Invisible Work E-Book

John Howkins

• Herausgeber: September Publishing
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

A visionary exploration of the global futureof work and an essential framework for work/life growth in the era of the remote professional.'John Howkins' books have proven clairvoyant; this new book is no exception. It is a must-read for innovation leaders.' Alice Loy, CEO and co-founder of Creative Startups The old models no longer apply. Work today depends on personal, subjective ideas which begin inside our heads and whose success depends on never-ending negotiations with what's going on inside other people's heads. It depends on attitudes and behaviours in small, smart, fast teams. Job descriptions, office structures and nine-to-five expectations have become optional. All the crucial moments – the thoughts and feelings that decide what we do – are invisible. How we manage this and make it visible determines how well we do, how we are paid and whether we enjoy our work. In Invisible Work, John Howkins explores how to discover purpose, autonomy and opportunity in this new isolated, yet connected, world. 'Fresh, original, powerful, profound and deeply practical.' Jeremy Hunter, founding director ofExecutive Mind Leadership Institute

Leseprobe

John Howkins is a leading figure in the global understanding of work, innovation and creativity, shaping business and government policy in Europe, China and South America. He is the author of the seminal The Creative Economy, which has been translated into 14 languages. He was previously chief adviser to HBO and Time Warner and chair of The London Film School, CREATEC, Tornado and BOP. John is a member of the United Nations Advisory Committee on the Creative Economy, and in 2006 the Shanghai government set up the John Howkins Research Centre on the Creative Economy. He is in wide demand as a speaker and adviser on creativity and innovation, working with individuals, start-ups, companies and governments.

Praise for Invisible Work

‘Fresh, original, powerful, profound and deeply practical. John Howkins makes visible the essential contours of working in a transforming world. If you want the secrets to a successful and satisfying life, read this book.’

Jeremy Hunter, founding director of Executive Mind Leadership Institute

‘John invites us to discover a world of unseen possibilities. In an age of “invisibilities”, he masterfully helps us understand that those who carry out the actual job of delivering creativity and innovation are the cornerstone of defining our modern world.’

Felipe Buitrago, co-author of The Orange Economy andThe No Collar Economy

‘John Howkins’ books have proven clairvoyant; this new book is no exception. It is a must-read for innovation leaders. The seismic shift towards invisible work demands CEOs, entrepreneurs and managers rethink how to lead teams whose heavy lifting happens in the mind. John’s book gives a roadmap for understanding and navigating this new landscape.’

Alice Loy, CEO and co-founder of Creative Startups

‘This wise and inspiring book shows us the true meaning of work in the 21st century ... Essential reading for anyone in pursuit of a more productive and purposeful life.’

Paul Owens, founder and chair of BOP Consulting and director of the World Cities Culture Forum

1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

This paperback edition published 2021 by September Publishing First published in 2020 by September Publishing

Copyright © John Howkins 2020, 2021

The right of John Howkins to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder

Infographic on p76 by Diego / ASKEO

Typeset by Ed Pickford

Printed in Poland on paper from responsibly managed, sustainable sources by L&C Printing Group

ISBN 978-1-912836-76-5

September Publishing

www.septemberpublishing.org

CONTENTS

Preface to New Edition: Covid-19 – The Great Disruption

1. Everywhere and Nowhere

The disappearance of work. What do we want? A personal choice. Knowledge and creativity are not enough. A new model. The three aims: purpose, autonomy and opportunity.

2. Real Work

The difference between work and a job. A job sets the scene but work makes the difference. Work is expanding but what exactly are we doing all day long, and why? The tension between a company’s requirements and personal interests.

3. The Eight Forces Reshaping Work

The global forces that are changing work beyond recognition and making it hard to measure and reward fairly. Working from Home. Taking Charge, Plural Work. The Four Circles.

4. The Power of the Unseen

Managing one’s mind. The moment when understanding and feeling fuse together and change perception. Invisible work is private, personal and subjective. The Two Judges. Speaking the language of invisibility.

5. Thinkability

How to start. Who Am I? The power to be single-minded in a group; to be alone and yet together. Being with the right people in the right place. Becoming an insider.

6. Go Visible

Getting thoughts from my head into your head. Turning thought into action. Stepping up. How to frame, name and define. The link between effort and pay. Negotiation.

7. The Incorporated Self

Taking charge by setting up a business. Using company law and digital platforms to add value. Peak employment. Fragmentation. A dance of masks. Work hides away from public gaze.

8. Third Spaces

Working from home. The brain-as-office and the city as a meeting place. Offices are base camps for a network of relationships. Cafés and backpacks.

9. Mindful Machines

The capacity of artificial intelligence for invisible work. The difference between human and AI versions of invisible work. Humans are better at explaining. Some principles for co-working with AI.

10. Future Ripples

Choosing the future of work. The rise of invisible work threatens the life/work balance. How to negotiate a new balance. Flexible work, a four-day week and a universal basic income. Work as if people matter.

Ten Rules for Invisible Work

References

Acknowledgements

Index

PREFACE TO NEW EDITION COVID-19 – THE GREAT DISRUPTION

The Covid-19 pandemic disrupted almost every kind of work. Millions of people who had always gone out to work were suddenly asked to stay at home and work there, if they could. Offices were abandoned and high streets were empty. It was the most abrupt and total change to working life ever known and a shock to many people’s routine, income, identity and friendships.

We began to think about work, our work, as never before, as individuals, household by household and company by company. Online suddenly became the new normal or, as I prefer to say, the new temporary, one of many to come. The psychological impact is still unclear, but the consensus is that people coped surprisingly well if their work was cognitive and nomadic, and they had a good life/work balance. They became pioneers of a new way of working. Others struggled because of the nature of their work or their personal circumstances or perhaps their employer’s attitude.

We became more aware of the relationship between us and our work, which in turn affected the relationship between us and our company and our company’s office. Speculation about the future of work switched from the nature of automation and its effects on jobs to personal freedom and autonomy and the role of work in our lives. Trends that had been barely noticeable were suddenly mainstream (such as cognitive agility and hybrid working). Many said the pandemic had accelerated existing trends rather than revealed new ones.

Before the pandemic, many regarded working at home as a little quirky, if not self-indulgent, and not for them. The proportion of office workers who expected to work more often at home in the future was around 10 per cent in 2019. Within six months it rose to nearly 70 per cent. A Cisco survey of 10,000 office workers, Workforce of the Future, reported a staggering 87 per cent of workers wanted to be able to choose whether to work from home or in the office, and manage their hours, even when offices open up. The numbers are likely to fall back as offices re-open but they will surely not fall back to 10 per cent. The future is coming closer.

Change often starts slowly and then gathers pace. Since writing The Creative Economy I have spent 20 years talking with individuals and companies around the world about the nature of work and particularly work that increases the prospects for creativity and innovation. Everyone I talked with had their own approach (which can be irritating to colleagues) but they do share some distinctive characteristics.

Their starting point is seeing work as a personal endeavour and not just a job. They believe that being given a job and doing it on someone else’s terms is unlikely to be interesting or produce good results. They like a challenge, are self-motivated and not averse to taking charge when necessary. They don’t always ask for permission; doing so can take too long and the magic moment may disappear. Anyway, permission might be refused; better not to ask.

They accumulate their own cognitive toolbox from an early age and add to it throughout their lives. It’s stored in their brain and they cannot imagine being without it.

Working like this has two great advantages: it is more rewarding to the person doing it and more valuable to the company.

The pandemic has not reversed these trends or cancelled these advantages. Rather it has made us more aware of them. It has speeded up the forces for change and added a few twists.

We had to rethink our work arrangements. The default was to set up a workspace at home that mimicked our office workspace and to stick to current tasks as best we could. I call this office-lite.

And then there was a mind shift which was summed up by Fast Company’s headline, ‘Figure Out How You Want to Work’. We realised we are free to redesign our work and have the kind of office we want.

The conversation widened to include all work, both paid and unpaid. Households with children had to take on working, caring and teaching roles, juggling paid work, housework and homework, which raised questions of equality and gender roles.

We talked more about personal and practical issues such as trying to work when alone, how to make a mark wherever we are, and hours and pay. The millions of young people leaving school and university and looking for their first job ask the most basic question: how do I start? The result is a conversation in every household and every country with a range and urgency it has never had before. This reflects the book’s theme that work is a humanist endeavour as much as an economic activity, and Peter Drucker’s insight that work is about humans creating more value for other humans.

In this new edition I have added new sections on working from home and online, as well the effects on offices, and on the private nature of cognitive work. I have written more on company culture. I have added Ten Rules of Invisible Work but I am in favour of Rule Ten, which suggests you make up your own.

Doing invisible work at home is an experiment in the future. I don’t mean that in the future everyone will work at home, but something more far-reaching: a new relationship between us and our work, our office and our company.

Invisible work consists of a person’s personal, private thoughts that relate to their work and which, for many, are the most critical part of what they do and the reason they are paid. It is the heart of creativity and innovation. Taking charge of and communicating it to others can make the difference between success and failure.

The good news is that in spite of breaking most of the conventional assumptions about work, it is accepted as work and paid as work. The pandemic made this evident.

Artist Bruce McLean describes it as, ‘The not discussed, not remarked upon work. Work with no meaning as yet. Work that is self-questioning. Work that is not possible to document.’1

The spirit of invisible work isn’t new. Richard Irish’s 1973 book Go Hire Yourself an Employer captured its message in the year Steve Jobs dropped out of college. It’s about using one’s brains and taking charge. But its scope is far greater.

When I talk about it, people say, ‘Oh, I’ve just done some invisible work today.’ It’s all around us, hiding in plain sight. This book shows how to recognise it, and how to thrive in a world that now depends on it.

John Howkins, December 2020

1.

EVERYWHERE AND NOWHERE

The Choice

You walk into a meeting or you join online. Your instinct is to look around for clues about what others are feeling and thinking. You notice the funky table and chairs, and you feel comfortable but also a little nervous about what’s going to happen. You check out the other people and their devices, although you know anyone looking at you would have no clue what you are thinking. The meeting starts but no one asks you to speak and, when you do, no one listens. You know a bit about what’s being said but other people chip in more quickly to make obvious points, easy wins, and you have no startling contribution to make and the discussion moves on. You wonder how to break through. On the surface, it’s fine but you can’t get below the surface. Suddenly the meeting breaks up. What a waste of time. You’re invisible. You can’t go on working like this.

Start again. You walk into a meeting or join online. Your instinct is to look around for clues about what others are feeling and thinking. You notice the funky table and chairs, and you feel comfortable but also a little nervous about what’s going to happen. You relish being left alone to think. You’re in charge. You’re invisible. It’s called freedom. You’re free to think and say what you want. You know a bit about what the others are thinking and what they might say but you don’t like a meeting to be predictable and prefer to adjust what you’re thinking as the conversation develops. You play around with various things to say, rapidly changing your ideas, deciding what is negotiable and what is not. Most of them aren’t that important, achieving tactical positions rather than strategic wipeouts, but you relish delivering the ones that are, at the right moment. Good meeting. See you soon.

Some of the most critical things we do at work are invisible. Turning up is noticed. Going to a meeting and saying hi, that’s noticed. But the thinking that makes the difference between success and failure, and adds the most value, is invisible. The decision to go to the meeting or to finish a report or talk to someone you badly need to talk to – that cannot be seen. The feeling of what’s right cannot be seen.

The visible differences between cognitive success and failure are microscopically small.

Some people seem to have an aptitude for this. Everyone is sitting round the same table, so to speak, but some people seem confident that they are at the heart of the action while others behave as if they are on the sidelines.

Zig Zag

My first job as a teenager was the 7 p.m. to 7 a.m. overnight shift in the Watford Gap motorway services area on the M1 in the Midlands, and my second was the daytime shift at Linnell’s grocery warehouse for small corner shops in Northampton. I was delighted to be paid for doing something so simple and I liked my new mates: it’s a gift to be cheerful at 2 a.m. or after lugging down another box of groceries.

Looking back, I realise there was a good reason why those jobs were so easy. I could see what others were doing and copy them, and they could see when I needed help. These same reasons also made them boring, and so after going to university I joined Lever Brothers, part of Unilever, and became a brand manager.

After two years there I walked away because the focus on brands and sales was too narrow for me. In spite of giving me status and money, the company cared not one whit about who I was or wanted to be.

So I decided to follow my own interests in city design. I had grown up in and around an old market town. But life was moving on. Surely the look and feel of future neighbourhoods would be, should be, different? I was inspired by Ian Nairn’s books Outrage and Counter-Attack and the ambitious designs of C. A. Doxiadis. I went back to school at London’s Architectural Association to do an MA in urban design.

This led me to Stewart Brand and The Whole Earth Catalog, which was inspired by the ideas of Buckminster Fuller and spurred on by Brand’s own success in persuading NASA to release the first image of the earth as seen from space. It declared, ‘We are as gods and might as well get good at it.’ It was both lifestyle guide and sales catalogue. I joined Friends magazine (later called Frendz), an offshoot of Rolling Stone, which wanted help with the British edition of the Catalog. Then I was offered a job on Time Out, a radical news and listings magazine, to write about books and TV.

I found myself in the ideas business. Our work was about what we knew and how we phrased it and communicated it to others. It was brain work and we did it when and where we wanted.

We never knew when ideas would come, and we kept our work private until we decided we wanted to talk about it, or a deadline was imminent. A lot of the chat was informal and fuzzy and often we gave few signs of work being done. Sometimes, of course, it wasn’t.

My work was becoming invisible. My ideas began to expand beyond the job requirements which, I realise now, is an early symptom of invisible work. It was still a job in that I was employed, given a desk, paid and taxed, but my work had changed from being public and observable to being private and unseen. I began to ask myself about the nature of thinking-as-work. About people who think for a living.

A friend who has known me for a long time said she never understood what I was doing. I realise now she meant she couldn’t visualise it.

What Do We Want to Do?

Why do we get up in the morning? Money is a big incentive. Is there also a sense of responsibility? If so, to ourselves or other people? Is it a sense of pride, perhaps? What do friends and family expect us to do? What do we actually do? What do we want to do?

When I ask people, they reply in two ways. The most common is the conventional checklist of a good company, a good boss and nice people. Money is always on the list, and often the main or only reason why someone works, although it is seldom mentioned first. And there is the question of whether the job suits them personally. This is tougher to answer because it is about their private life and what they find interesting and meaningful, and these change as our lives develop.

It’s partly about being happy. According to American research company Wrike, as many as 54 per cent of British workers and 58 per cent of American workers have taken a pay cut to accept a job that ‘made them happier’.2

But happiness is a lightweight matter. We can be happy doing nothing. Recurring Gallup polls show what we really want. The top criteria for two-thirds of all adults are a sociable workplace and good pay. These two are closely followed by meaningful work, the chance to work flexible hours and a convenient location.

What is relevant for invisible work is that each time the total sample is subdivided by age, education or income, the priorities change in favour of more private, subjective matters. For younger and more educated people, personal qualities and meaningful work move up to the top of the rankings.

For young graduates, three aims recur. One, a purpose to identify with and give support to. Two, the autonomy to make decisions on how to contribute to that purpose in our own way. Three, the opportunity to nourish our personal qualities and talents.

When we get to the office, it can be hard to know if the people there are working at all and, if they are, if their work is going well or badly; let alone meet those three criteria. We may know in general but not in any particular case, here and now.

I often go to a digital agency which I have known well for many years. I see people at their desk or in the meeting room or walking around but it is impossible to deduce what they are working at. I see a few new faces. I notice one person has moved to another space but there is no clue as to whether this is deliberate or incidental. Once I saw a new table. I am clutching at straws.

We all do the same kind of things: we peer at a screen or sit around a table and talk, or walk to and fro between doing these things. Visit a city centre café and it is hard to tell whether people at the next-door table are speculating about a colleague or plotting a new business or comparing holidays. They’re probably doing all three. The evidence, hiding in full sight, is that their work is invisible.

This is increasingly taken for granted. Speaking of Facebook’s new HQ at Menlo Park, known as MPK20, Lori Goler, the company’s head of human resources, says ‘No one pays any attention to how much someone is working or isn’t working’.3

So when a friend tells you what she’s doing, you wonder when did she start to do that? And how? Did she get permission? We’ve all heard the dismissive remark made to someone who is thinking hard: ‘You don’t look as if you’re working!’ We often don’t know ourselves. Ask me what I was thinking 30 minutes ago and I might not be convincing at all. The person who knows exactly what they’re doing, and why, and can communicate it clearly to others, is rare.

These people work differently from others. They are workshy yet prolific, reluctant to follow rules and yet agile. Doing things on their own invisible terms. They seem to have more ideas and be more successful at getting their ideas across.

I first noticed this trait in people who are creative and innovative. I call it a ‘trait’, which is a nondescript word, but it can appear in many different guises, such as inclination, talent or skill, and even a routine, a habit.

But I soon realised it is not limited to people who have a reputation for being creative, whether the Big Creativity of art and invention or the Little Creativity of making a small change to something for the better. It is as much about responding to other people’s creativity, whether a game-changing design or an amusing funny post, as being creative oneself.

It is about using cognition and feeling as the core part of one’s work. It is personal and subjective. It happens whenever we use our imagination to deal with a task that is intangible and subjective in ways that are also intangible and subjective. Throughout the process, all the decisive moments are invisible. I call it ‘invisible work’.

How we handle this absence of evidence is at least as important as how we manage everything else about our work. It is more important than being well-informed or clever or working long hours.

Katherine works like this. She is newly promoted as a digital marketing manager and has had to rethink a lot of what she had taken for granted. She is juggling two or three frameworks: her old job, her new job and her nascent ideas about what the company could do in the future. She is at that exciting stage of a new job when she is thinking not only about her own work but what the whole company could do better.

She finds it exhausting and lonely but not in a bad way. She roves around the office to discover what others are thinking. Then she retreats inside herself to muster her own thoughts. This moment of abstraction, and it usually is just a moment, is the nub of her work.

Tom used to hold regular team meetings to brainstorm ideas. He would book a room for one or two hours and encourage everyone to be disruptive and challenging. He wanted the meetings to be enjoyable, and usually they were, but increasingly senior managers began to stay away and Tom himself became a little bored.

So he started the next meeting in the usual way but after half an hour he broke it up and said everyone should take a 24-hour break and then, if they wanted to, meet to continue the discussion. He had no idea what people would do. If they were not interested, that was fine.

Throughout the day and the following morning, the ideas flowed. People were able to be themselves and manage their own thoughts in their own way. Some had used the five-stage process described later as CIDER (see page 101). Tom called it an ‘invisible meeting’.

Some people have always worked this way, setting their own agenda, managing their own thoughts, coming and going, but they were the exception. They were treated as outsiders, and not always in a complimentary way. What has changed is a growing awareness of thinking-as-work.

Creativity is Not Enough

It has had multiple names. Innovation. Information work and knowledge work. It has given rise to the attention economy and the experience economy as well as the network economy and wired economy. Recently, there has been greater recognition of creativity and the creative industries. These are all examples of invisible work.

The decisive moments – the moment of creativity, the calculations of innovation – are all invisible. But it has taken some time for the nature of this, and its impact on the rest of work, to come to the fore.

Forty years after coining the term ‘knowledge worker’ Peter Drucker said such people are ‘almost impossible to control’.4 For a man whose reputation rests on his understanding of management that might seem a risky phrase. But Drucker always told the truth and that is why he is still respected and read. He meant knowledge workers do not fit within current ideas of management so we need new ones.

Others describe knowledge workers as being highly individualistic, putting their own interests alongside those of the company and, let’s admit, sometimes a little higher.

Like Katherine, they are holistic. They take a broad view; everything is grist to their mill. They may hold strong principles that are invisible to others. That by itself would make control difficult. They ‘have to have autonomy’, said Drucker.5 They like to be discretionary.

They have a talent for curiosity. They take pleasure in knowing things for their own sake, whether or not anyone had asked them to find out. They find new ways of putting their personal stamp on their work and making it more valuable (I cover this later in my Four Circles model, page 75).

The knowledge economy depends on invisible work. So does the creative economy. Their greatest value comes from the power to conceptualise, interpret and convey subjective ideas. Power is concentrated in those who understand more and communicate their perceptions with more feeling.

So being a knowledge worker is not enough; nor is creativity, by itself. What else is needed? The people doing invisible work are like private detectives – slightly secretive, intuitive but logical, and opportunistic. They have to be entrepreneurs in taking responsibility for their ideas. They are design thinkers. Digital nomads.

Human qualities of reputation and trust are more relevant than knowledge; a reputation for summoning up the right idea at the right moment, here and now.

We can distil all this into a few points. The heart of invisible work is the purposive use of cognition and emotion. Like all work, it is an action, a process. It requires inclination, skill and determination. And, like other work, it can be done well or badly. It is open to being learned.

We progress by means of a continual switching between private abstraction and public and visible communication. To succeed at invisible work we learn how to choose when we should draw back the curtain and let people look in. We are impresarios of our own ideas.

The rewards can be great. When done well, it adds more value than visible work and, as a result, is better paid.

From being a small part of a few people’s work, it has become the major part of most people’s work.

Why has it become so widespread? It started with the growth in university education, which provokes and stimulates curiosity and gives credence to scepticism and open-ended debate. Graduates aspire to jobs where they can use their brains and take charge of their own ideas. Millennials demonstrate this clearly in their attitude to work as an intrinsic element in their lives which often outranks traditional family ties and attitudes.

It has been given wings by the shift from manufacturing to services which now provide over 80 per cent of output in Britain and 70 per cent in America. The ubiquity of digital media encourages everyone to have their say, endlessly. Companies compete vigorously by paying more for new ideas and perceptions and for people who can discriminate and manage ideas.

The creative industries provide only 15 per cent of jobs directly. But they are powerful role models for many people who do not see themselves as creative but want to work in the same spirit and to benefit from their talents and insights.

This favours small, agile companies that focus on a single speciality where they can add the greatest value. They tend to work as clusters of talents and specialist skills. They subcontract as much as they can.

Economists use the term ‘added value’ to describe an input or a process that increases the value of something. It’s about making a change for the better in ways that can be identified, if not always precisely measured. It often starts with invisible work.

It is now being nudged in new directions by the rise of data, algorithms and artificial intelligence (AI). These constitute a different kind of invisible work. The future of work depends on positive co-working between invisible human work and invisible AI work.

Invisible work is the hidden ingredient of all this. It is tempting to call it a secret ingredient because outsiders may not see or know how it is done.

Why, if so widespread, is it so little known? The first and obvious reason is that it is invisible. It is also a negative. That’s a double hindrance. Another is that it is personal, if not private, and subjective and difficult to pin down. Being invisible is to be ambiguous; neither good nor bad.6

There is a more insidious reason. Mainstream talk about work, especially the future of work, has been hijacked by economists who like to talk in terms of employment and jobs in general (as do governments). They talk about the number of jobs rather than the quality of work.7

They have a bias towards full-time employment, although this is a diminishing proportion of jobs today and an even smaller proportion of the total amount of work that goes on. Their theories act as filters and blinkers which hide the reality of daily work.8

For example, young people’s apprenticeships work well in conventional industries with stable full-time employment, but struggle in industries with large numbers of self-employed and part-time workers. Government attempts to promote them, often by industry levies, usually fail. Britain’s TV and film producers say apprenticeship levies are not ‘fit for purpose’.9

So I began to search for information about the disappearance of work. I didn’t mean work was becoming less common or petering out. The opposite is true: work is becoming more, not less, important and pervasive. But it is receding from view, becoming lost to sight.

I found countless advice on jobs, leadership, management and being an entrepreneur; and on how to be creative, innovative and successful. I found books on how to set up a company and how to run a company, and numerous opinions, books and research reports on digital, social media and AI. But there are very few books on work itself, whether done by an intern or CEO, even though work is the basis for everything they do. It is everywhere and nowhere.

This book describes invisible work and shows how to do it. It is for people who want to be free to think what they want and then get it done. It looks at work from the inside out.

It is for people who feel their current work is not fully appreciated and don’t know how to make it so, while others seem to do so effortlessly. Maybe they find it hard to seize the moment to talk about their new wizard idea. Maybe they are introverts in an office of extroverts. Or feel their contributions, big and small, are not being appreciated.

It is for people like David, an ambitious environmental scientist, who wants to make a difference but doesn’t want to go to pointless meetings.

And for Kate who finds that the company’s day-to-day goings-on, both important and trivial, keep interrupting her and stop her from having time to think.

And Mo whose invisible work as a vlogger turns her personal life into revenue; and for her agent who has to know how to negotiate the best merchandise deals on YouTube and Instagram.

It is a handbook for a new way of working. It investigates the surprising qualities of invisible work and shows how we can manage them to develop our own ideas and promote them successfully. It shows how to take charge of invisible work when it is private and personal, and how to manage the process of making it visible. It indicates when to be invisible and when to go visible.

The future of work is going to be a noisy and confusing place, but it is likely that few tasks will be the same in five or ten years’ time. Whether we are in the gig economy or a corporate manager, whether invisible work is all we do or just a small part, it is set to be a defining element in the future and the most robust in the face of AI and climate change.

We will find it hard to thrive on our own or in any company unless we understand invisible work.

2.

REAL WORK

What is Work, Exactly?

Invisible work isn’t just an incidental part of a job – we may not have a job at all – but a mix of personal endeavour, ever-changing social relationships and an increase in company effectiveness and value, in that order. A job sets the scene but it is work that makes the difference.

The dangers of blurring the two became obvious at a Creative Exchange conference on The Future of Work at London’s Royal College of Art.10 I asked the 200 experts in the audience whether they had a job and about two-thirds indicated they did. Then I asked if, at that moment, they thought they were working. About one-third said yes, slightly fewer said no and most said they didn’t know. And they were the experts.

I asked the same question at an evening event organised by the Aspen Institute, a global think tank, and KPMG’s Next Generation Voice, on prospects for a universal basic income (UBI). All the 25 high-flying millennials present said they were not working. Someone pointed out that the catering staff and photographer were working and everyone else agreed and laughed. I asked the 25 if they would have answered differently if the workshop had been held during the day in their offices and about half said yes.

This ambiguity is expressed by the Pakistani writer Mohsin Hamid in The New Yorker: ‘My wife works, and I write, so my days are spent in the house … At times, I miss having a regular job.’11 Then he says he has a regular daily schedule.

Hamid is not an ordinary writer. He went to Princeton Law School and worked at McKinsey management consultancy for several years and so was familiar with business and jobs before he became a writer. His books include The Reluctant Fundamentalist, which has sold over a million copies and won multiple awards, and his work is as well known as his wife’s work as an actress. But he misses having a ‘regular job’. He says this isn’t about the difference between working at home alone and going to an office; it’s about not being seen by others as a worker.

Carol at Work

Writer Phyllis Nagy played with these ambiguities when she wrote her screenplay for the film Carol. The story is based on Patricia Highsmith’s novel of a secret affair between a rich married woman, Carol, who is played by Cate Blanchett, and a younger woman, Therese, based on Highsmith herself, who is played by Rooney Mara. In this extract from an early scene, Therese is with her on-off boyfriend Richard Semco and his friends:

Therese

Wine makes me feel naughty. In a good way.

Phil

Is there any other way to feel naughty?

Richard

I drink to forget I gotta get up for work in the morning.

Phil

That’s your problem, Semco. You really ought to drink because you remember you have a job. Employment’s a curse.

Therese

You have a job, Phil.

Phil

You call that a job? I call it an illusion.

Dannie

You get paid. Is money an illusion?

Phil

My kid brother, the jerk philosopher.

Therese (to Dannie)

Where do you work?

Richard (mock respect)

Didn’t you know – Dannie works at The New York Times.

(Richard and Phil feign awe)

Therese (she’s impressed)

No kidding.

Phil

Yeah, ’cept printers don’t win Pulitzer Prizes.

Dannie (he shrugs)

It’s a job. (To Therese) What I want to do is write. That’s why I watch movies.

Phil (rolling his eyes)

Everybody’s a writer …

So Mohsin Hamid doesn’t have a job but works on a regular basis and has built up a good reputation, and Dannie does have a good job but he really wants to work at something else which sounds remarkably like what Hamid is doing. What’s the difference? They would probably talk about where they work (home or office), whether or not they feel any obligation to anyone else (who’s in charge) and money.

Work is not a Job

Let’s start with what Dannie had but didn’t want. A job is a formal agreement between two people on the work to be done and the payment due. It implies an obligation, or rather two mutual obligations: one person promises to work and one person promises to pay. Whether agreed with a handshake, a take-it-or-leave-it contract generated by an AI and signed off by a tick in the box, or a negotiated deal, it is founded on those two obligations. Once signed, the work begins.

A job is usually measured by a mix of task and time. The job description gives the job title and a list of the work to be done, even if the reason the person is appointed and the reason they do well, or not, may be quite different.

The further we move away from jobs measured by task and time towards work that is personal and subjective, the closer we move to invisible work. Each component becomes harder to see.

A good initial way to define work is a sustained effort that is aimed at delivering a specific result in expectation of pay. It is a process with a cause (such as a problem) and an intended result (a solution). The difference between a job and work is the difference between a position and a process.

A job is a kind of box, inside which all kinds of things go on, some of which are work and some, well, are not. The box is visible, and meant to be so, defined by employment and contract law and triggering financial payments, but the work is less precise and often a bit vague. It is a process with multiple causes, of which only one is having a job.

Senior managers look at the box and usually that’s it. Team leaders look at the box and manage what’s inside. A manager may say, ‘It’s your job so go and do it.’ Or they may say, ‘I know it’s not your job but can you help with this?’

At one extreme, a jobsworth upholds his job above everything and declines any suggestion of actual work. The classic example is Bartleby in Herman Melville’s 1853 story ‘Bartleby, The Scrivener. A Story of Wall-Street’.12 He had a job but refused all requests to work, saying, ‘I would prefer not to.’ At the other extreme, the work is everything and a job is merely a means to do the work and be paid for it. In both cases, what we want from work may be different from what our job wants from us.

This initial definition does not include work that someone starts and finishes outside their job and involves no sense of external obligation, but which they believe will strengthen their capacities and abilities in the future. I call this ‘proto-work’. The KPMG Next Generation were in this situation. They did not see the evening workshop as work because it was not an obligatory part of their job, but they had decided to come because they believed it might have some future but unspecified benefit.

This proto-work is becoming more common as work becomes more invisible and the connections between effort and reward become weaker or at least are decided on personal, subjective grounds.

Bill is an award-winning screenwriter and novelist and is adamant that when he sits down to develop his own ideas he is not working because he is under no obligation to do so and he is not being paid. He says he only starts to work when he has a contract, which he might well describe as a job in the sense of ‘I’ve got a job on with studio X or producer Y.’

Kristin is a successful yoga teacher who reserves a day a week for her own practice and improvement. While she does, similarly, she is under no obligation to anyone and receives no fees.

As I was narrowing down these differences I came across this newspaper headline: ‘Model railway lovers devastated as vandals smash years of work.’13 It seemed a perfectly reasonable way to describe many years of thinking, planning and construction, even though they had paid out considerable sums and received not a penny. It wasn’t a job but it might be work.

My second definition recognises these conditions: a sustained effort aimed at a specific result and done either directly or indirectly in anticipation of a reward.

Visible work is work that is physical and observable. It is physical in the sense of being manual and so unavoidably involves a visible action.

Two or more people can jointly observe it and agree when it starts and stops, and probably agree on how well it is being done.

It includes all work that can be seen and, by being seen, can be understood and measured, typically by task and time.

Labour is manual work of this kind and especially manual work done by a large mass of people. The word is best used only in a historical sense, although many economists still like to use it.

I was delighted when Guy Standing, who is Professor of Development Studies at the University of London and a leading exponent of a UBI, took the same view. He said UBI is part of a wider move from labour, which he described as onerous and exploitative, to work which he said recognises individual humanity.14

Invisible work is work that is unseen and unobservable. It is not noticed and cannot be noticed. It is composed of a mix of cognition and emotion; or, in more common terms, thinking and feeling. I use ‘thinking’ as a catch-all to include the (human) use of data, facts, knowledge, ideas, opinions, understanding, wisdom and insight. I add the qualifier ‘human’ because software algorithms and AI use data but do not think.

It is personal and often deeply private. It is subjective and more a matter of opinion than fact.

It has two additional attributes. The flow of ideas and opinions is never-ending and never really comes to a finish. An idea can be recycled endlessly and each time it is slightly different. It’s up to us to decide whether we want to use the original version or our own.

It can happen anywhere and at any time. I call it ‘nomadic’.

Although centred on private thought it fully succeeds only to the extent that it becomes public. Someone who has a brilliant idea and sits tight has only done half the work. The other half is the ‘making visible’.

It ranges from the private, playful use of curiosity and imagination to the ability to sum up a discussion in public and to pitch an idea to a sceptical colleague. Few people have all these talents which is why teamwork plays a big role. By teamwork, I mean all the ways we work with others, in real life and online.

It includes creativity and innovation and other ways in which we think and have an effect on thinking. It includes abilities, capabilities, skills and competences.

It goes hand-in-hand with the rise of ‘soft’ skills. These include conceptualisation, critical thinking, emotional intelligence, time management and setting priorities, as well as social interpersonal skills, such as communications, teamwork and negotiation.

Invisible work seldom constitutes the whole of work (or the whole of a job) just as visible work is seldom the whole of it.15 They lie at opposite ends of a spectrum. Most work is a mix of the visible and invisible, and even work that is primarily visible will have invisible elements and work that is invisible will often be judged by the criteria of visible work. I like the plumber’s riposte to a householder’s complaint when he charged £100 for taking one minute to give a sharp knock to a water pipe: ‘One minute to knock but 20 years to know where.’

There’s another kind of invisibility that is caused by prejudice rather than because it really is invisible. The classic prejudices are class, colour, ethnicity and gender. A factory owner, however hard-working, would flinch at being classed as a worker alongside what used to be called a workingman. Ralph Ellison’s ‘invisible man’ in his 1952 novel of the same name was invisible because the all-too-blinding colour of his skin prevented white people from seeing the person he was. They saw the colour but not the individual.

Men can be blind to work done by women.16 People who go out to an office to work may downplay work done at home, whether housework or paid work. There can be a prejudice in favour of full-time jobs over part-time work.

The rich can be blind to work done by the poor. Software coders in San Francisco whose average wage in 2019 was $95 an hour tend not to notice the security guards ($14), landscapers ($13.82) and janitors ($11.39) who keep their workplaces so tidy. This kind of invisible work has been described as ‘work that is done so the show can go on’.

There can be a blindness to work that is unpaid. In 2015 the Chief Economist of the Bank of England said that his colleagues had estimated the country’s voluntary work to have an equivalent market rate of about a billion pounds. He later confessed the true figure to be about £50 billion, which is about the same size as the car industry. Understandably perhaps the Bank of England sees work purely in economic terms but this prevents them from being aware of how workers see it.

The term worker describes a person who works. This is obvious but it is also revolutionary, as the word is usually restricted to people doing manual work. I take the view that anyone who works is a worker. I’m not sure everyone who has a job is a worker as I know a few people who have a job but don’t do much work. But each of us who actually works, artisan to artist, including a CEO, is a worker. The best of us, including the CEO, never forget it.

Creativity is a cognitive process with a hefty emotional charge that uses ideas to produce a new idea which is personal and unique. I use the word to mean the raw, basic creativity which is as necessary for new ideas as is yeast for bread to rise.

Creativity and invisibility are close allies. Creativity is about changing perceptions about reality rather than about changing physical reality itself. Likewise, invisible work is more about changing people’s perceptions of reality than physical reality itself. Working invisibly does not necessarily involve being creative but it is difficult and rare to be creative without doing some invisible work along the way.

Creativity accrues commercial value only when it is embedded in products, services and experiences whose value and desirability depends on its creative elements. This is the creative economy. The main sectors are arts, culture, design, entertainment, media and innovation.

These core sectors add up to about 15 per cent of all workers and 10 per cent of business activity in Europe and America, but they have a high gearing effect on other sectors and especially those that depend on self-expression, media, design, branding and software. Creative people who make novel, creative products also want to buy them. In this way, supply and demand rise together on the same tide.

Innovation is the discovery or invention of something that is new and can be exactly copied by others. It was originally used to describe the implementation of science and technology, typically through R&D, but gradually the scope widened and it began to be used to describe any change that can be measured and copied. The standard definition of innovation today is the one devised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the EU, which says, ‘An innovation is the implementation of a new or significantly improved product (good or service), a new process, a new marketing method, or a new organisational method in business practices, workplace organisation, or external relations.’17 This is so wide as to be meaningless but one word is worth keeping in mind: implementation.

This is why creativity and innovation have different degrees of visibility. Creativity is invisible and slightly mysterious. We accept this, and do not peer too closely. We wait for the outcome, the reveal. But innovation has to be explicit and comprehensible in order for it to be implemented. If it is not visible, in the sense we can agree what it is and copy it, it will fail to be regarded as an innovation.

A major cause of the rise of invisible work is a shift from work that is explicit and measurable to work that is implicit and fuzzy – in other words, a shift from innovation to creativity.

A domain is a network of people and companies that share a business model and which are in close contact with each other. It is large enough to be self-sustaining but small enough for people to be able to make personal judgements about each other. Many domains are centred on physical clusters and they tend to have closer links with other clusters in other cities than with their immediate neighbours. For example, the film companies in Soho in central London have more in common with Hollywood over 5,000 miles away than they do with the fashion and garment cluster a few hundred yards away on the other side of Oxford Street.

The word company includes commercial businesses, non-profit organisations, charities and ‘social’ companies because they all, regardless of their attitude to making money, operate as a legal entity. Even more important, the nature of invisible work is the same. I use the word organisation when I want to emphasise a company’s structure.