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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels Comprehensive and consolidated resource covering the evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors for safeguarding pipeline steels against corrosion, with supporting case studies Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels represents a comprehensive compilation of the experimental findings that delve into the evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors for safeguarding pipeline steels against corrosion, consolidating invaluable insights and discoveries from a multitude of investigations. The experimental methodologies employed encompass a diverse range of techniques, enabling a thorough exploration of the inhibitive properties of imidazoline compounds. The book explores the significance of various corrosion control strategies, including the utilization of a variety of inhibitors, the implementation of pigging techniques, the application of cathodic protection, and the relevant codes and standards. To aid in reader comprehension, the book presents a collection of comprehensive case studies focusing on the corrosion control challenges faced by oil pipeline companies in operations. These case studies incorporate the details of managing pipelines with high gas content, considering factors such as temperature, flow regime, water content, and steel type. Each case study examines realistic parameters, operation conditions, and provides detailed procedures for protecting, monitoring, and evaluating the performance of corrosion control measures. Sample topics covered in Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels include: * Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and profilometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM) * X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), wire beam electrode (WBE), atomic force microscopy characterization (AFM), and polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) * Influence of physicochemical and flow effects, as well as metallurgical and surface effects, on corrosion inhibition and environmental and operational conditions * Computational studies, such as molecular dynamic simulations and Monte Carlo simulations, density functional theory, and radial distribution function (RDF) A comprehensive and consolidated resource for understanding the experimental evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors on oil pipeline steels, Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels serves as a vital reference for corrosion scientists, engineers, and researchers, offering knowledge and insights to enhance the corrosion protection strategies employed in the oil and gas industry.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
List of Abbreviations
List of Symbols
1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Corrosion Inhibition in Pipeline Systems
1.2 The Economic Consequences of Corrosion in the Oil and Gas Industry
1.3 The Environmental Consequences of Corrosion in the Oil and Gas Industry
1.4 Importance of Imidazoline Inhibitors in Oil Pipelines
1.5 Importance of Experimental Laboratory Evaluation of Imidazoline Inhibitors
1.6 Experimental Considerations for Imidazoline Inhibitors in Oil Pipeline Applications
1.7 Procedure for Experimental Laboratory Evaluation of Imidazoline Inhibitors for Utilization in Oil Pipelines
1.8 Field Testing Procedure for Imidazoline Inhibitors in Oil Pipelines
2 Chemistry of Imidazoline Inhibitors
2.1 Chemical Composition and Characteristics (Preparation and Types)
2.2 Mechanisms of Inhibition
2.3 Contact Angles of Adsorption
3 Testing Setups
3.1 Electrode Rotors and Stirrers
3.2 Concentric Cylinders in Autoclaves
3.3 Autoclave Systems
3.4 Crevice Testing Setup
3.5 In‐situ Electrochemical/AFM Setup
3.6 Flow Loops
4 Experimental Methods
4.1 Electrochemical Evaluation of Imidazolines’ Performance
4.2 Microscopic Evaluation
4.3 Spectroscopic Evaluation
4.4 Weight Measurements
4.5 Computational Studies
5 Physicochemical and Flow Effects
5.1 Effect of Chloride
5.2 Effect of Temperature
5.3 Flow Effects
5.4 Effect of Acetic Acid
5.5 Effect of H
2
S
5.6 Metallurgical and Surface Effects
6 Case Studies: Laboratory Evaluations
6.1 Experimental Evaluation of Tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) Imidazoline Inhibitor for Effective Corrosion Control in an Oil Pipeline: Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Methods
6.2 Comprehensive Evaluation of an Imidazoline Inhibitor for Corrosion Control in an Oil Pipeline Using Advanced Laboratory Techniques
6.3 Comprehensive Experimental Evaluation of CorroShield™: Laboratory, Flow Loop, and Field Assessments for Corrosion Prevention in an Oil Pipeline
6.4 Comparative Evaluation of Four Steel Types and Imidazoline‐based Corrosion Inhibitor for Oil Pipeline Protection
6.5 Laboratory Evaluation of Octadecylamine‐based Imidazoline Inhibitor for Corrosion Rate Reduction in Alloy Steel Used for an Oil Pipeline Using XPS, AFM, STM, PM‐IRRAS, EDX, XRD, and FTIR
7 Case Studies: Field Operations
7.1 Comprehensive Protection and Performance Evaluation of an Oil Pipeline Using DBSI Corrosion Inhibitor
7.2 Effective Protection and Performance Evaluation of an Oil Pipeline Using Octadecylamine Imidazoline (ODA) Corrosion Inhibitor
7.3 Mitigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking in an Oil Pipeline using Stearoylamine Imidazoline (SAI) Corrosion Inhibitor
7.4 Suppression of CO
2
/H
2
S Corrosion in an Oil Pipeline using Laurylamine Imidazoline (LAI) Inhibitor
7.5 Effective Corrosion Control in a High‐Temperature, High‐Flow, and High‐Pressure Oil Pipeline: A Case Study on the Use of Palmitoylamine Imidazoline (PAI) Inhibitor
7.6 Enhancing Corrosion Control in a High H
2
S Concentration, High Water Content, and Slug Flow Oil Pipeline: A Case Study on the Dual Use of PAI and EOI Inhibitors
7.7 Corrosion Control and Cathodic Protection in a Low‐Temperature, Stratified Flow Oil Pipeline: A Case Study on the Effectiveness of Laurylamine Imidazoline (LAI) Inhibitor
7.8 Optimizing Corrosion Control in a High Gas Content Oil Pipeline: The Significance of Pigging and the Effectiveness of Laurylamine Imidazoline (LAI) Inhibitor
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Molecular structure and analytical data of AT inhibitors.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 The nomenclatures and the molecular structures of inhibitors test...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Electrochemical parameters calculated from polarization measureme...
Table 5.2 Effect of rotating speed on the inhibition efficiency for bare su...
Table 5.3 Typical chemical compsotions of X70 and Q235 steels.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic of a typical imidazoline molecule.
Figure 2.2 Molecular structure of imidazoline amide derivative.
Figure 2.3 Molecular structure of imidazoline amido amine derivative.
Figure 2.4 Molecular structure of tall oil diethylenetriamine imidazoline (T...
Figure 2.5 Molecular structure of 1‐(2‐aminoethyl)‐2‐heptadecyl imidazoline ...
Figure 2.6 The main components of imidazoline based DETA/TOFA corrosion inhi...
Figure 2.7 Synthetic scheme of AT inhibitors.
Figure 2.8 Molecular structure of carboxyethyl‐imidazoline.
Figure 2.9 Reaction pathway of oleic acid with diethylenetriamine.
Figure 2.10 Synthesis route of 2‐heptadecyl‐1‐[2‐(octadecanoylamino)ethyl]‐2...
Figure 2.11 Scheme 1. Synthetic route for the preparation of the novel catio...
Figure 2.12 Molecular structure of the synthesized inhibitor.
Figure 2.13 The molecular structure of the TAI (1‐(2‐thioureidoethyl)‐2‐alky...
Figure 2.14 Molecular structure of 2‐undecyl‐1‐ethylamino imidazoline (2UEI)...
Figure 2.15 Molecular structures of AEI‐11 and AQI‐11.
Figure 2.16 Molecular structure of 1‐(2‐aminoethyl)‐2‐oleyl‐2‐imidazolinium ...
Figure 2.17 Molecular structure of oleic imidazoline.
Figure 2.18 Chemical structure of hydroxyethyl‐imidazoline (HEI), where R is...
Figure 2.19 Molecular structure of carboxyamido imidazoline.
Figure 2.20 Molecular structure for
N
‐[2‐[(2‐aminoethyl) amino] ethyl]‐9‐oct...
Figure 2.21 Molecular structure of ACDPAM.
Figure 2.22 Structure of CDs.
Figure 2.23 Chemical structure of RAIM.
Figure 2.24 Synthesis of PQI compound.
Figure 2.25 Synthesis of SQI compound.
Figure 2.26 General structure of hydroxyethyl imidazoline, where R is an alk...
Figure 2.27 The proposed adsorption model of the synthesized surfactant inhi...
Figure 2.28 Graphical representation of protonation of imidazoline derivativ...
Figure 2.29 Bilayer schematic model for inhibitor commercial imidazoline‐bas...
Figure 2.30 Schematic of an imidazoline admicelle bilayer on iron oxide.
Figure 2.31 Schematic of the inhibition effect of IM inhibitor on the crevic...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Experimental setup for electrochemical measurements.
Figure 3.2 Schematic for corrosion testing setup with modified electrode rot...
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of rotating cylinder electrode apparatus. (1) S...
Figure 3.4 Schematic for the concentric setup in an autoclave designed for e...
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for in situ electroch...
Figure 3.6 Schematic illustration of experimental apparatus for corrosion te...
Figure 3.7 Schematic diagram of the crevice and setup for crevice corrosion:...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Langmuir adsorption isotherms for different inhibitors on the sur...
Figure 4.2 Potentiodynamic polarization curves for carbon steel in formation...
Figure 4.3 Potentiodynamic polarization curves of N80 steel in the CO
2
‐satur...
Figure 4.4 Effect of carboxyamido imidazoline concentration in the polarizat...
Figure 4.5 The equivalent circuit and the Nyquist spectra representing diffe...
Figure 4.6 Bode and bode phase of the impedance response for mild steel in f...
Figure 4.7 Bode and bode phase of the impedance response for mild steel afte...
Figure 4.8 Nyquist plots for a mild steel in CO
2
‐saturated 3 wt% NaCl soluti...
Figure 4.9 Langmuir adsorption isotherms for mild steel in CO
2
‐saturated 3 w...
Figure 4.10 EIS plots from a WE with and without OF in the CO
2
/H
2
S saturated...
Figure 4.11 Nyquist plots for N80 carbon steel in CO
2
‐saturated simulated fo...
Figure 4.12 Bode plots for 1018 carbon steel in CO
2
‐saturated (3% NaCl + 10%...
Figure 4.13 Variation of OCPs with immersion time containing different inhib...
Figure 4.14 Corrosion rates calculated from linear polarization measurements...
Figure 4.15 Corrosion rate/potential‐time response for stearic imidazoline c...
Figure 4.16 Variation of
R
P
value with immersion time in solution containing...
Figure 4.17 Cyclic voltammetry curves for carbon steel samples in saturated ...
Figure 4.18 DC trend removed potentials vs time of N80 steel in the test sol...
Figure 4.19 Noise in current and in potential for X‐70 pipeline steel expose...
Figure 4.20 Effect of carboxyamido imidazoline concentration on the change i...
Figure 4.21 Surface morphologies of corrosion product films with effect of i...
Figure 4.22 Variation characterization of measuring values of soluble iron i...
Figure 4.23 Profile at the crevice mouth of N80 carbon steel after corrosion...
Figure 4.24 Corrosion morphology of carbon steel in CO
2
‐saturated (3% NaCl +...
Figure 4.25 TEM images of the studied steels: (a) dislocations in pearlite r...
Figure 4.26 Surface topography and Volta potential mapping images of electro...
Figure 4.27 XPS spectra images of adsorbed CP‐1 molecule on N80 steel.
Figure 4.28 Potential maps measured on WBE exposed to the solutions containi...
Figure 4.29 Three dimension AFM images (a) without CPs (b) with CP‐1 (c) wit...
Figure 4.30 AFM three‐dimensional images of (a) the unexposed (as‐polished),...
Figure 4.31 PM‐IRRAS spectra of the corrosion inhibitor on carbon steel samp...
Figure 4.32 FTIR spectra of IM.
Figure 4.33 General corrosion rates and inhibition efficiencies (obtained fr...
Figure 4.34 Fully optimized, HOMO and LUMO and the molecular electrostatic p...
Figure 4.35 (a–c) Optimized geometries of protonated inhibitors (a) AT‐1 (b)...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Potentiodynamic polarization of iron in 0.1 MPa‐CO
2
‐saturated sol...
Figure 5.2 The relationship between (
R
ln(
i
corr
)) and (1/
T
) in the absence a...
Figure 5.3 Influence of temperature on corrosion rates of J55 steel under si...
Figure 5.4 Polarization curves of N80 steel in CO
2
‐saturated 1% NaCl solutio...
Figure 5.5 Tafel polarization curves for (a) Bare samples inhibitor; (b) Sam...
Figure 5.6 Microstructures of (a) X70 and (b) Q235 steels.
Figure 5.7 General corrosion rates (obtained from weight loss measurements) ...
Figure 5.8 SEM images of samples (with different initial surface roughness) ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
List of Abbreviations
Begin Reading
References
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels
Experimental Laboratory Evaluation and Case Studies
Faysal Fayez Eliyan
Community College of Qatar
Doha, Qatar
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Eliyan, Faysal Fayez, author.Title: Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels : Experimental Laboratory Evaluation and Case Studies evaluation / Faysal Fayez Eliyan.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023053482 (print) | LCCN 2023053483 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119437536 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119437550 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119437567 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Petroleum pipelines–Corrosion. | Corrosion and anti‐corrosives.Classification: LCC TN879.55 .E55 2024 (print) | LCC TN879.55 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/1223–dc23/eng/20240109LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023053482LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023053483
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Matthias Kulka/Getty Images
To my loving family,
For being my unwavering support,
My constant source of inspiration,
This book is dedicated to you all.
Thank you for believing in me.
Preface
In the realm of corrosion protection, the need to safeguard oil pipelines against the relentless forces of degradation cannot be overstated. The economic and environmental consequences of pipeline failures demand the utmost attention and vigilance in implementing effective inhibition strategies. Among the myriads of corrosion inhibitors, imidazoline compounds have emerged as promising candidates for mitigating steel corrosion. However, in order to ascertain their true potential and optimize their performance, rigorous laboratory experimental evaluation is essential.
This book represents a comprehensive compilation of the experimental findings that delve into the evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors for safeguarding pipeline steels against corrosion. It serves as a definitive reference, consolidating invaluable insights and discoveries from a multitude of investigations. The experimental methodologies employed encompass a diverse range of techniques, enabling a thorough exploration of the inhibitive properties of imidazoline compounds.
The evaluation process includes an array of electrochemical measurements that provide crucial information on the corrosion behavior of pipeline steels. These measurements encompass potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, open‐circuit potentials, linear polarization, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical noise. By harnessing the power of these techniques, researchers have examined the intricate dynamics at play, shedding light on the efficacy of imidazoline inhibitors.
Additionally, the experimental evaluation delves into the microscopic realm, utilizing state‐of‐the‐art tools to unravel the underlying mechanisms of corrosion inhibition. Techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and profilometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM), and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) have enabled researchers to visualize and characterize the surfaces with unprecedented detail, thereby providing critical insights into the protective effects of imidazoline inhibitors.
Furthermore, spectroscopic tools have played a pivotal role in unraveling the molecular‐level interactions between imidazoline inhibitors and pipeline steels. Techniques such as X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), wire beam electrode (WBE), atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterization, scanning tunnel microscope, polarization modulation infrared reflection‐absorption spectroscopy (PM‐IRRAS), energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) have been employed to elucidate the complex interplay between the inhibitors and the steel surfaces.
The book also delves into other experimental evaluations, including weight loss measurements and quartz crystal measurements, providing a comprehensive assessment of the corrosion inhibition effectiveness. Furthermore, computational studies, such as molecular dynamic simulations and Monte Carlo simulations, density functional theory, radial distribution function (RDF), and mean‐square displacement (MSD), have been employed to augment the understanding of imidazoline inhibitors’ performance.
Moreover, the book discusses the influence of physicochemical and flow effects, as well as metallurgical and surface effects, on the efficacy of imidazoline inhibitors. These effects encompass a broad range of factors, including chloride concentration, temperature, flow rate, acetic acid, and H2S exposure. By exploring these complex variables, researchers have been able to elucidate the intricate interplay between corrosion inhibition and the environmental and operational conditions.
This book presents a collection of comprehensive case studies focusing on the corrosion control challenges faced by oil pipeline companies in operations. These case studies incorporate the details of managing pipelines with high gas content, considering factors such as temperature, flow regime, water content, and steel type. The book explores the significance of various corrosion control strategies, including the utilization of a variety of inhibitors, the implementation of pigging techniques, the application of cathodic protection, and the relevant codes and standards. Each case study examines realistic parameters, operation conditions, and provides detailed procedures for protecting, monitoring, and evaluating the performance of corrosion control measures. These cases serve as valuable references for industry professionals, offering insights into effective corrosion management in challenging oil pipeline environments.
In summary, this book provides a comprehensive and consolidated resource for understanding the experimental evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors on oil pipeline steels. It serves as a vital reference for corrosion scientists, engineers, and researchers, offering a wealth of knowledge and insights to enhance the corrosion protection strategies employed in the oil and gas industry. The invaluable findings contained within these pages will undoubtedly contribute to the ongoing pursuit of more robust and efficient corrosion inhibition solutions, ensuring the integrity and longevity of oil pipelines for years to come.
List of Symbols
〈
ρ
B
〉
local
Particle of
B
density averaged over all shells around particle
A
ø
sample
Electron work function of sample
ø
tip
Electron work function of the electrode tip
∆
E
Energy gap
∆
f
Resonant frequency shift
Standard free energy of adsorption
∆
m
Change in mass per unit area
∆
N
Electron donation ability at the surface
μ
Dynamic viscosity
μ
d
Dipole moment
a
Frumkin interaction parameter
A
Electron affinity
API
Aminopropylimidazol
C
i
Inhibitor concentration
D
Differential polarization
E
a
Activation energy
E
inhibitor
Energy of inhibitor molecules
E
interaction
Energy of adsorption
E
surface+solution
Energy of interface
E
total
Inhibitor system energy
f
Temkin heterogeneity factor
f
−
Negative extent of Fukui functions
f
+
Positive extent of Fukui functions
f
max
Characteristic/maximum frequency
f
o
Fundamental frequency of the resonator
h
Average corrosion depth
I
Ionization potential
i
corr
Inhibited corrosion current density
i
corro
Uninhibited corrosion current density
K
Adsorption–desorption equilibrium constant
K
ads
Equilibrium constant of the adsorption reaction
Org
(sol)
Organic inhibitors in the aqueous phase
q
(
N
)
Mulliken atomic charges of the atom in molecules with
N
electrons
q
(
N
+ 1)
Mulliken atomic charges of the atom in molecules with
N
+ 1 electrons
q
(
N
− 1)
Mulliken atomic charges of the atom in molecules with
N
− 1 electrons
Q
ads
Heat of adsorption
R
Universal gas constant
Re
c
Local Reynolds number
T
Temperature
t
Immersion time
u
c
Local velocity
V
Potential difference
V
corr
Localized corrosion rate
W
General corrosion rate
Z
w
Warburg resistance
β
Polarization slope
ΔEL‐H
Energy difference
Δ
N
Number of transferred electrons from an inhibitor molecule to the carbon steel
η
Inhibition efficiency
η
G
Global hardness
η
GFe
Global hardness of iron
η
inh
Hardness of the inhibitor molecule
θ
Coverage of corrosion inhibitor of the surface
μ
q
Shear modulus of the quartz crystal
ν
Kinematic viscosity
ρ
Density of test solution
ρ
q
Density of the quartz crystal
σ
Resistance of diffusion through inhibitor film
σ
i
Current noise standard deviation
σ
s
Softness
σ
v
Potential noise standard deviation
τ
c
Shear stress
χ
Electronegativity
χ
Fe
Electronegativity of iron
χ
inh
Electronegativity of synthesized inhibitor molecule
ω
Rotational speed
ω
o
Warburg coefficient
1Introduction
1.1 Importance of Corrosion Inhibition in Pipeline Systems
The importance of corrosion inhibition in pipeline systems cannot be overstated, as corrosion poses significant challenges to the integrity, reliability, and safety of these critical infrastructure components. Pipelines are vital for the transportation of oil, gas, and other fluids over long distances, often spanning diverse and harsh environments. The exposure of pipeline steels to corrosive conditions, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), oxygen, and various contaminants, makes them susceptible to corrosion, which can lead to severe consequences. Corrosion in pipelines can result in significant economic losses. The oil and gas industry heavily relies on efficient and reliable pipeline networks to transport valuable resources from production sites to refineries and end‐users. Corrosion‐induced failures can lead to costly downtime, production losses, and repair or replacement expenses. The financial impact extends beyond direct costs, encompassing environmental remediation, legal liabilities, and damage to a company’s reputation. Therefore, effective corrosion inhibition strategies are essential to minimize these financial burdens and maintain the long‐term operability of pipeline systems. Moreover, corrosion inhibition plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety of pipeline operations. Corroded pipelines may experience structural weakening, leading to leaks, ruptures, or catastrophic failures. These failures not only endanger personnel working in the vicinity but also pose significant risks to nearby communities and the environment. The release of flammable or toxic substances can result in fires, explosions, or environmental pollution. By employing effective corrosion inhibitors, the overall structural integrity of pipeline systems can be preserved, mitigating the potential for such hazardous incidents and safeguarding human lives.
Corrosion inhibition is also vital for maintaining the efficiency and reliability of pipeline networks. Corroded pipelines exhibit increased frictional resistance, causing flow restrictions, pressure drops, and decreased operational efficiency. Additionally, the formation of corrosion by‐products, such as scales and deposits, can further impede fluid flow and reduce pipeline capacity. By employing corrosion inhibitors, the formation and accumulation of these deleterious products can be mitigated, ensuring smooth and efficient flow throughout the pipeline network. This, in turn, optimizes operational performance, reduces energy consumption, and enhances the overall reliability of the transportation system. Furthermore, effective corrosion inhibition strategies contribute to environmental protection. Corroded pipelines can lead to leaks or spills, resulting in the release of hydrocarbons or other hazardous substances into the surrounding environment. These incidents can have severe ecological impacts, contaminating soil, water bodies, and sensitive ecosystems. By employing corrosion inhibitors that effectively mitigate corrosion, the risk of environmental pollution can be significantly reduced, preserving natural resources and minimizing the ecological footprint of the oil and gas industry.
Several oil pipeline incidents have occurred due to problems with corrosion inhibition. In March 2006, the Trans‐Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) experienced a leak caused by a failure in the corrosion inhibition system, resulting in the spillage of approximately 200,000 gallons of crude oil near Atigun Pass. In July 2010, the Lakehead Pipeline System operated by Enbridge Energy Partners ruptured in Michigan due to corrosion issues stemming from inadequate corrosion inhibition, releasing an estimated one million gallons of heavy crude oil into the Kalamazoo River. The Platte Pipeline, owned by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, suffered a release in April 2011 near Atwood, Kansas, also attributed to corrosion problems arising from inadequate corrosion inhibition methods, resulting in the spillage of around 42,000 gallons of crude oil. Around the same time, in April 2011, the Rainbow Pipeline owned by Plains Midstream Canada experienced a leak in northern Alberta, Canada, due to corrosion issues, leading to the release of an estimated 28,000 barrels (1.18 million gallons) of crude oil, causing contamination and harm to the environment. These incidents prompted cleanup operations, repairs, and investigations into the corrosion inhibition measures employed by the respective pipeline operators. Please note that this information is based on historical data up until September 2021, and there may have been additional incidents since then.
1.2 The Economic Consequences of Corrosion in the Oil and Gas Industry
1.2.1 Maintenance Costs
Maintenance costs associated with corrosion in the oil and gas industry can impose substantial financial burdens on companies. Corrosion is an ongoing challenge that requires regular inspection, maintenance, and repair of pipelines and equipment to mitigate its detrimental effects. The continuous monitoring and evaluation of corrosion conditions necessitate dedicated resources, including specialized personnel, equipment, and technologies. These costs encompass the procurement and operation of inspection tools, such as sensors, cathodic protection systems, and non‐destructive testing equipment. Inspection activities are critical for identifying corrosion‐prone areas, assessing the extent of corrosion damage, and determining the need for repair or replacement. Regular inspections often involve detailed examinations of pipeline surfaces, internal inspections using intelligent pigging techniques, and assessments of corrosion inhibitors’ effectiveness. These inspection processes require skilled personnel, sophisticated data analysis, and comprehensive reporting, all of which contribute to the overall maintenance costs. Furthermore, maintenance and repair efforts entail significant expenses. Corrosion‐related repairs can range from simple patching or coating repairs to more complex tasks like section replacements or full pipeline rehabilitation. The costs involved in sourcing materials, specialized coatings, and corrosion inhibitors, as well as the labor‐intensive nature of repair activities, contribute to the financial burden. Additionally, access to remote or offshore locations may require specialized transportation and logistical arrangements, further adding to the overall maintenance costs. Corrosion‐induced maintenance expenses are not limited to pipelines alone. Equipment, such as storage tanks, valves, pumps, and processing units, are also susceptible to corrosion and require regular inspection and upkeep. Failure to address corrosion in these critical components can lead to significant disruptions in operations, safety risks, and potential environmental incidents. Therefore, oil and gas companies allocate substantial financial resources to ensure proper maintenance, including equipment inspection, cleaning, repair, and replacement as necessary.
1.2.2 Downtime and Production Losses
Downtime and production losses are major consequences of corrosion in the oil and gas industry. When pipelines require repairs or replacements due to corrosion‐related damage, it leads to interruptions in production and transportation, resulting in reduced output and potential revenue losses for the companies involved. These disruptions can have far‐reaching impacts on the entire supply chain and the overall profitability of oil and gas operations. The process of repairing or replacing corroded pipelines is time‐consuming and complex. It involves identifying the affected sections, assessing the extent of damage, procuring materials, planning the repair activities, and executing the necessary repairs. Depending on the severity of the corrosion, these repairs can range from localized patching to complete pipeline segment replacements. This downtime can last for days, weeks, or even months, during which the flow of oil and gas is halted or significantly reduced. The interruption of production and transportation due to corrosion‐related repairs has ripple effects throughout the industry. Oil and gas companies rely on a continuous flow of resources to meet production targets and supply customer demands. When pipelines are out of commission, there is a disruption in the movement of hydrocarbons from production fields to processing facilities, refineries, and ultimately to end consumers. This disruption can lead to delays in meeting contractual obligations, potential penalties, and strained relationships with customers. Moreover, the reduction in output directly impacts revenue generation. Oil and gas companies earn revenue based on the quantity of oil and gas sold. When production is curtailed due to corrosion‐related issues, the volume of hydrocarbons available for sale decreases, leading to revenue losses. Additionally, companies may face increased costs associated with rerouting or alternative transportation methods to compensate for the interrupted pipelines, further impacting their profitability. The economic consequences of downtime and production losses extend beyond the immediate revenue impact. They can also affect market competitiveness and investor confidence. If a company experiences frequent disruptions due to corrosion‐related repairs, its reputation and reliability in the industry may suffer. This could lead to decreased investor interest, difficulty in securing future projects, and potential negative impacts on stock prices.
To mitigate the impact of downtime and production losses, oil and gas companies invest in proactive corrosion management strategies. This includes implementing corrosion monitoring systems, employing effective corrosion inhibitors, conducting regular inspections, and adopting preventive maintenance practices. By prioritizing corrosion prevention and adopting proactive measures, companies can minimize the frequency and severity of corrosion‐related issues, thereby reducing downtime, optimizing production levels, and safeguarding their bottom line.
1.2.3 Replacement Expenses
Corrosion‐related damage in the oil and gas industry can have substantial financial implications, particularly when it requires the complete replacement of pipelines, storage tanks, or other critical infrastructure components. The decision to undertake replacements is often driven by the severity of corrosion, which can compromise the safety, reliability, and efficiency of these assets. As a result, companies are faced with significant expenses associated with replacing corroded equipment to ensure the continuity of their operations. The process of replacing corroded pipelines or storage tanks involves multiple stages, each contributing to the overall expenses. First, thorough inspections and assessments are conducted to evaluate the extent of corrosion damage and identify the areas that require replacement. Once the areas requiring replacement are identified, companies must procure the necessary materials and equipment. This entails sourcing new pipes, fittings, valves, or storage tanks, often with specific requirements to address corrosion concerns. The costs of these materials can be substantial, especially for large‐scale projects that involve significant lengths of pipelines or the replacement of multiple storage tanks. Additionally, specialized coatings or corrosion‐resistant alloys may be required to ensure the longevity and durability of the new infrastructure.
1.2.4 Increased Energy Consumption
Corrosion in the oil and gas industry not only leads to direct material damage and replacement expenses but also has indirect consequences, such as increased energy consumption. When pipelines and equipment are affected by corrosion, it can result in reduced flow efficiency and increased resistance to fluid movement. As a result, more energy is required to overcome these flow restrictions and maintain optimal transportation of oil and gas through the corroded infrastructure. Corrosion‐induced flow restrictions create additional pressure drop along the pipeline, necessitating higher pumping or compression power to maintain the desired flow rates. This increased energy consumption translates into higher operating costs for oil and gas companies. Inefficiencies caused by corrosion can require operators to increase pump or compressor discharge pressures to compensate for the decreased flow capacity, resulting in higher energy demands. Furthermore, if corrosion restricts the flow beyond the acceptable limits, companies may need to operate at reduced throughput, leading to extended transportation times and increased energy usage per unit of product transported. The overall impact of increased energy consumption due to corrosion extends beyond operational costs. It contributes to higher carbon emissions and environmental footprints. The additional energy required to compensate for corrosion‐induced inefficiencies results in increased greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels used for power generation. This contributes to the overall carbon intensity of the oil and gas industry.
1.3 The Environmental Consequences of Corrosion in the Oil and Gas Industry
1.3.1 Soil and Water Contamination
Soil and water contamination is a significant environmental consequence of corrosion in the oil and gas industry. Corrosion‐related leaks, breaches, or ruptures in pipelines or storage tanks can result in the unintended release of oil or gas into the surrounding environment, posing risks to soil quality, groundwater, and nearby water bodies. This form of environmental pollution can have severe consequences for ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. When corrosive damage causes leaks or ruptures, oil or gas substances can seep into the soil, leading to soil contamination. The spilled hydrocarbons can infiltrate the soil layers, altering its composition, reducing its fertility, and disrupting its natural processes. The toxic components present in the spilled oil or gas, such as heavy metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), can persist in the soil for extended periods, posing risks to plant and microbial life. These contaminants can also leach into groundwater, further exacerbating the environmental impact. Water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and coastal areas, are particularly vulnerable to contamination from corrosion‐related leaks. Spilled oil or gas can enter waterways through surface runoff or direct discharge, leading to immediate or long‐term environmental damage. The oil or gas substances can form slicks or sheens on the water surface, affecting oxygen exchange and sunlight penetration, which are essential for aquatic life. The toxic components of the hydrocarbons can harm fish, shellfish, and other organisms: disrupt food chains, and disturb the ecological balance of the affected ecosystems.
Contaminated water sources pose risks to human health, especially when they are used for drinking, agriculture, or recreational purposes. Exposure to contaminated soil or water can lead to adverse health effects, including respiratory problems, skin irritations, or contamination of food crops. The economic impacts can also be substantial, as contaminated water bodies may result in restrictions on fishing or tourism activities, leading to revenue losses for local communities and businesses.
1.3.2 Air Pollution
Air pollution is one of the major consequences of corrosion in the oil and gas industry. Corrosion‐related incidents, such as leaks, ruptures, or emissions from equipment, can release various pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution. These pollutants include VOCs, sulfur compounds, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. The release of such contaminants can have detrimental effects on air quality, human health, and the environment. VOCs are organic chemicals that readily vaporize at room temperature and contribute to the formation of ground‐level ozone and secondary pollutants. These compounds have harmful effects on air quality and human health, causing respiratory issues, eye irritation, and even long‐term health risks such as cancer. The release of VOCs into the atmosphere also contributes to the formation of smog and photochemical reactions, leading to the creation of harmful air pollutants. Furthermore, corrosion‐induced emissions can also result in the release of sulfur compounds, such as H2S and NOx. These gases contribute to the formation of acid rain and atmospheric pollution. Sulfur compounds released from corroded infrastructure contribute to the generation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) when they react with oxygen in the air. SO2 is a major contributor to acid rain, which can have harmful effects on ecosystems, soil quality, and vegetation. Similarly, NOx emissions, primarily from combustion processes in equipment affected by corrosion, contribute to the formation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and other NOx. The particulate matter released as a result of corrosion‐related processes can also contribute to air pollution. Particulate matter consists of fine particles suspended in the air, including dust, soot, and other solid or liquid pollutants. When corrosion causes equipment or pipelines to deteriorate, particulate matter can be released into the atmosphere, especially during maintenance activities or repairs. These particles can have adverse effects on air quality and human health, as they can be inhaled and deposited in the respiratory system, leading to respiratory problems, cardiovascular issues, and other health complications.
1.3.3 Climate Change Contributions
Corrosion in the oil and gas industry plays a role in contributing to climate change. The extraction, production, and transportation of oil and gas involve energy‐intensive processes that release greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Corrosion‐related incidents exacerbate this issue by causing leaks, spills, or inefficient operations, resulting in additional emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. These emissions contribute to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and subsequent climate change. Corrosion‐related leaks in pipelines or storage tanks release methane (CH4), which is a potent greenhouse gas with a much higher global warming potential than CO2 over shorter timeframes. Methane emissions occur due to the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter or the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. When corrosion compromises the integrity of pipelines or storage facilities, it can lead to the release of methane into the atmosphere, amplifying the climate change impact of the oil and gas industry. Inefficient operations resulting from corrosion also contribute to climate change. When equipment is corroded, it can lead to suboptimal combustion or energy utilization, resulting in higher energy consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions. For example, corroded equipment may experience reduced thermal efficiency, requiring more fuel or energy input to achieve the desired heat transfer, which in turn increases CO2 emissions. Similarly, corrosion‐induced leaks in pressure vessels or valves can lead to fugitive emissions of methane or other greenhouse gases, further contributing to the industry’s carbon footprint.
The impacts of climate change, such as rising global temperatures, sea level rise, and extreme weather events, have far‐reaching consequences for ecosystems, communities, and economies. The oil and gas industry’s contribution to climate change through corrosion‐related emissions intensifies these risks. It underscores the importance of adopting corrosion prevention measures, implementing energy‐efficient practices, and transitioning toward cleaner and renewable energy sources. By investing in technologies that reduce emissions, promoting sustainable practices, and supporting research and development efforts for low‐carbon solutions, the industry can mitigate its climate change contributions and contribute to a more sustainable future.
1.4 Importance of Imidazoline Inhibitors in Oil Pipelines
Imidazoline inhibitors play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and efficiency of oil pipelines. These chemical compounds are specifically designed to prevent the formation and accumulation of harmful deposits, such as scales, corrosion, and organic sludges, within the pipeline system. By inhibiting the formation of these deposits, imidazoline inhibitors help ensure the smooth flow of oil, minimize downtime, and enhance the overall safety and reliability of oil pipelines. One of the primary reasons imidazoline inhibitors are essential in oil pipelines is their ability to mitigate corrosion. Imidazoline inhibitors create a protective film on the internal surface of pipelines, which acts as a barrier between the metal and corrosive substances present in the oil. This protective film reduces the corrosion rate and extends the lifespan of the pipeline, resulting in significant cost savings for oil companies and reducing the risk of catastrophic failures. Another key aspect of imidazoline inhibitors is their capacity to inhibit the formation of scales. In oil production, scales can precipitate and accumulate on the inner walls of pipelines. This build‐up restricts the flow of oil, reduces pipeline capacity, and increases pumping costs. Imidazoline inhibitors prevent the nucleation and growth of scale crystals, effectively controlling their deposition and maintaining the hydraulic efficiency of the pipeline. Imidazoline inhibitors are also effective in controlling the formation of organic sludges in oil pipelines. Sludges can form due to the presence of asphaltenes, waxes, and other heavy organic compounds in the oil. These sludges can cause blockages, increase pressure differentials, and hinder the flow of oil. Imidazoline inhibitors interact with organic components, dispersing and preventing their agglomeration, thereby minimizing sludge formation and maintaining the pipeline’s operational efficiency. They ultimately aid in reducing the frequency of pipeline maintenance and cleaning operations. By inhibiting the deposition of scales, corrosion, and sludges, these inhibitors help prevent the accumulation of harmful substances that would otherwise require costly and time‐consuming interventions. This leads to improved operational efficiency, reduced downtime, and enhanced productivity in oil pipeline operations.
Imidazoline inhibitors are utilized in oil pipelines through a process known as chemical injection. This involves the controlled addition of imidazoline‐based compounds into the pipeline system at specific points, such as injection stations or at strategic intervals along the pipeline route. The inhibitors are typically introduced into the pipeline through injection skids or dosing units, which accurately measure and regulate the dosage of the inhibitor. Once injected into the pipeline, the imidazoline inhibitors mix with the flowing oil and disperse throughout the system. As the oil flows, the inhibitors come into contact with the internal surfaces of the pipeline, where they begin to perform their protective functions. Imidazoline inhibitors possess a unique molecular structure that allows them to adsorb onto the metal surfaces, forming a thin, protective film. This protective film acts as a barrier, preventing corrosive substances from directly interacting with the pipeline’s metal surfaces. It hinders the electrochemical reactions that lead to corrosion, reducing the corrosion rate and mitigating the risk of metal degradation. Additionally, imidazoline inhibitors possess surfaceactive properties, which enable them to interact with and inhibit the formation of scales and organic sludges. The dosage of imidazoline inhibitors used in oil pipelines varies depending on factors such as the pipeline size, operating conditions, and the specific inhibitor formulation. The dosage is carefully determined through extensive laboratory testing and field trials to ensure optimal performance and effectiveness. Industry professionals consider factors such as the pipeline's material, fluid composition, flow rates, and environmental conditions when establishing the appropriate dosage. Regular monitoring and maintenance of the imidazoline inhibitor treatment program are essential to ensure its continued effectiveness. Periodic sampling and analysis of the treated oil help assess the inhibitor’s performance, corrosion rates, and the presence of any undesirable deposits. Adjustments to the dosage or inhibitor formulation may be made based on the analysis results to optimize protection and maintain the pipeline’s integrity.
1.5 Importance of Experimental Laboratory Evaluation of Imidazoline Inhibitors
Laboratory experimental evaluation plays a crucial role in assessing the effectiveness of imidazoline inhibitors in mitigating corrosion of pipeline steels. These evaluations provide essential insights on the following:
Corrosion assessment: Laboratory experiments allow researchers to simulate and evaluate the corrosion behavior of pipeline steels in controlled environments. By subjecting the steel samples to corrosive conditions representative of the pipeline’s operational environment, researchers can assess the extent of corrosion and evaluate the performance of imidazoline inhibitors. This helps in understanding the inhibitor’s ability to mitigate corrosion, measure the corrosion rate reduction, and determine its long‐term protective efficacy.
Inhibitor formulation optimization: Laboratory evaluations enable researchers to optimize the formulation of imidazoline inhibitors. By testing different concentrations and combinations of inhibitors, researchers can identify the most effective formulation that provides maximum corrosion inhibition. These experiments also help determine the optimal dosage range for the inhibitors, ensuring cost‐effective use while maintaining optimal corrosion protection for the pipeline steels.
Material compatibility: Laboratory evaluations allow researchers to examine the compatibility of imidazoline inhibitors with different types of pipeline steels. It is important to ensure that the inhibitors do not adversely affect the mechanical properties or integrity of the steel. By conducting tests such as tensile strength analysis, hardness testing, and microstructural examinations, researchers can assess any potential degradation or changes in the steel’s properties due to the utilization of inhibitors.
Performance in various environmental conditions: Laboratory experiments provide researchers with the flexibility to simulate various environmental conditions that pipelines may encounter. Different corrosive media, such as acidic or saline solutions, can be replicated to evaluate the performance of imidazoline inhibitors in different scenarios. This helps in understanding how the inhibitors behave under different conditions and allows for targeted inhibitor selection based on the specific pipeline’s operating environment.
Comparative studies: Laboratory evaluations facilitate comparative studies between different imidazoline inhibitors or inhibitor formulations. By testing multiple inhibitors simultaneously, researchers can determine which formulation offers superior corrosion protection for the pipeline steels. These comparative studies help in the selection of the most effective inhibitor and provide valuable information for industry professionals seeking to optimize corrosion mitigation strategies.
1.6 Experimental Considerations for Imidazoline Inhibitors in Oil Pipeline Applications
Before imidazoline inhibitors are considered for deployment, a thorough evaluation of their performance experimentally is imperative. This comprehensive guide explores the key factors that demand attention when assessing the suitability of imidazoline inhibitors for use in oil pipelines. They include performance evaluation and compatibility with pipeline fluids to environmental impact assessment, material compatibility, long‐term performance, and field testing validation. By understanding and addressing these experimental considerations, pipeline operators can make informed decisions about the application of imidazoline inhibitors, ensuring effective corrosion and scale protection throughout their pipeline systems.
Inhibitor performance evaluation: In a laboratory setting, it is essential to conduct comprehensive tests to evaluate the inhibitory performance of imidazoline compounds. These tests should assess their effectiveness in mitigating corrosion and scale formation. Simulating pipeline‐relevant conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and fluid composition, will provide valuable insights into the inhibitors’ performance under real‐world circumstances.
Compatibility with pipeline fluids: Imidazoline inhibitors must be compatible with the various types of fluids present in oil pipelines. Compatibility studies should be conducted to determine how the inhibitors interact with crude oil and its associated contaminants. It is important to assess the stability and efficacy of the inhibitors in the presence of impurities like salts, solids, and acidic components commonly found in pipeline fluids.
Environmental considerations: The environmental impact of imidazoline inhibitors must be evaluated to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements. Toxicity studies should be conducted to assess the potential effects of these inhibitors on aquatic life and other environmental factors. Understanding and minimizing any adverse environmental impacts are critical aspects of their overall suitability for pipeline use.
