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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Group III-Nitride Semiconductor Optoelectronics Discover a comprehensive exploration of the foundations and frontiers of the optoelectronics technology of group-III nitrides and their ternary alloys In Group III-Nitride Semiconductor Optoelectronics, expert engineer Dr. C. Jayant Praharaj delivers an insightful overview of the optoelectronic applications of group III-nitride semiconductors. The book covers all relevant aspects of optical emission and detection, including the challenges of optoelectronic integration and a detailed comparison with other material systems. The author discusses band structure and optical properties of III-nitride semiconductors, as well as the properties of their low-dimensional structures. He also describes different optoelectronic systems such as LEDs, lasers, photodetectors, and optoelectronic integrated circuits. Group III-Nitride Semiconductor Optoelectronics covers both the fundamentals of the field and the most cutting-edge discoveries. Chapters provide thorough connections between theory and experimental advances for optoelectronics and photonics. Readers will also benefit from: * A thorough introduction to the band structure and optical properties of group III-nitride semiconductors * Comprehensive explorations of growth and doping of group III-nitride devices and heterostructures * Practical discussions of the optical properties of low dimensional structures in group III-nitrides * In-depth examinations of lasers and light-emitting diodes, other light-emitting devices, photodetectors, photovoltaics, and optoelectronic integrated circuits * Concise treatments of the quantum optical properties of nitride semiconductor devices Perfect for researchers in electrical engineering, applied physics, and materials science, Group III-Nitride Semiconductor Optoelectronics is also a must-read resource for graduate students and industry practitioners in those fields seeking a state-of-the-art reference on the optoelectronics technology of group III-nitrides.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Group III-Nitride Semiconductor Optoelectronics
C. Jayant Praharaj Band Photonics Materials CA, US
This edition first published 2024
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Hardback ISBN: 9781119708636; ePub ISBN: 9781119708599; ePDF ISBN: 9781119708629; oBook ISBN: 9781119708681
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Introduction
2 Band Structure and Optical Properties of Group III-Nitride Semiconductors
Crystal Symmetry (Wurtzite and Cubic Phases)
Lattice Periodicity and Crystal Hamiltonian
Bloch’s Theorem and Nature of Electron States
Quantum Mechanical Properties Corresponding to Bloch States
Light–Matter Interaction in Semiconductors
Spontaneous and Piezoelectric Polarization
Phonon Spectrum
Scattering Mechanisms
Donors and Deep Acceptors
3 Growth and Doping of Group III-Nitride Devices
Major Epitaxial Growth Methods
In Situ and Implant Doping
Dislocations and Point Defects
Dopant-induced Defects
Substrates and Growth
Gallium Nitride Growth on Silicon Substrates
4 Optical Properties of Low-dimensional Structures in Group III Nitrides
Quantum Wells, Quantum Wires, and Quantum Dots
The k.p Method
Crystal Symmetry and Low-dimensional Structures
Alloy Disorder and Density Functional Theory Electronic Structure Calculation
Deviations from Charge Neutrality and Effect on Electronic Structure
Polarization Engineering Using Quaternaries and Complex Structures
Dislocations in Low-dimensional Structures and Carrier Dynamics
Disorder, Carrier Localization, and Effect on Recombination and Red Shifts
5 Light-emitting Diodes and Lasers
Blue, Green, and Ultraviolet (UV) LEDs
Light-emitting Diode Basic Operating Principles
Blue, Green, and UV Lasers
Blue, Green, and Device Laser Materials – Device Considerations
Nanowire microLEDs
LED Quantum Efficiencies and Laser Threshold Currents in Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots
Auger Recombination and Efficiency Droop in Group III-Nitride LEDs
Dislocations in Low-dimensional Structures and Carrier Dynamics
Disorder, Carrier Localization, and Effect on Recombination and Red Shifts
Staggered Quantum-well InGaN Laser Characteristics
Non-polar Plane Quantum-well InGaN LEDs and Lasers
Semi-polar Plane Quantum-well InGaN LEDs and Lasers
p-Type Ohmic Contacts and Efficiency of LEDs and Lasers
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers
Distributed Feedback Lasers
Plasmonic Nanolasers
Indium Gallium Nitride LEDs and Lasers on Si Substrates
6 Inter Sub-band Devices
Quantum Cascade Lasers
Infrared Photodetectors
7 Photodetectors
Ultraviolet Photodetectors
Complex Dielectric Function
Basic Principle of Operation
Metal–Semiconductor–Metal (MSM) Photodetector
Solar-blind Group III-Nitride UV Photodetectors
p-i-n Photodiodes
Schottky Barrier Photodiodes
Heterogenous Photodiodes with Group III Nitrides and Transition Metal Dichalcogenides
Alloy Nitrides and Spectral Response
Photodetectors and Substrate Engineering
8 Photovoltaics and Energy Conversion Devices
Indium Gallium Nitride Material System for Solar Cells
Basic Solar Cell Physics – p-n Junction Solar Cells
Intermediate Band Solar Cells
Substrate Effects on InGaN Solar Cells
Ohmic Contact Effects in p-n and p-i-n InGaN Solar Cells
Plasmonically Enhanced Solar Cells
Solar Concentrating Photovoltaics
Tandem Solar Cells Using Indium Gallium Nitride
Semiconductor Photocatalysis Using InGaN
9 Quantum Photonic Properties of Nitride Semiconductor Devices
Non-classical Light from Group III-Nitride Heterostructures
Spontaneous and Piezoelectric Polarization Effects
Spectral Diffusion in Quantum Dots
Photon Linewidths
Optically Pumped Versus Electrically Pumped Quantum Emitters
Photon Detection Properties
10 Polaritons in Nitride Semiconductor Heterostructures
Strong Coupling between Excitons and Cavity Modes
Conditions for Strong Coupling
Energies of Polariton Modes
Characterization of Polariton Modes
Polaritonic Lasing versus Photonic Lasing
Exciton Binding Energies and Polaritonic Lasing
Spontaneous and Piezoelectric Polarization Effects
Optically Pumped versus Electrically Pumped Polariton Lasers
Inhomogeneous Broadening in Polaritonic Lasing
Polariton Lasing in Quantum Heterostructure Nanocavities
11 Plasmon-coupled Group III-Nitride Optoelectronic Devices
Coupling between Localized Surface Plasmons (LSPs) and Quantum Wells
LEDs and Lasers Based on LSPR Coupling
Biosensing Schemes Based on LSPR/QW Coupling
InGaN QW Substrates for Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Extended Hotspots
InGaN Nanorods Plus Metal NPs for Water Splitting Using SPR Effects
InGaN QDs Plus Metal NPs for Water Splitting Using SPR Effects
12 Photonic Integrated Circuits Using Group III-Nitride Semiconductors
Indium Gallium Nitride (InGaN)-based Monolithic Photonic Chips
Photonic Integrated Circuits with Plasmonic Components
Exploring Modulators Using Nitrides for Easier Integration
Combining Photonic and Electronic Components on the Same Chip
Monolithically Integrated Multi-color LED Display on a Single Chip
13 Conclusion
Index
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Wurtzite crystal structure...
Figure 2.2 E-k relations...
Figure 2.3 Bandgaps, effective masses...
Figure 2.4 Spontaneous polarization for...
Figure 2.5 Piezoelectric polarization for...
Figure 2.6 Phonon dispersion curves...
Figure 2.7 (top) Scattering rates...
Figure 2.8 Dipolar and quadrupolar...
Figure 2.9 The alloys have...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 Schematic of an...
Figure 3.2 Room temperature (RT...
Figure 3.3 (a) InGaN/GaN...
Figure 3.4 Normalized photoluminescence (PL...
Figure 3.5 Coalescing AlGaN nanowires...
Figure 3.6 Stranski–Krastanow...
Figure 3.7(a) Schematic of...
Figure 3.7(b) Typical photoluminescence...
Figure 3.8 Nitrogen-modulation epitaxy...
Figure 3.9 Water splitting vertical...
Figure 3.10 A typical MOCVD...
Figure 3.11 MOCVD growth-rate...
Figure 3.12 Boundary layer details...
Figure 3.13 Carbon concentration during...
Figure 3.14 Lattice mismatch and...
Figure 3.15 Electroluminescence of combined...
Figure 3.16 LED characteristics for...
Figure 3.17 Wurtzite crystal structure...
Figure 3.18 Typical non-polar...
Figure 3.19 Typical nanowires obtained...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Conduction-band wave...
Figure 4.2 Conduction-band wave...
Figure 4.3 Conduction-band offset...
Figure 4.4 Modification of density...
Figure 4.5 Cathodoluminescence (CL) spectra...
Figure 4.6 Directions of spontaneous...
Figure 4.7 Reduced electron and...
Figure 4.8 Self-assembled In0...
Figure 4.9 High-resolution transmission...
Figure 4.10 Electron and hole...
Figure 4.11 HRTEM image of...
Figure 4.12 Level of alloy...
Figure 4.13 2DEG plasmon frequencies...
Figure 4.14 Lattice constant versus...
Figure 4.15 Polarization components for...
Figure 4.16 Band profiles of...
Figure 4.17 Optical gain spectra...
Figure 4.18 LED parameter improvements...
Figure 4.19 Strain fluctuations (top...
Figure 4.20 Non-polar and...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 InGaN UV LED...
Figure 5.2 Efficiency cliff in...
Figure 5.3 Different kinds of...
Figure 5.4 Quantum-well laser...
Figure 5.5 (a) Scanning electron...
Figure 5.6 Nanowire white LED...
Figure 5.7 InGaN/AlGaN nanowire...
Figure 5.8 Laser emission spectrum...
Figure 5.9 (a) Transmission electron...
Figure 5.10 Wavelength-tunable LED...
Figure 5.11 Various scattering and...
Figure 5.12 Schematic diagram of...
Figure 5.13 Band diagrams of...
Figure 5.14 Optical gain versus...
Figure 5.15 Peak gain versus...
Figure 5.16 Material peak gain...
Figure 5.17 Modulation parameters of...
Figure 5.18 Location of hole...
Figure 5.19 Power output improvement...
Figure 5.20 Photoluminescence of InGaN...
Figure 5.21 Typical structure of...
Figure 5.22 Narrow linewidth emission...
Figure 5.23 Surface plasmon-enhanced...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 A quantum cascade...
Figure 6.2 Structure and energy...
Figure 6.3 MITATT superlattice diode...
Figure 6.4 Nanodisks for infrared...
Figure 6.5 Variation of inter...
Figure 6.6 Inter sub-band...
Figure 6.7 Broadband quantum cascade...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 Real and imaginary...
Figure 7.2 Theoretical and experimental...
Figure 7.3 Exciton binding energies...
Figure 7.4 Photoresponse of a...
Figure 7.5 GaN photodetector and...
Figure 7.6 Pt-GaN plasmonic...
Figure 7.7 Schematic, charge density...
Figure 7.8 Impact ionization processes...
Figure 7.9 Experimental impact ionization...
Figure 7.10 Heterojunction InGaN/AlN...
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 Nature of the...
Figure 8.2 Schematic of p...
Figure 8.3 The typical structure...
Figure 8.4 JV characteristics and...
Figure 8.5 JV characteristics of...
Figure 8.6 JV characteristics of...
Figure 8.7 First photon and...
Figure 8.8 Absorption enhancement and...
Figure 8.9 Short-circuit currents...
Figure 8.10 Typical tandem cell...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 The emission spectrum...
Figure 9.2 Coincidence counts as...
Figure 9.3 Exciton emission with...
Figure 9.4 Biexcitonic double-photon...
Figure 9.5 Temperature dependence of...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Typical polariton splitting...
Figure 10.3 Polaritonic and photonic...
Figure 10.2 Typical device structure...
Figure 10.4 Intensity maps of...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Bare nanorods (left...
Figure 11.2 Photoluminescence (PL) spectra...
Figure 11.3 (Top) PL intensity...
Figure 11.4 Increase in Raman...
Figure 11.5 Energy transfer mechanisms...
Figure 11.6 Photo-induced currents...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Dry plus wet...
Figure 12.2 (Left) Laser facet...
Figure 12.3 InGaN nanowire diameter...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Preface
The field of group III-nitride optoelectronic devices is about three decades old. Pioneering efforts by S. Nakamura led to early demonstrations of blue light-emitting diodes and lasers. However, improvements in quantum efficiency, power efficiency, and threshold currents have driven a lot of new innovations spanning these decades. The major technological challenges for optoelectronic emitters in this material system comes in two varieties. The first is the existence of large spontaneous and piezoelectric polarizations and the resulting large built-in fields in quantum wells, quantum wires, and quantum dots. The second is the large acceptor ionization energies and low ionization ratios of acceptors that make getting good p-type layers for device optimization difficult.
The first of these challenges can be tackled using device tricks or by using different types of material optimizations like switching to non-polar or semi-polar growth planes. Each way of improving device performance comes with its pros and cons, and the best solutions may arise from a combination of material (e.g. growth, crystallographic) and device methods. This book tries to offer a perspective on these optimization methods while emphasizing the device aspects.
The InGaN (indium gallium nitride) alloy system spans the range of bandgaps from 0.7 eV to 3.43 eV, which makes it attractive for designing solar cells since they can absorb the entire solar spectrum efficiently, all of them being direct bandgap material. Suffice it to say that while the bandgap aspect is attractive, device design challenges and other challenges, like optimization of p-type layers, remain. Therefore, most reported experimental work on InGaN photovoltaics has reported modest efficiencies. Most of the serious experimental work on InGaN photovoltaics has happened in the last decade, and a decade is less than enough time to reach efficiencies to compete with or challenge existing photovoltaics. We hope that the chapter on photovoltaics (Chapter 8) serves as a good guide for future research to improve quantum efficiencies and power conversion efficiencies in InGaN solar cells.
This book tries to cover the effect of spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization on quantum wells, quantum wires, and quantum dots with a view to understand the overall effect on device performance. We also hope that the reader can get enough understanding of the device-related polarization phenomena to be able to do device optimization in this material system.
C. Jayant Praharaj
Sunnyvale, 2022
1 Introduction
The group III-Nitride semiconductors (InN [indium nitride], GaN [gallium nitride], and AlN [aluminum nitride]) have achieved a high degree of maturity over the last two or three decades, although specific areas of research still uncover new grounds. The bandgaps of these semiconductors in their wurtzite crystal structure are 0.7 eV for InN, 3.4 eV for GaN, and 6.2 eV for AlN. This means that alloying these semiconductors with one another achieves bandgaps that range from the infrared to the ultraviolet. Further, all three of these are direct bandgap semiconductors (the valence band maxima and conduction band minimum are at the same point in the Brillouin zone). This combination of a wide range of bandgaps and the direct nature of the bandgaps has tremendous implications for optoelectronic devices. The photon or light emission can have high efficiency over a large frequency range as a result. Also, the photon or light absorption can be relatively strong over a wide range of frequencies or wavelengths. The basic conversion factor for this is provided by the Planck relation of quantum mechanics:
where Eg is the bandgap, h is Planck’s constant and νg is the frequency of absorption or radiation corresponding to the bandgap. It must be kept in mind that frequencies and energies above the bandgap can potentially be emitted or absorbed. However, as explained in Chapter 2, statistical physics involving Fermi–Dirac distributions and density-of-state considerations often mean that a small range above the bandgap is involved in devices like emitters. Photovoltaic devices use absorption over a wide range starting from the bandgap energy.
Although we focus on optoelectronic devices in this book, it should be kept in mind, for perspective, that the group III-Nitride semiconductors have other wide applications like high-power, high-frequency microwave devices. In fact, a lot of the material aspects of group III-Nitride semiconductors were understood and improved upon during research efforts in both microwave devices and optoelectronic devices. High electron mobility transistors and heterojunction bipolar transistors are only some of the devices where high-power microwave operation is possible, for example, in ranges beyond the capability of the arsenides and phosphides. Furthermore, the group III nitrides can potentially be used in the terahertz range, although more research is required. A lot of the same fundamental factors influence physical properties. For example, the impact ionization coefficient involves collisions between charge carriers that excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction band in a three-particle setting, and the larger bandgap leads to lower impact ionization coefficients and larger breakdown voltages. This is the basis for the realization of high-power microwave operation. The same bandgap determines the lower cut-off energy for the absorption coefficient in some optoelectronic devices.
In Chapter 2, we discuss the basic physical properties of group III-Nitride semiconductors like bandgaps, effective masses, absorption coefficients, polarization, and a host of other properties. We focus mainly on bulk properties because they serve as a good point of departure for more advanced concepts discussed in this book. In Chapter 3, we discuss epitaxial growth of group III nitrides using molecular beam epitaxy and metal organic chemical vapor deposition. Since this is a book on device aspects, this chapter can cover only the basic aspects of these growth techniques, and the reader should refer to papers and books on crystal growth for a deeper perspective. Chapter 4 discusses the very important topic of how the properties are determined by confinement in the form of quantum wells, quantum wires, and quantum dots. It forms the basis of later chapters on light emitters, for example, because a vast majority of them use quantum wells, wires, and dots. Chapter 5 discusses light-emitting diodes and lasers built using group III-Nitride semiconductors. Device parameters like quantum efficiencies and threshold current densities are discussed as they pertain to this specific material system. Chapter 6 discusses inter-sub-band light emitters in this material system. Chapter 7 covers photodetectors in this material system as they cover specific frequency or wavelength ranges. Chapter 8 covers the results so far obtained in the field of photovoltaic materials in the group III-Nitride material system. Factors constraining performance and routes to future improvements are discussed. Chapter 9 covers quantum emitters using group III-Nitride materials. Chapters 10 to 12 cover some recent topics like strong-coupling polaritons, plasmonic devices and photonic integrated circuits.
Group III-Nitride optoelectronic devices have a wide range of applications like optical data storage, solid state lighting, light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and scientific metrology. As the device parameters are better understood and as device improvements take place, the range of applications expands both in terms of type and capability. The following chapters cover the most basic physics and the device aspects needed to understand current devices and potential future applications.
