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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Histopathological Diagnosis of Leprosy, is a comprehensive guide to the medical pathology of Hansen’s disease, which is a complex and clinically challenging infection caused by Mycobacterium leprae. Readers will find 8 chapters on key topics on the subject including general aspects of leprosy, different forms of leprosy (polar, borderline, etc.), reaction types and complications. The information presented in the handbook will equip the reader with the knowledge required to identify the disease in patients and perform differential diagnosis where required.
Key Features:
- 8 chapters dedicated to key topics about leprosy and its diagnosis
- More than 200 figures featuring over 1000 clinical and histopathological photographs
- Complete information about differential diagnosis and reaction phenomena
- includes a section dedicated to special and complicated cases
- References for further reading
- Brings the expertise of renowned physicians to the reader
The detailed presentation of the book is of great value to both healthcare professionals (pathologists, dermatologists, physicians) who are involved in the care of leprosy patients, and medical residents who are seeking information about the disease as part of their medical training.
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Seitenzahl: 217
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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FOREWORD
I am pleased to present Histopathological Diagnosis of Leprosy, a book that focuses on medical pathology. It is a unique and special book that transcends the field and will certainly fill an important knowledge gap concerning the pathology of leprosy. This compendium of unique utility is written by Cleverson Teixeira Soares, a pathologist with extensive experience in subjects related to leprosy, who gained his educational expertise from the Hansenology School at the Lauro Souza Lima Institute (ILSL), Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil; a prestigious and prolific Brazilian Institute and the birthplace of brilliant hansenologists and pathologists, such as Professor Raul Negrão Fleury (in memoriam). This work continues his valuable legacy, as is much desired by surgical pathologists, dermatopathologists, medical students, and several professionals who clinically manage leprosy.
This book combines the author's extensive experience of the pathology of leprosy with an exhaustive effort to explain all the complex histopathological presentations of leprosy in a direct and simple manner. The book consists of eight chapters, with 214 figures in the form of panels containing 1,069 clinical and histopathological photographs. Additionally, it has an excellent microscopic record correlated with clinical and pathological findings and presented with all possible differential diagnoses for each leprosy type and its reaction phenomena; thereby, expanding the scope and utility of this subject.
I am convinced that this book will greatly help professionals who manage leprosy, a complex and clinically challenging disease.
Further, I am grateful on behalf of several individuals, especially pathologists and patients, who may benefit from the important knowledge mentioned and illustrated in this book.
PREFACE
Leprosy remains one of the biggest public health problems in many countries. It is a complex disease in several aspects, including clinical, histopathological, and molecular. This book is written to help different professionals (medical students, physicians, pathologists, researchers, and others) who handle this disease daily or are interested in it to understand the disease from the perspective of pathology. The histopathological characteristics of leprosy throughout its spectrum, reaction phenomena, and clinical presentation types are crucial for understanding the pathophysiology of the disease and guiding clinical conduct and research accordingly.
The book is organized into eight sequential chapters that allow the readers to gradually immerse themself in different histopathological aspects of leprosy. The clinical features discussed are accompanied by corresponding histopathological images presented as photo panels, along with key points that assist in understanding the described characteristics. Common histological sections stained by hematoxylin-eosin are complemented with those stained by Fite–Faraco to identify the different types of cells or tissues parasitized by Mycobacterium leprae. Immunohistochemical findings are used to clearly illustrate some characteristics observed in common histological sections. In some cases, more than one staining technique was used for the same histological section (for example, immunohistochemistry and Fite–Faraco), thereby contributing to a better understanding of the histopathological characteristics of the disease.
The interpretation of the histopathological characteristics of leprosy lesions is somewhat challenging. Each diagnosis depends on the close correlation between the findings of histopathology, bacilloscopy examination, and clinical data. In this context, histopathology is of great importance to confirm or dismiss a certain hypothesis and can guide teams to accurately interpret data and choose the best clinical and therapeutic conduct.
This book is intended to be a supplement to the leprosy literature found in journals and textbooks, offering the readers a background on leprosy-related histopathology that can improve their understanding of this disease.
Finally, I express deep gratitude toward the different support teams of the Lauro de Souza Lima Institute, especially that of the Laboratory of Anatomic Pathology, which contributed decisively to the conclusion of this book and to Dr. Cássio C. Ghidella for the numerous clinical photos that illustrate all chapters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The whole endeavor of writing a book on the histopathology of leprosy was exhausting yet rewarding. Attempting to write all the chapters in a logical sequence of a disease complex and with different clinical-pathological presentations is challenging. Selecting the samples to be photographed and choosing those with greater representation on certain aspects of the disease were carried throughout a daily routine. For many years, writing, proofreading, and photographing were all executed after the daily routine of surgical pathology. All of these could not be done without the unconditional support and understanding of my family, Themis, Juliana, and Rafael. Numerous slides were made and added, especially for stains using different histochemical and immunohistochemical techniques. All of these are made possible by the exemplary dedication and excellent quality of the technical team of the Laboratory of Anatomic Pathology of the Instituto Lauro de Souza Lima (ILSL) and the Institute of Pathology of Bauru (ANATOMED). Several photographs with various clinical presentations of the different forms and reaction processes of leprosy were obtained from the archives of the ILSL library. The archives’ collection contains precious materials such as photos, articles, books, and various notes that depict the rich history of leprosy even before the era of antibiotics began (pre-sulfonic era). These were made available so that I could use them in the preparation of the book, for which I extend my gratitude to the entire ILSL technical staff. I have no way of describing how thankful I am to countless people for their help in creating this book. Finally, I would also like to extend my gratitude to (1) Dr. Raul Negrão Fleury (in memoriam), a pathologist with a profound knowledge of leprosy and the founder of the Laboratory of Anatomic Pathology of the ILSL and (2) Dr. Cássio C. Ghidella for the gratifying anatomical and clinical discussions and the excellent clinical photographs observed throughout the book.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
DEDICATION
Classification and General Aspects of Leprosy
Cleverson Teixeira SoaresAbstract
Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease whose etiological agent is Mycobacterium leprae. Recently, Mycobacterium lepromatosis is also implicated as a causative agent and has been identified in different forms of the disease. Leprosy is a complex disease from a clinical, histopathological, and molecular point of view. The wide diversity of clinical presentation and histopathological characteristics observed throughout the disease spectrum and reactions render it a challenging disease in clinical and pathological practice. This chapter discusses the main aspects of the disease and its histopathological classification. An important approach to the bacilloscopic examination, which is fundamental for the histopathological classification of the disease, showing its quantitative and qualitative aspects, is discussed. The various photographic panels demonstrate the bacillus' ability to parasitize different types of tissues and cells of the skin and other organs of the human body. Multiple serial histological sections stained using different techniques allow the main points addressed in the text to be better understood through histopathological images. The entire content of this initial chapter (Chapter 1) will be the basis for understanding the other chapters. In the subsequent chapters, the clinical, histopathological, and bacilloscopic features of leprosy forms (Chapters 2, 3, and 4), the reactional phenomena (T1R - Chapter 5 and T2R - Chapter 6), the regressive changes observed in leprosy lesions during and after treatment or relapse (Chapter 7), and some variants with special clinical characteristics (Chapter 8) are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease whose etiological agent is Mycobacterium leprae [1]. Recently, Mycobacterium lepromatosisis is also implicated as a causative agent and has been identified in different forms of the disease [2, 3]. In fact, in some leprosy lesion samples from the skin, both bacilli were detected [3]. Leprosy affects millions of people globally, with hundreds of thousands of new cases diagnosed each year [4]. It is a major public health concern in Asian, African, and South American countries [4]. Mycobacterium leprae exhibits tropism in the peripheral nervous system (neural cutaneous branches and neural trunks in their more distal and superficial locations), and therefore, leprosy is initially a predominantly neural disease. As a strictly intracellular parasite, its
elimination depends on cell-mediated immunity [1]. The ability of the host to produce an effective immunocellular reaction against M. leprae varies among individuals in a population. In endemic countries, it is estimated that 90% or more of the individuals infected with M. leprae develop a chronic granulomatous inflammatory reaction of a tuberculoid pattern, restricting the disease to one or a few cutaneous neural lesions that evolve spontaneously (tuberculoid pole) [1, 5]. However, some infected individuals fail to develop an effective immunocellular reaction, possibly due to the inadequate ability of their macrophages to destroy M. leprae and process the bacterial antigens [1, 5]. In this situation, phagocytosis of the bacilli by macrophages occurs, yet restriction of their proliferation and dissemination is ineffective. Thus, with the evolution of the disease, cutaneous neural lesions may be extensive and associated with compromised mucosae of the upper respiratory tract, lymph nodes, viscera (liver, spleen, kidneys, adrenals, etc.), eyeballs, testes, epididymides, synovial membranes, and bone marrow, among other tissues and organs (lepromatous pole) [1, 5].
The biological behavior of these polar forms of leprosy (tuberculoid and lepromatous) is antagonistic. They are stable manifestations of the disease, and there is likely no transformation from one form to another in its evolution, even after treatment [5]. Between these two stable poles, there is the dimorphous or borderline group, in which cutaneous neural lesions show intermediate characteristics between the two poles, suggesting partial immunity to M. leprae. The borderline group is unstable. That is, in the absence of treatment, these individuals tend to exhibit clinical, bacilloscopic, and histopathological characteristics shifted toward the lepromatous pole [5]. On the other hand, when treated, these patients may exhibit progression toward the tuberculoid pole of the disease spectrum [1, 5, 6] (Fig. 1).
Aspects of the classification of leprosy will be discussed in this chapter. Furthermore, the important points of the bacilloscopic examination will be presented as these are crucial for the clinico-pathological classification of the disease. Likewise, its reaction phenomena will also be discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPROSY AND ITS REACTIONS
The South American classification for leprosy, officialized at the Congress of Madrid (1953), defines leprosy as a spectral disease, with polar forms, designated as tuberculoid (TT) and lepromatous (LL), and an intermediate or dimorphic group [7, 8]. Ridley and Jopling (R&J) subdivided the intermediate group into three subgroups—borderline-tuberculoid (BT), borderline-borderline (BB), and borderline-lepromatous (BL), establishing clinical, bacillary (0 to 6+), and histopathological variables for this classification [9]. In addition, they introduced the concepts of “downgrading,” which is the evolutionary worsening toward the lepromatous pole, and “upgrading,” in which there is an evolutionary improvement toward the tuberculoid pole [9] (Fig. 1).
Fig. (1)) Clinical spectrum and bacilloscopic index of leprosy forms and reactions. Patients who are exposed to M. leprae can eliminate the bacilli through the mechanisms of the primary immune response and do not develop the disease. If the primary immune defense cannot contain the proliferation of the bacilli, the patient develops indeterminate leprosy (“I”), the early stage of the disease preceding the polarized forms of the Ridley and Jopling (R&J) classification: tuberculoid (TT); borderline-tuberculoid (BT); borderline-borderline (BB); borderline-lepromatous (BL); and lepromatous or virchowian (LL). Late recognition of bacillary antigens by the individual may result in an intense and effective immune response (TT and BT pattern), which may lead to the destruction of the bacilli and spontaneous cure. TT individuals are those who have effective cellular immunity. If cellular immunity is not effective, the proliferation and dissemination of the bacilli persist, and the disease progresses toward the lepromatous pole. LL individuals are anergic and react to the bacilli through humoral immunity. Type 1 reactions (T1R) affect patients in the range from TT to BL. Type 2 reactions (T2R) affect patients on the lepromatous side (BL and LL). The bacilloscopic index ranges from 0 to 6+. The figure is partially adapted from Boggild et al. [21].The low antigenicity of M. leprae may contribute to a delay in antigen recognition by the host immune system. Thus, in the first phase of the disease, while the amount of bacillary antigens in the tissues is not sufficient to trigger an immunocellular reaction, some parasitized cutaneous areas present discrete foci of non-granulomatous inflammatory infiltrate, predominantly composed of lymphocytes and macrophages selectively following or penetrating neural branches (neurocentric). At this early stage, leprosy is classified as indeterminate (I), as it precedes the clinicopathological conditions established in the R&J classification [1, 5] (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. (2)) Histopathological and bacilloscopic characteristics (→) common to clinical forms and leprosy reactions. “I” - (A, E, and I); “TT” - (B, F, and J); “BT” - (C, G, and K); “BB” - (D, H, and L); “BL” - (M, Q, and U); “LL” - (N, R, and V); “T1R” - (O, S, and X); and “T2R” - (P, T, and Y). HE (A-H, and M-T) and F-F (I-L, and U-Y) staining.The progression of leprosy lesions occurs slowly, for years or decades, sometimes with few inflammatory signs in the lesions. Nerve involvement is also slow, with granulomas progressively accumulating, allowing endoneural structures to adhere to the immune response [6]. Functional changes are only noticed after a long duration of evolution. This behavior is likely due to the low antigenicity of M. leprae, stimulating a mild immune reaction without destructive alteration of the parasitized tissues. However, more intense and destructive inflammatory episodes, abrupt and occurring in cutaneous neural lesions or in any parasitized tissue, may arise during the course of the disease. These episodes are known as leprosy reactions [1, 5, 6]. There are two basic types of reactions in leprosy. One occurs in patients with varying degrees of preservation of the specific cellular immunity against M. leprae, known as the type 1 (T1R) reaction, and the other occurs in patients with poorly preserved or absent cellular immunity, known as type 2 (T2R) and corresponding to erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) and its variants [1, 5, 6] (Figs. 1 and 2).
BACILLOSCOPY
Identification of M. leprae in histological sections is generally performed using Fite-Faraco (F-F) or Wade-Fite stain [10-12]. F-F staining is a modification of the Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) method but yields superior results [10, 11]. The bacilli identified by F-F may not stain with Z-N, especially those that are fragmented, causing a decrease in the bacilloscopic index. Consequently, reduction in the bacilloscopic index and the non-identification of bacilli in the different types of parasitized tissues or cells may hinder or compromise both the bacilloscopic evaluation and lesion classification [10, 11] (Fig. 3). The incomplete bacillus staining by the classical Z-N technique is probably due to the use of xylol, causing excessive removal of the fat from the bacillus cell wall, an important factor for its coloration. The re-fattening of the bacilli through the use of mineral oil or other oily substances allows the recovery of the staining properties of the bacilli [10, 11]. Like other mycobacteria, M. leprae is also stained by methenamine silver (Grocott) and, weakly, by Schiff's periodic acid (PAS) [13, 14] (Fig. 4).
Bacilloscopic Index (BI)
The bacterial index commonly used for classification of leprosy lesions consists of a logarithmic scale proposed by Ridley and Hilson, ranging from 0 to 6+ [15]. The quantification is performed with an oil immersion objective (×100) as follows: (zero) absence of bacilli; (1+) 1–10 bacilli in 100 fields; (2+) 1–10 bacilli in 10 fields; (3+) 1–10 bacilli per field; (4+) 10–100 bacilli per field; (5+) 100–1,000 bacilli per field; and (6+) >1,000 bacilli per field (Fig. 1).
Fig. (3)) Identification of M. leprae by Fite-Faraco (F-F) (A and C) and Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) (B and D) stains. Histological sections of (A) and (B) are from the same sample of active LL lesion. Those of (C) and (D) are of the same sample of LL lesion in regression after treatment. Note that in the active lesions, the staining of the bacilli (M. leprae) is strong with a large number of bacilli identified by F-F (A), but there is a decrease in detection of bacilli when stained by Z-N (B). In the regression lesions, where the bacilli are fragmented, the F-F technique identifies numerous faintly stained, fragmented bacilli (→) (C), whereas the Z-N technique results in practically uncolored fragmented bacilli (→) (D).Qualitative Aspects of Bacilloscopy
In addition to quantification of the bacilli, the pathologist should assess the presence of the bacilli in granulomas and different tissues of the skin, nerve, or organ samples. M. leprae is an obligate intracellular parasite and can parasitize different types of cells and tissues. The presence of bacilli in macrophages, neural branches, endothelium of blood and lymphatic vessels, and smooth muscle cells of vessel walls and hair erector muscles is common in patients on the lepromatous side (BL and LL) (Figs. 5 – 9). Less commonly, but not infrequently, M. leprae is observed within myoepithelial and epithelial cells of sweat glands, squamous epithelial cells of the epidermis and pilosebaceous follicle, nevus cells in the basal layer of the epidermis, mesenchymal cells of the dermis, and subcutaneous tissue (Figs. 10 – 16). In lepromatous (LL) patients, there is intense parasitism of almost the entire skin in addition to the nasal and buccal mucosa (Fig. 17). In autopsies of leprosy patients on the lepromatous side (BL and LL), bacilli were identified in many of the organs [6] (Fig. 18). In our experience, we have also observed bacilli parasitizing neoplastic cells of neurofibroma, schwannoma, common melanocytic nevus, and even basal cell carcinoma (Figs. 19 and 20). The presence of morphologically solid bacilli, or the persistence of fragmented bacilli in leprosy lesions and the different parasitized tissues is important for evaluating the effectiveness of treatment as well as disease relapse (Fig. 21). These characteristics are discussed in detail in Chapter 8, which describes the clinical characteristics and histopathological changes observed before and after treatment initiation.
Fig. (4))leprae stained by the methenamine silver (Grocott) (A) and, weakly, by the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) (B) techniques. Fig. (5))M. leprae parasitizing macrophages (→). LL patient skin lesion with multivacuolated macrophages containing a large number of bacilli (A and B). In detail, the vacuoles filled by the bacilli (C). Macrophage parasitism also occurs in epithelioid macrophages and in multinucleated giant cells. HE staining (A and D). F-F staining (B, C, E, F, and G). Fig. (6))M. leprae parasitizing neural branches (→). Nerve with peri- and intraneural inflammatory processes containing a large number of bacilli in all neural components (A, B, and C). Transverse (D) and longitudinal (E) sections of the neural branch with Schwann cells presenting intracytoplasmic vacuoles containing a large number of bacilli. HE staining (A and B). F-F staining (C, D, and E). Fig. (7))M. leprae parasitizing vessels (→) (F-F). Presence of bacilli inside the blood vessel and parasitizing the endothelium and vessel wall (A and B). Capillary with intense parasitism of the endothelial cells throughout its path (C and D). Endothelial cells from lymphatic vessels parasitized by bacilli (E). Double staining (F-F and anti-CD34) showing endothelial cells with vacuoles containing bacilli (F). Fig. (8))M. leprae parasitizing vessels (→). HE staining vein presenting histiocytic infiltrate permeating the muscular wall and subintimal tissue (A). F-F staining shows intense parasitism by M. leprae throughout the thickness of the vessel wall, the subintimal space, and the endothelium (B). Double staining (anti-CD68 and F-F) demonstrates many bacilli-containing macrophages present in the perivascular, vessel wall, and subintimal tissues (C). Double staining (anti-CD31 and F-F) showing endothelial proliferation and intense parasitism of subintimal cells and the vessel wall (D). Double staining (anti-actin of smooth muscle-1A4 and F-F) showing intense parasitism of the vessel wall (E)
