacking any specific information—makes a telephone call to check whether the 30-day default is acceptable.

The interaction between customers, processes, and employees is complex. Every situation is different, so every definition of a defect is different as well. The accounts payable department might wish to define defects as “late” payments, meaning a payment beyond 30 days. So any request for a check to be issued prior to 30 days is an exception. By this definition, the payment in the example would not be called a defect as long as it was made within the 30-day default period. The problem here is that from the marketing department’s point of view, expedited payment is needed and if it is not made, there is a defect. One goal of Six Sigma is to reconcile these different definitions of “defects” from two sides involved in the same process.

Key Point Definition of a customer’s requirements may not be the same on both sides of the transaction; we need to come to an agreement about what those requirements are before we can expect to fix or avoid problems.