History of Armenia E-Book

ARMEN KHACHIKYAN

• Herausgeber: Edit Print
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

The book is addressed to Armenians in Diaspora and to readers living in various countries who are interested in history and culture of Armenia. The book is a brief review of the History of Armenia beginning with the formation of the Armenian nation up to our days. The book also contains 10 maps of different phases of Armenia's history. ​Armenians live in every corner of the world. Many of them wish to know more about the history of their ancestral homeland and contributions of the Armenian people to the world civilization, but few are fluent in Armenian, and many, in fact, hardly even read in it. Many young Armenians born outside of the homeland speak no Armenian at all, and have never been to Armenia, having only heard about it. There are, indeed, a great number of English-language books and articles on various topics of the Armenian history, published during the last two decades. Many of these sources, while useful and important, focus only on one or a few subjects. Yet doubtless is the need to have an English-language book that would offer a brief, comprehensive overview of the History of Armenia, to help the foreign reader develop an in-depth understanding of th complex issues of the Armenian history. ​This review is designed to serve exactly as such a reference point for the general public interested in the History of Armenia. It offers a brief overview of significant events and developments in the history of the nation, and is easy to read, carry, browse, and refer to.

Leseprobe

ARMEN KHACHIKYAN

HISTORY OF ARMENIA

A Brief Review

Yerevan, Armenia

 CONTENTS

FOREWORD

CHAPTER 1

TERRITORY OF ARMENIA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

1. The Armenian Homeland

2. The Stone Age on the Armenian Highland

3. The Bronze and Iron Ages on the Armenian Highland

CHAPTER 2

FORMATION OF THE ARMENIAN PEOPLE

1. Settlement of Proto-Armenian Tribes and the Earliest State Entities on the Armenian Plateau.

2. Formation of the Armenian People. The Armenian Language

3. The Legend on the Genesis of the Armenian People

4. The geographic and political shape of Ancient Armenia

CHAPTER 3

THE FIRST UNIFIED ARMENAN STATE:THE VAN KINGDOM

1. The emergence of the Van Kingdom (Urartu)

2. The strengthening and expansion of the Van Kingdom. The Struggle with Assyria

3. The Government and Economy of the Van Kingdom

4. The demise and breakup of the Van Kingdom

5. The Culture of the Van Kingdom. Cuneiforms

CHAPTER 4

ARMENIA IN THE 6TH-3RD CENTURIES BC

1. Formation of the Yervanduni Kingdom

2. Armenian Kingdom within the Achaemenid Empire

3. The Campaign of Alexander the Great and Armenia

4. The Seleucids and the Armenian Kingdoms

CHAPTER 5

ARMENIAN STATE AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS POWER. THE EMPIRE OF TIGRAN THE GREAT

1. Artashes I: reunification of Armenian Territories

2. The Early Reign of Tigran II: Armenian-Pontic alliance

3. Roman-Armenian War: The Invasion of Lucullus

4. The Invasion of Pompeius: Artashat Treaty

5. The Reign of Artavazd II

6. Fall of the Artashesian Dynasty

CHAPTER 6

THE GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY OF ANCIENT ARMENIA

1. Treaty of Hrandea. The beginning of the Arshakuni Dynasty

2. Government of Ancient Armenia

3. The Economy of Ancient Armenia: Agriculture, Trades, Commerce

4. The Culture of Ancient Armenia

5. The Pagan (pre-Christian) Religion

CHAPTER 7

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDALISM IN ARMENIA.ADOPTION OF CHRISTIANITY AS STATE RELIGION

1. Armenia in the 2nd-3rd Centuries. Development of the Hereditary Reign of the Arshakuni Royal Family

2. Transition to Feudalism

3. Royal Power and Nakharars. “Gahnamak”

4. Armenian Military: “Zoranamak”

5. Armenia in the Late 3rd Century. The Reign of Trdat III

6. Adoption of Christianity as State Religion

7. Armenia in the 4th Century. Weakening of the Central Power

8. The First Partition of Armenia

CHAPTER 8

ARMENIA BETWEEN PERSIA AND BYZANTIUM

1. Creation of the Armenian Alphabet

2. National Religious Wars against Persian Rule in 450-451 and 481-484

3. Armenia in the 6th Century under the Persian and Byzantine Rule

4. Early Medieval Culture of Armenia

CHAPTER 9

ARMENIA UNDER ARAB DOMINATION. REIGN OF THE BAGRATUNI DYNASTY

1. Establishment of Arab Rule in Armenia

2. Armenia within the Arab Caliphate

3. Struggle of the Armenian People Against the Arabs

4. Reestablishment of Armenia’s Independence. The Rise of the Bagratuni Dynasty

5. Strengthening of the Bagratuni Kingdom

6. Armenian Kingdom of Bagratuni at the Height of its Power. Structure of Government.

7. Armenia’s Economic Development in the 9th-11th Centuries

8. The decline of the Bagratuni Kingdom.

9. Armenia’s Conquest by the Seljuks. The Battle of Manazkert.

CHAPTER 10

THE ARMENIAN STATE IN CILICIA

1. Armenians in Cilicia. The Formation of Armenian Principalities in the 11th Century

2. Unification of the Armenian Principalities under the Leadership of the Rubinian Princes

3. Reign of Levon II. International recognition of the Cilician Armenian Kingdom

4. Establishment of the Rule of Zakarian Princes in Armenia Major. Armenian-Georgian Union

5. Reign of the Hetumian Dynasty in Cilicia. Armenian-Mongol Alliance

6. Government and Economy in Cilician Armenia

7. The decline of the Cilician Armenian State

CHAPTER 11

ARMENIA UNDER THE YOKE OF NOMADIC TRIBES IN THE 13TH TO 15TH CENTURIES

1. Armenia under the Mongol Rule in the 13th to 14th Centuries

2. Armenia under the Rule of Turkic Nomadic Tribes in the 14th Century

3. Turko-Persian Wars. Partitions of Armenia between the Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran

4. Armenian Culture in the 10th-14th Centuries

CHAPTER 12

ARMENIA UNDER TURKISH AND PERSIAN RULE. THE BEGINNING OF THE LIBERATION MOVEMENT

1. Armenia under Turkish and Persian Rule in the 17-18th centuries

2. The Beginning of the Liberation Movement in Armenia.

3. Origins of the Russian Orientation in the Armenian National Liberation Movement. Israel Ori

4. Liberation Movement in Syunik and Artsakh in the early 18th Century

5. Armenian Culture in the 15-18th Centuries

CHATER 13

ADJUNCTION OF EASTERN ARMENIA TO RUSSIA. ARMENIA WITHIN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

1. New Projects for the Liberation of Armenia

2. The 19th Century Russo-Persian Wars. Adjunction of Eastern Armenia to Russia

3. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829

4. The “Armenian Province”

5. The Crimean War of 1853-1856

6. Armenia in the Middle of the 19th Century

7. Armenian Culture of the 18th and the First Half of the 19th Centuries

CHAPTER 14

NATIONAL LIBERATION STRUGGLE OF THE ARMENIAN PEOPLE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19th CENTURY. THE ARMENIAN QUESTION

1. The State of the Armenian Population in Western Armenia in the Middle of the 19th century.

2. The 1862 Uprising in Zeytun

3. The National Constitution of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

4. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The Treaty of San-Stefano

5. The Congress of Berlin and the “Armenian Question”

6. Armenia in the second half of the 19th century. The Haiduk Movement

7. The Establishment of Armenian Political Parties

CHAPTER 15

ARMENIAN COLONIES BEFORE THE 20th CENTURY

1. Armenian Settlements in the Middle Ages

2. The Armenian Colonies of Asia and Africa in the Early Modern Time

3. The Armenian Colonies of Russia in the Early Modern Period

4. The Armenian Colonies of Europe in the Early Modern Period

CHAPTER 16

ARMENIA AT THE TURN OF THE 19th AND THE BEGINNING OF THE 20th CENTURY

1. The Development of Capitalism

2. The Ottoman Empire at the Turn of the 19th century. Anti-Armenian Policy of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II

3. The Armenian Liberation Movement at the Beginning of the 20th Century

4. The Policy of Russia and the Armenian Question at the beginning of the 20th century

5. The Coup d’etat of the Young Turks

6. The Armenian Question in 1912-1914 and the Great Powers. The Position of Russia

CHAPTER 17

WORLD WAR I. THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE

1. The Beginning of WWI. Military Activities in the Caucasian Front

2. The Armenian Voluntary Movement. Armenian Battalions.

3. The Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire

4. Self-defence of the Armenian People

5. The Consequences of the Genocide

6. Armenian Culture at the Turn of the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Century

CHAPTER 18

THE FALL OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE AND ARMENIA

1. The February Revolution and Armenia

2. The October Revolution and Armenia

3. The Armenian Question at the Negotiations in Brest-Litovsk and Trebizond

4. The Turkish Invasion into Armenia and the Trans-Caucasus

5. The Self-Defense of the Armenian people in Sardarapat, Karaklis and Bash-Aparan in May, 1918

6. The Republic of Armenia Declares Independence. The Treaty of Batum

CHAPTER 19

THE FIRST REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA

1. The Establishment of Government Institutions

2. The Establishment of the Armenian National Army

3. The Internal Situation in Armenia

4. Armenia’s Relations with Neighbor States

5. International situation of the Republic of Armenia. The Armenian Question at the Paris Peace Conference

6. The May 1920 Revolt of the Bolsheviks

7. Armenia after the Treaty of Sevres. The Position of Soviet Russia

CHAPTER 20

THE FALL OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET RULE IN ARMENIA

1. The Turko-Armenian War of 1920

2. The Armenian–Russian Talks.The Agreement on the Transfer of Power to the Revolutionary Committee.

3. First Steps of Soviet Power

4. The February 1921 Revolt

5. The Russo-Turkish Talks. The Moscow and Kars Treaties

6. The Defense of Zangezur in 1920-1921. Garegin Njdeh

7. The Nagorno Karabagh Problem in 1920-1921

8. The Adoption of the First Constitution of Armenia. Alexander Myasnikyan

9. The Establishment of the Transcaucasian Federation

CHAPTER 21

THE SECOND (SOVIET) REPUBLIC OF ARMENIAPARTICIPATION OF THE ARMENIANS IN WWII

1. The Rebuilding of the Country’s Economy. The New Economic Policy (NEP)

2. Industrialization and Collectivization of Armenia

3. Liquidation of Illiteracy. Development of Education

4. Participation of the Armenian People in the Great Patriotic War (WWII)

5. Socio-economic Development of Armenia in 1945-1985

6. Socio-political Life in the Years of the Second Republic

7. Development of Cultural Life during the Years of the Second Republic

CHAPTER 22

THE THIRD REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA

1. The Policy of Perestroika. The Beginning of the Artsakh Movement

2. The Spitak Earthquake

3. Armenia on the Road to Independence

4. Declaration of Independence. The Collapse of the USSR

5. Declaration of Independence of the Nagorno Karabagh Republic

CHAPTER 23

ARMENIA AT THE THRESHOLD OF THE THIRD MILLENNIUM

1. The First Steps of Independent Armenia

2. The Consequences of the Socio-Economic and Political Crisis

3. Armenia at the Threshold of the Third Millennium

CHAPTER 24

THE ARMENIAN DIASPORA: THE PAST AND PRESENT

1. The Formation of the Armenian Diaspora

2. The Armenian Question and International Relations in 1922-1923

3. The Armenian Diaspora between the World Wars

4. The Armenian Diaspora in the Years of WWII

5. Mass Repatriation of Armenians in 1946-1948

6. The Armenian Diaspora Today

CHRONOLOGY

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

UDK 941(479.25)

Scientific Editor

Dr. Aram KOSYAN

The book is adressed to Armenian's in Diasphora and to readers living in varrious countries who are interested in history and culture of Armenia.

The translation and publication of this book was partly funded by a grant from the United States Department of State.

The opinions, findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State.

Author of maps Robert H. Hewsen.

ISBN 978-9939-52-294-4 

FOREWORD

Armenians live in every corner of the world. Many of them wish to know more about the history of their ancestral homeland and contributions of the Armenian people to the world civilization, but few are fluent in Armenian, and many, in fact, hardly even read in it. Many young Armenians born outside of the homeland speak no Armenian at all, and have never been to Armenia, having only heard about it.

I am often asked to recommend a book in English on the Armenian history. There are, indeed, a great number of English-language books and articles on various topics of the Armenian history, published during the last two decades. Many of these sources, while useful and important, focus only on one or a few subjects. They hardly can offer an English reader a full and inclusive understanding of the Armenian history. As for more detailed reading on the History of Armenia I usually recommend a definitive publication - Robert H. Hewsen, “Armenia: a historical atlas”, (2001) - a trustworthy and comprehensive, heavily illustrated book with maps, chronology, bibliographical references and index.

Yet doubtless is the need to have an English-language book that would offer a brief, comprehensive overview of the history of Armenia, to help the foreign reader develop an in-depth understanding of the complex issues of our history. This review is designed to serve exactly as such a reference point for the general public interested in the history of Armenia. It offers a brief overview of significant events and developments in the history of the nation, and is easy to read, carry, browse, and refer to.

It can also be a useful reference source for foreigners visiting Armenia, including diplomats and international development professionals, as well as foreign students studying in Armenia’s universities. For a certain extent this publication can be used by Armenian schools abroad too.

This book is one of the outcomes of my 8-month Fulbright Research Program in 2003 in Washington DC, and has greatly benefitted from the access to, and use of many original documents, photos and publications from the U.S. National Archives and the Library of Congress.

The book was twice published in Russian, in 2004 and 2009, and has gained broader popularity among readers with a beginner’s-to-intermediate level of fluency in Armenian. Since the first publication, I have received remarkable feedback from readers around the world, including the professional community – educators, historians, and scholars. That input has been incorporated into the present edition. I greatly appreciate contributions by all who took interest in reading the book and making recommendations to improve it.

I do hope that the book will serve its purpose by raising further interest in the history and culture of Armenia. Am looking forward to your comments and suggestions, and would be grateful to receive them on following e-mail address:

[email protected]

CHAPTER 1

TERRITORY OF ARMENIA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

1. The Armenian Homeland

Between the Black and the Caspian Seas, south of the Caucasus Mountain Range, lies a mountainous terrain known geographically as the Armenian Plateau. It is the historic homeland of the Armenian people – its birthplace, the cradle of its rich and unique culture, and the land it continues to inhabit and develop today.

The Armenian Plateau lies between the Iranian Plateau in the East, the Anatolian Plateau in the West, flanked by the Kur River valley in the North, and northern Mesopotamia in the South.

The average height of the Armenian Plateau is 1,500-1,800 meters above the sea level, towering it, like a mountainous enclave, above its geographic neighborhood - the lower-lying Anatolian and Iranian plateaus.

Five great rivers of the Middle East begin here.

RiverEuphratestakes start in the foothills of the Northern Taurus Mountains, streaming west, then making a big loop and turning south, and further downstream towards south-east. Part of the upper Euphrates forms the natural western frontier of the Armenian Plateau. Its largest tributary is RiverAratsani, which begins in the central part of the Armenian Plateau and streams east-west before merging into the Euphrates.

River Tigris starts in the foothills of the Armenian Taurus Mountains. It crosses the Armenian Plateau from west to east and, after taking in several tributaries, turns south, towards and into the Persian Gulf.

River Chorokh begins in the mountains of Eastern Pontus and falls into the Black Sea, streaming across the Armenian Plateau before turning north and into the Black Sea.

The keys of River Kur begin in the mountains of Northern Taurus. The river first streams north, then turns sharply towards east, and again south-east, heading towards the Caspian Sea. Large sections of the Kur River form the natural northern and north-eastern frontiers of the Armenian Plateau.

River Arax takes start in the picturesque mountains of Byurakn (Bingöl). It streams down across the central part of the Armenian Plateau from west to east, making numerous curves, and merging finally with River Kur before falling into the Caspian Sea. Arax has several large tributaries, including rivers Akhurian, Hrazdan and Vorotan. Arax has played an important role in Armenia’s life throughout history, and carries an enormous symbolic value for the Armenian people, who often refer to it as ‘Mayr Arax’ (Arax the Mother).

The Armenian Plateau is also home to numerous lakes and other natural water reservoirs, the largest of which areUrmia, Van and Sevan.

Armenia is often called a “country of mountains.” The entire landmass of the Armenian Plateau is an imposing natural architectural system of dazzling mountain ranges and stand-alone peaks. Along its northern and north-eastern frontier, it includes a number of spurs of the Smaller Caucasus Mountain Range, which in turn form separate mountain systems, such as the Gugarats, Bazum, Geghama, Zangezur, and Artsakh Mountain Ranges.

The north-western frontiers of the Armenian Plateau stretch along the Armenian Taurus, a Mountain System with numerous spurs and rocky enclaves such as Zeitun and Sasun. Running parallel, but much north, is Northern Taurus, a Mountain Range dividing the waters of Euphrates, Kur and Arax. In the south of the Armenian Plateau are the Kotur Mountains - a range extending straightly north-south between the lakes Van and Urmia.

Towering right in the middle of the Armenian Plateau is the Biblical Mount Ararat, the summit of which, according to the Holy Book, harbors Noah’s Ark. Soaring 5,165 meters above the sea, into the zone of eternal freeze, Ararat is the highest point of Asia Minor and the Middle East. The snow of Ararat feed thousands of fresh-water springs year-around, giving life to an amazing ecosystem famous for the uniqueness and diversity of its flora and fauna. On the slopes of Mount Ararat, many varieties of modern domestic livestock roamed in wild, along with onagers (Ecuus Hemionus), mouflons (Ovis Musimon), panthers, and many other rare, now-endangered species. From Mount Ararat and across the central expanse of the Armenian Plateau runs Armenian Par – a mountain range splitting the Plateau somewhat into Northern and Southern halves.

Further decorating Armenia’s skylines are stand-alone peaks of Sipan (4,443 m), Aragats (4,095 m) and Nemrut (2,150 m) -- the only functioning volcano in the region.

The Armenian Plateau is rich in natural resources. Historically famous are the gold mines of Sper and Sotk, silver mines of Armenia Minor, and salt deposits of Koghb, Kaghzvan, and Nakhijevan. In addition, the territory of the Armenian Plateau is also rich in iron and color metals, coal deposits, as well as a variety of construction stones.

The climate on the Armenian Plateau is continental and dry, with hot summers and chilly winters.

The summer temperature is up to +42C, and the average temperature in winter is up to –10C. Natural forests are concentrated primarily in the north and north-east of the Plateau, but a rich variety of fruit trees and medical herbs grows endemically throughout the entire region. There is known to be over thousand mineral springs on the territory of Armenia, most famous of them are mineral waters of Djermuk, Arzni, Bjni, etc.

2. The Stone Age on the Armenian Highland

Modern archaeological data indicates that the earliest human acti­vity on the Armenian Plateau occurred around 1 million years ago. These earliest humans were gatherers and hunters living in small groups of 20-30, who were familiar with the use of primitive instruments made of stone and wood. Choppers, tips of arrows, cutting blades, and other instruments used by these early settlers were made of obsidian – a dark-colored glass-like volcanic stone abundant on the Armenian Plateau. Much of this obsidian can be seen in the road side soils while on a ride from Yerevan to Sevan.

The arrival of the Ice Period at around 100 thousand years ago affected the climate on the Armenian Plateau dramatically, leading also to changes in its flora and fauna. Whereas the Great Glacier did not reach the Caucasus, ice nevertheless did cover pockets of the Armenian Plateau, such as mountains and other elevated terrain, spearing just the river ravines and lower-lying valleys. Only those groups of humans survived who managed to adapt to the severing climate by developing the old, and acquiring new skills. It is in this period that humans inhabiting the Armenian Plateau discovered fire, and learned to use body- and foot-ware. Armed with fire, they drew wild animals out of the mountain caves, turning these into shelters and eventually, into primitive residences. A number of such early human camping sites have been discovered and studied on the territory of the Republic of Armenia, the largest and best known of which is Cave Satani Dar.

Given the relatively modest coverage in plantation and vegetation of the Armenian Plateau, gathering did not evolve into a leading form of human activity, and was pushed back instead by big-mammal hunting such as on mammoths, rhinos, bulls, bears, and deer.

Approximately 10 thousand years ago, with the end of the Ice Period, the Armenian Plateau stepped into the New Stone Age, as global climate acquired its current characteristics, and basic conditions improved for human life. Humans began using elastic plants to make bows and arrows, and weave baskets, and discovered clay as material for making various house ware. Stone instruments continued to improve in sophistication and variety. Stone axe could now be used to carve boats, build carts, and put up cabins. By the end of the New Stone Age humans domesticated the dog, the sheep, the goat and the cow. Bulls were used in heavy traction, and hoes with stone endings in plowing the soil for farming. During this period, humans learned about spinning plant fiber and animal hair to weave fabric, and building a pottery wheel to produce finer and more stylish cutlery.

3. The Bronze and Iron Ages on the Armenian Highland

Through a multi-millennial journey of continuous social and economic emancipation, and all the way straight through Paleolith and Neolith, the population of the Armenian Plateau achieved the stage of decline of its primitive tribal order by the end of the 4th millennium B.C.

The ensuing 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. delivered the Bronze Age. Bronze phased out stone as the primary material of instruments of labor, and helped speed up social development significantly. Plows with bronze ends replaced hoes with ends made of stone. This enabled a rapid expansion of the areas under farming, and increased food productivity. During this period humans domesticated the horse, completing a pivotal process in early human achievement -- the domestication of wild animals. Of the Bronze Age settlements on the territory of Armenia, two are particularly well studied – those in Lchashen and Vanadzor. Artifacts from these sites are now on display at the National Museum of History of Armenia. In areas better suited for settled productive activity, fortified urban settlements began to form. Farming and cattle breeding developed further. More and more common became tribal wars for control over fertile territory, food stock and cattle. Related tribes engaged in alliances to defend their territorial and material assets against the encroachment of others.

Starting from the mid-2nd millennium BC the inhabitants of the Armenian Plateau learned to make instruments from iron. Throughout the Armenian Plateau and eastern Asia Minor, iron minerals can often be found right on the surface: so, mining required a relatively easy effort. Therefore, the processing and use of instruments made of iron occurred on the Armenian Plateau much earlier than elsewhere in the world – an incidence owing the fortunate combination of both availability and accessibility of iron-rich minerals in this particular geographic area.

Studies on the site of a settlement as old as the middle of the 2nd millennium BC located at Metsamor near Echmiatsin authenticate this idea. The site at Metsamor represents a small hill, dominating over the surrounding flat terrain. The hill served as the center of a fortified settlement that was home to a population settled at the site for at least several generations. This population engaged in both farming and crafts. Remnants of furnaces, scraps of iron ore and the presence of items made of iron leave no doubt in that instruments from iron were already of common use. In addition, some of the items discovered at this site were found to be of Mesopotamian origin – an evidence of established trade relationships between ancient civilizations.

Thus, toward the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the population of the Armenian Plateau stepped confidently into the Iron Age.

CHAPTER 2

FORMATION OF THE ARMENIAN PEOPLE

1. Settlement of Proto-Armenian Tribes and the Earliest State Entities on the Armenian Plateau.

By the start of the 2nd millennium BC the population of the Armenian Plateau reached the stage of state formation. Around that period, numerous State entities began to emerge on the territory of the Armenian Plateau, such as the tribal unions Hayasa, Isuwa, Arme, Sukhmu, Daya, Nairi, Uruatri, among others. These entities had mixed ethnic profile, and populations speaking in both Indo-European, as well as non-Indo-European languages. Their emergence was the result of not only general socio-economic development, but also the critical need for self-defense against the aggressive expansionist policies of powerful neighboring states – the Hittite Kingdom and Assyria.

Hittite sources of the 14th-13th cc. BC and Assyrian sources of 13th-11th cc. BC convey important knowledge about the geography, social order, and material capacity of these early State formations. For instance, these proto-states often comprised several dozen tribes, and were run by elected military leaders, who carried the title ‘King’.

Hittite and Assyrian Kings waged numerous wars against Armenian states, and made agreements with or against them. Often, the name of one of these states would be used in reference to the entire proto-Armenian world. Thus, Hittite sources employed the name ‘Hayasa’ to refer to the same country that Assyrian sources referred to as ‘Nairi’ or ‘Uruatri’.

2. Formation of the Armenian People. The Armenian Language

Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. The same family also includes the Slavic, the majority of European, as well as the Iranian and Indian languages.

Modern linguistics traces the homeland of Indo-European languages to the Near East, specifically to the area that includes central and eastern Asia Minor, western part of the Armenian Plateau, and northern parts of contemporary Syria and Iraq. The most commonly accepted theory suggests that in the period from IV to II millennia B.C. ancestors of modern Indo-Europeans sustained several waves of migration, departing native lands and spreading across the vast expanse of new territory, in more than one direction. In transit, they came upon and intermixed with various local tribes, many of them non-Indo-European origin, and absorbed patterns of their ethnic and linguistic characteristics.

Depending on the migrant group, the process lasted between several centuries and well around a millennium. It concluded with the communities on the move eventually settling on a particular territory – an event of a significant catalytic effect on their formation and consolidation as people. The process of ethno-genesis also involved indigenous populations, including non-Indo-Europeans, who assimilated with the settlers, whether peacefully or not, tilting the matrix of the emerging cultures and societies with patterns of linguistic residue noticeable in the grammar and colloquial speech of many modern Indo-European languages. Territories settled by the newcomers became their mother countries, getting named after predominant ethnic groups. Thus, the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula became known as Greece, the western part of the same peninsula – as Albania, and the island populated by the Irish – as Ireland.

Similarly, the Armenian Plateau became the historic motherland of the Armenian people, and already in the 6th century BC, official chronicles of the time began referring to the country as ‘Armenia’. Hence, during the period from III to I Millennia B.C., the population of the Armenian Plateau sustained a landmark evolution of its societal mold, completing, in essence, the Armenian ethno-genesis by the mid-I Millennium B.C. The indigenous tribes of the Plateau - Hurrian, Urartian, and Caucasian, some of them of non-Indo-European origin – contributed to this process as well. On the other hand, the assimilation of lesser groups of new settler population with mixed ethnicity continued throughout the following centuries.

The Armenian ethno-genesis resulted in promoting the Armenian language to the fore, as the winner language. Being itself of Indo-European origin, the Armenian language, nevertheless, contains noticeable patterns of non-Indo-European linguistic heritage – the input of non-Indo-European tribes populating the Armenian plateau too.

The tribal union, around which the final unification of Armenian tribes took place, was Hayasa: hence, ‘Hay’ – the name by which Armenians identify themselves, and ‘Hayastan’ – as they call the country. Neighbors of Armenians to the South, who interfaced with them primarily through the tribe Arme named the country ‘Armenia’, and its inhabitants – ‘Armenians’.

3. The Legend on the Genesis of the Armenian People

Movses Khorenatsi (late-5th century AD), founder of the Armenian Historiography, recorded the following legend on the origins of the Armenian people, based on his account of various verbal sources through which the story had been transmitted over the preceding centuries and generations.

In the ancient times, one of the powerful titans named Bel subordinated the other titans to his will, and declared himself the ruler of Babylon. Only one titan by the name Hayk defied him. This powerful hero with splendid curls gathered his sons, grandsons, and the rest of his folk numbering 300, and led them to the north – to the "Country of Ararat", whereupon they settled. The few people of that land welcomed his rule, and thus the country took the name ‘Hayk’ after him. The sons and grandsons of Hayk multiplied, and spread all over the country, giving their names to its provinces, mountains, valleys and rivers. Thus, Mt. Aragats got its name from Aramaniak, Mt. Masis – from Amasia, Lake Geghama (modern Sevan) – from Gegham, the county of Garni – from Garnik, the Shirak highland – from Shara, the province of Korduk – from Kadmos, the province of Syunik – from Sisak, and so it goes on.

Bel got worried. He sent messengers to Hayk demanding loyalty. Being the proud and freedom-loving hero that he was, Hayk declined. So, Bel furnished a large fighting force, and went to war against Hayk. In the face of this impending danger, Hayk too gathered his fighters and every single man of his folk who could hold a spear, and hit the road to engage Bel half-way. The two armies met near a lake, where the battle took place. Hayk called upon his men to fight fearlessly to defend their land and freedom, and to not waiver, and not retreat before the enemy’s overwhelming force. So, a ruthless battle began, claiming the lives of many heroes on both sides. Bel saw this, and dread captured his spirit. He decided to re-position, and wait until additional troops arrive. Conscious of Bel’s plot, Hayk cut through the fighting crowd, strained his bow, and shot aiming at Bel. Launched by the mighty hand of the hero, the projectile pierced Bel’s body armor, and knocked him down dead. Seeing their leader fall, Bel’s fighters fled in panic. As for Hayk and his folk, they held up and celebrated victory.

Hayk is revered as the Patriarch of Armenians, and Eponymous - the hero who gave his name to the country and its people. The year of the battle is considered the beginning of the Armenian calendar. Armenian chroniclers of the early medieval period have studied the lives of Hayk and his off-springs, and concluded that these events might have taken place in the year 2292 BC – almost 4.5 thousand ago.

As any other legend, this story on the Armenian Genesis combines the mythical with the real, echoing true events that took place in immemorial times when the Indo-European Armenian tribes spread over the entire Armenian Plateau, assimilating all other tribes.

4. The geographic and political shape of Ancient Armenia

Historical Armenia covers an area of about 300,000 sq. km that is congruent geographically with the Armenian Plateau. Mountainous terrain and climatic variations in different zones of the Plateau conditioned the evolution of Armenia in its earliest stages as a less then sufficiently integrated commonwealth of over a dozen semi-autonomous provinces with different types, levels, and pace of socio-economic development. Populations in these provinces differed considerably from one another in lifestyle, outfit, and even spoken language. Armenians called these provinces ‘Ashkharh’ or ‘World’ in English. In the early 4th c. A.D., in the wake of the feudalist period, Ashkharhs were institutionalized in Armenia by a royal decree, becoming the nation’s principal territorial and administrative units. A full description of the 15 Ashkharhs comprising Armenia Major is contained in ‘Ashkharhatsuyts’ – the famous treatise of Anania Shirakatsi, a prominent Armenian author and mathematician of the early Medieval period.

These 15 Ashkharhs were: Bardzr Hayk (High Armenia), Tsopk (Sophene), Tayk, Gugark, Artsakh, Utik, Paytakaran, Syunik, Vaspurakan, Parskahayk, Rshtunik, Mokk, Taron, Aghdznik, and Ayrarat.

Historical Armenia consisted of two principal ethnic and territorial components: Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, the latter including provinces west of the upper Euphrates River, and south of the Eastern Pontic Mountains. Armenia Minor, originally populated by Armenian tribes, participated in the Armenian ethno-genesis fully. Later, in the Hellenistic period, however, Armenia Minor got considerably disengaged from Armenia Major politically, as well as ethnically, due to historical circumstances that will be discussed later in this book, and more diverse demographics. Armenia Minor never again joined the Armenian state, although a sizeable Armenian population continued to live there until 1915.

Modern Republic of Armenia includes only a few of the original provinces: Ayrarat, Syunik and Gugark. It occupies a territory of 30,000 sq. km -- just one-tenth of Armenia Major.

CHAPTER 3

THE FIRST UNIFIED ARMENAN STATE:THE VAN KINGDOM

1. The emergence of the Van Kingdom (Urartu)

The weakening and demise of the Hittite Kingdom by the end of the 13th c. B.C. relieved the Armenian states of the external pressures they were facing from the west, and resulted in somewhat of a slowdown in the process of state formation in the western part of the Armenian Plateau. The same period, however, also brought new pressures – this time in the south, along the frontier with Assyria, incursions from which into neighboring Armenian states for purposes of property- and slave-taking had become more frequent. The growing threat from Assyria facilitated the process of consolidation of Armenian states and their eventual merging within a single unified state. Centripetal trends achieved a greater momentum in states that shared a border with Assyria, and were thus more vulnerable to threat it posed, such as Nairi, Shupria, and Uruatri. Naturally, these states formed the core of the emerging pan-Armenian alliance around which the final consolidation and formation of the unified Armenian state occurred.

The leading force behind this alignment was the Kingdom of Biaina, which succeeded in bringing together all other ‘kingdoms’ of the Armenian Plateau to build defense against a common enemy. Assyrian sources chronicling the mid-9th c. B.C. already refer to the existence of a unified state on the Armenian Plateau that by 860 B.C. controlled territories south and west of the Lake Van.

Known as the Kingdom of Van, this first unified state on the territory of the Armenian Plateau existed from the 9th to the 6th centuries B.C.In the inscriptions of its kings it was referred to as ‘BIAINA’, although the Assyrian sources called the kingdom ‘URARTU’. The capital of Biaina (Urartu) was located on the south-eastern shore of Lake Van, and was called Tushpa (Van - in modern Turkey).

The name ‘Urartu’ gained common recognition in the 19th century, following a series of extensive site excavations on the territory of ancient Assyria, and the deciphering of Assyrian cuneiform texts uncovered during these projects. Only toward the beginning of the 20th century was the name ‘Biaina’ deciphered and read for the first time, owing the successful compilation, study and translation of the cuneiform texts left by the rulers of the Van Kingdom itself.

The earliest among these rulers wereArame (860-845 B.C.) and Sarduri I (845-825 B.C.).These rulers not only successfully contained and neutralized threats posed by the powerful Assyrian state, but also managed to significantly expand the frontiers of their state eastward, unifying all provinces around Lake Van. Areas on the lake’s eastern shore emerged as the economic and political powerhouse of the Kingdom. Here, on a remote slope of an imposing rock that defines the lake’s eastern horizon, Sarduri I built a superior fortress around which the capital of his state – the town of Tushpa rose before long.

KingsIshpuini (825-810 B.C.) and Menua (810-786 B.C.) further extended the borders of the state toward West and North reaching River Arax. Here, King Menua built the city-fortress Menuakhinili. City-fortresses were built on all recently acquired territories.

The unification of numerous small, scattered kingdoms within a single consolidated Armenian state helped facilitate the country’s economic progress. All over the land irrigation canals began being built, arable grounds expanded, and gardens and vineyards set. Even today, a 72 km canal built by King Menua continues to supply water to the city of Van.

2. The strengthening and expansion of the Van Kingdom. The Struggle with Assyria