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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Quantitative analysis of outcomes vs PMs at the individual level Leading Complex Projects takes a unique approach to post-mortem analysis to provide project managers with invaluable insight. For the first time, individual PM characteristics are quantitatively linked to project outcomes through a major study investigating the role of project leadership in the success and failure of complex industrial projects; hard data on the backgrounds, education, and personality characteristics of over 100 directors of complex projects is analyzed against the backdrop of project performance to provide insight into controllable determinants of outcomes. By placing these analyses alongside their own data, PMs will gain greater insight into areas of weakness and strength, locate recurring obstacles, and identify project components in need of greater planning, oversight, or control. The role of leadership is to deliver results; in project management, this means taking responsibility for project outcomes. PMs are driven by continuous improvement, and this book provides a wealth of insight to help you achieve the next step forward. * Understand why small, simple projects consistently outperform larger, more complex projects * Delve into the project manager's role in generating successful outcomes * Examine the data from over 100 PMs of complex industrial projects * Link PM characteristics to project outcome to find areas for improvement Complex industrial projects from around the world provide a solid basis for quantitative analysis of outcomes--and the PMs who drive them. Although the majority of the data is taken from projects in the petroleum industry, the insights gleaned from analysis are widely applicable across industry lines for PMs who lead complex projects of any stripe. Leading Complex Projects provides clear, data-backed improvement guidance for anyone in a project management role.
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LEADINGCOMPLEXPROJECTS
A Data-Driven Approach to Masteringthe Human Side of Project Management
Edward W. Merrow and
Neeraj S. Nandurdikar
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © CSA-Printstock/Getty Images
Copyright © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Merrow, Edward W., author. | Nandurdikar, Neeraj S., author.
Title: Leading complex projects : a data-driven approach to mastering the human side of project management / by Edward W. Merrow and Neeraj S. Nandurdikar.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2018] | Includes index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018008707 (print) | ISBN 9781119382195 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Project management.
Classification: LCC HD69.P75 M474 2018 (print) | DDC 658.4/04--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018008707
ISBN 978-1-119-38219-5 (hbk)
ISBN 978-1-119-38225-6 (ebk)
ISBN 978-1-119-38226-3 (ebk)
This book is dedicated to families.
First, the families of the authors who put up with the constant stress of our travel and yet happily encouraged us to write this book.
Second, our IPA family – everyone at IPA who made our work possible by doing the difficult and exacting work of collecting data on thousands of projects and turning those data into useable information.
And third, to the family of project directors – the project management family – that we have come to know and embrace over the last several decades and from whom we continue to learn every day.
CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Introduction Executive Summary
Project Leaders versus Project Managers
What Successful Leaders Do
From Tasks to Practices
Notes
Chapter 1 Getting Grounded
The Selection Process for Complex Project Leaders Is Not Working
Who Should Read This Book?
Organization of the Book
Notes
Part One
Chapter 2 Methodology and Data
The Five-Factor Model
The Emotional Intelligence Scale
The Fox–Hedgehog Scale
Measuring Leadership Style
Statistical Methodology
Measuring Success
The Data
The Projects Database
The Project Leadership Survey
The Fun Part
Notes
Chapter 3 The Unique Demands on Complex Project Leaders
What Makes a Complex Project Complex?
How Complexity Changes the Leadership Requirements
Leadership Is More Important for Complex Projects
Why Is Leadership More Important in Complex Projects?
Notes
Chapter 4 The Traits and Skills of Effective Project Leaders
Organization of This Chapter
The Hedgehog and the Fox
The Personalities of Complex Project Leaders
Comparing Simpler and Complex Project Leader Personalities
The Personality Profiles of Successful Leaders
Emotional Intelligence and Project Leadership
The Approach to Leadership
The Early Careers of Successful Leaders
Summing Up: Who Are These Successful Leaders?
Notes
Chapter 5 From Personality to Practice
Leader Tasks
Leader Personality, Leader Tasks, and Key Project Practices
Personality, Emotional Intelligence, and Leadership Styles
Summary of Part I
Notes
Part Two
Chapter 6 Joseph Brewer
Notes
Chapter 7 Don Vardeman
Notes
Chapter 8 Nora'in MD Salleh and Dzulkarnain Azaman
Nora'in MD Salleh
Dzulkarnain Azaman
Notes
Chapter 9 Jay Sexton
Notes
Chapter 10 Paul Harris
Little Black Book
Cathartic Project Execution Plan
Notes
Chapter 11 David Young
People Management
Communication
Stakeholder Management
Notes
Chapter 12 What Have We Learned and What Does It Mean?
What We Have Learned
What Does It Mean?
What Is the Role of the Organization?
Selecting Project Leaders Now
Notes
Index
EULA
List of Tables
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Figure I.1 The Leadership of Complex Projects
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 When Complex Project Leaders Are Appointed for Their Projects
Figure 1.2 The Ties Between Human Resources and Complex Project Leaders Could Be Stronger
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Regional Distribution of Projects
Figure 2.2 Examples of Descriptive Questions
Figure 2.3 Project Leader's Experience in Leadership Roles for Complex Projects
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Managing Up, Over, and Down
Figure 3.2 Project Leader Turnover Damages All Outcomes
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Building Blocks of Project Leadership
Figure 4.2 Hedgehog-Fox Scale: Project Managers vs. Complex Project Leaders
Figure 4.3 Fox versus Hedgehog:
Foxes Deliver on Cost
Figure 4.4 Prior Experience in Non–Project Leader Roles
Figure 4.5 Time Spent on Others’ Projects Helps
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Linking from Building Blocks to Outcomes
Figure 5.2 Six Core Practices for Project Success
Figure 5.3 Understanding Tradeoffs and Social Skills as Measured by the Emotional Intelligence Scale
Figure 5.4 Effective Leaders Listen and Don't Do Others’ Work
Figure 5.5 Factors Driving Front-End Loading
Figure 5.6 Summarizing Part I
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Part One
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FOREWORD
All companies, governments, and even individuals desire to have their projects completed with success. In the industrial world, this elusive success has always been measured in terms of performance against project goals, normally quantified in terms of safety, quality, cost, and schedule. To be successful in today's regulatory and commercial environment requires that we deliver exceptional performance on all four of these measures. Many methods are available to track the goals and achievements of the desired performance. Yet, even with numerous methods, processes, and procedures, major projects continue to have significant failure rates (discussed in significant detail in Industrial Megaprojects by Ed Merrow). This new book provides additional insight into major project execution that looks beyond the usual processes and recognizes the critical factor: project success is all about people. Therefore, the true differentiator for project performance is the leadership of the people developing and executing the project.
With all the literature available on leadership, why should you spend your time with this specific book? I believe that the authors have captured the essence of creating successful projects with their analysis of leadership as it applies specifically to large industrial projects. This analysis builds upon the library of recognized experts such as Bennis, Goleman, and others. Using the proprietary database of Independent Project Analysis, Inc., which includes thousands of projects covering many industries, Ed and Neeraj have studied specific, successful projects. Through surveys and direct interviews, they have determined what each project leader did that helped his or her team to succeed. I think you will find valuable guidance in this book for the selection of the leader for your next major capital project, as well as keys to building an excellent project management organization. This can provide a basis for future success through investment in the people in your organization.
In the interview section of the book, the authors share insights from several successful project leaders. The varied backgrounds, industries, experiences, ways of handling teams and significant issues will provide valuable comparisons for your consideration. A consistent thread is the focus on teams and relationships to enable project success. These relationships include the supply chain for projects, including vendors and contractors, assuring an integrated process. In this book you will see the importance of values in driving project success. You will see how the personal values of the leaders create a shared culture in the project that governs how people communicate and trust each other to assure best-for-project decisions and keep projects moving toward success. Where the company culture aligns with the project culture, significant empowerment of the team provides an additional enabler of success. And where the right company culture doesn't exist, these leaders still often find ingenious ways to work around that and create inspiration and followership and still deliver success. That's what leadership is about!
I encourage you to read on and enjoy this fresh approach to understanding this driver of major capital project success.
Don Vardeman
Vice President of Worldwide
Project Management (Retired)
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Just like any other project, the making of this book was a collaboration among a great many people, many of whom donated their time because of their belief in the importance of effective project leadership. First, we thank the 56 leaders of complex projects who completed our detailed survey as well as the complex projects that went with them. Without their help this would have been quite impossible. Second, we thank the seven extraordinary project leaders who were willing to sit for long interviews with us to deepen our understanding of how successful project leaders approach their important work. These seven are the real authors of Part II of this book.
We also owe a deep debt to those researchers whose life's work was essential to our analysis, particularly Lewis Goldberg, developer of the Five-Factor Model version that we employed, and Daniel Goleman, a central developer of the connections between emotional intelligence and effective leadership.
We also thank our external reviewers: Joseph C. Brewer, Jr., Paul Harris, Robert Don Vardeman, Murray Covello, and William Hederman. These gentlemen provided a practitioner's reading that enriched the effort. We would like to thank Jon Walker of IPA's research organization, who both pioneered some of the methodology we employ and was also kind enough to review some of the key chapters of the book. We also thank Lucas Milrod, deputy director of IPA Projects Research Division/Organization and Teams, who both reviewed chapters and provided answers to many questions about psychological research as we proceeded. Our thanks to Elizabeth Sanborn and Loretta Merrow, who reviewed some of the early chapters. We also thank Katya Petrochenkov, a senior research analyst in our UK office, who read and commented on the draft. We were helped throughout by Kelli Ratliff's eye for graphics, which she combines with knowing the substance, an unbeatable combination. Thanks also to our Wiley editor, Richard Narramore, and our Wiley team.
Finally, and most especially, we would like to thank our spouses, Loretta and Christine, who put up with our additional stress as we wrote this book while trying to do our day jobs.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Edward W. Merrow is the founder and CEO of Independent Project Analysis, Inc. After starting his career as a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, Ed spent 15 years at the RAND Corporation, eventually directing RAND's Energy Research Program. In 1987 he founded IPA to be a unique benchmarking and research provider to the capital-intensive industries and infrastructure builders around the world. Ed has authored a number of studies and books, most recently Industrial Megaprojects (Wiley, 2011). Ed's contributions to the industry have been recognized by a number of organizations and he is a member of the National Academy of Construction.
Neeraj S. Nandurdikar is Director of IPA's global Exploration and Production (E&P) practice. In this capacity he acts as a partner and adviser to Fortune 100 Oil and Gas executives around the world in helping to find savings and efficiencies across the entire oil and gas value chain and lift capital productivity. He has delivered several keynotes and conference presentations and is a key thought leader in the industry, working to enhance the oil and gas industry's capital projects performance and make the industry stronger and more resilient. He has an MBA from the Wharton Business School of University of Pennsylvania and an MS in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Tulsa.
INTRODUCTIONEXECUTIVE SUMMARY
There is general agreement throughout the industrial world that large complex projects have had a very rough go. There have been a number of books and articles published seeking to diagnose why the track record has been so bleak and even (somewhat naïve) calls to stop doing megaprojects altogether in the future.1 The problems are not new and have been documented by academics, the trade press, and occasionally even the daily news for at least 30 years.2 Nor are the problems confined to any particular sector. Flyvbjerg et al. document the problems in public infrastructure projects.3 Merrow (2011) has reported the record of the petroleum, chemicals, and minerals industries.4 It's not a pretty picture. Megaprojects fail more than twice as often as their under-$1 billion counterparts using the same criteria for failure.
Amidst all this discussion of failure it is easy to overlook the fact that about one complex project in three is highly successful. The successes are too numerous to be dismissed as flukes. In Industrial Megaprojects (2011) we showed that when large complex projects followed a particular set of practices, they were quite likely to generate not just good but genuinely excellent outcomes. This indicated that success and failure were not in any sense random. What we could not satisfactorily explain is why relatively so few megaprojects actually employed sound practices. The failure to do so could not be explained by ignorance because the practices are known throughout the modern projects world, especially over the past 15 years. We rationalized some of the failure away by noting how difficult getting the right work done is for complex projects. But that still failed to explain why the successes were able to accomplish in practices what the failures could not.
The missing piece of the puzzle is to be found in the nature of project leadership, how leaders are selected for complex projects, and how they must behave to achieve success. Although we noted in Industrial Megaprojects that leaders have a disproportionate effect on project results in complex projects, we did not deeply investigate why. That is the subject of this book.
We considered titling this book The Leadership of Megaprojects. But that title would have obscured an essential point: the characteristic that generates so many problems for megaprojects is that most of them are complex, and it is complexity rather than size that triggers the pathway to failure. When smaller projects have the same degree of complexity, they too have an equally high rate of disappointing projects. They are simply much less likely to be complex.
Complexity occurs in three dimensions in projects: scope, organization, and shaping. Scope complexity occurs when a project has a number of distinct elements, drawing on different technical disciplines, all of which must be fully and carefully coordinated to produce a valuable result. Scope complexity is exacerbated by uncertainty in the basic technical data underpinning designs in many large projects. Petroleum development projects, for example, always have a major basic data development challenge in trying to understand the reservoir being developed. Scope complexity is the most common source of organizational complexity. The project organization is complex when a number of separate teams are required to execute the scope. These teams are often required because the technical disciplines needed to develop the area of work are distinct. Organizational complexity is also created in project systems that organize by function rather than by project teams led by an authoritative director. Finally, shaping is the process by which the benefits of a project are allocated among the various stakeholders along with the allocation of costs and management of risks. Shaping complexity is high when the stakeholder set that must be aligned around the project is diverse and potentially quarrelsome, usually with both private and public-sector players.
There are all sorts of reasons that complexity makes projects more difficult, but the biggest problem that complexity presents is that complexity transforms the leadership requirements for a project from the arena of project management to the realm of project leadership. In a complex project, the person at the top cannot watch the performance of most of those involved. In a complex project, the leader cannot demand compliance from recalcitrant stakeholders. Leadership is the art of getting full cooperation from those who are not forced to comply. Unfortunately, those responsible for selecting project directors for complex projects are usually not aware of the transformed requirements.
Good project managers are good organizers. They plan out the tasks that need to be accomplished and the order in which those tasks are to be done. They then assign tasks to those with the disciplinary competence to execute them and hold everyone accountable for delivering their part of the work on time and budget. Good project managers can be quite transactional about the whole process and be quite successful.
Complexity requires leaders at the top of the project rather than project managers. Some project managers are by nature and development both leaders and managers, but most are not. When the wrong selection process is used and the wrong person is selected to sit atop a complex project, failure regularly follows. The whole process is illustrated in Figure I.1.
Figure I.1The Leadership of Complex Projects
PROJECT LEADERS VERSUS PROJECT MANAGERS
In our study of the directors of complex projects, we find that successful leaders display very different personalities and backgrounds from the unsuccessful leaders, but the unsuccessful leaders look very much like the profiles of most project managers of simpler projects. The usual selection process for new complex project leaders is to draw from the pool of successful project managers of simple projects. Sometimes they have the “right stuff,” as Tom Wolfe would say, and sometimes they don't.
To investigate what constitutes the right stuff we administered a battery of psychological tests to 56 complex project leaders along with a survey of their backgrounds and career development. We then linked this information statistically to the tasks that the leaders found valuable and spent their time on and finally to the practices executed on the projects. Successful project leaders have a generalist orientation, although they may have started their careers as effective technical specialists. They are unusually open personalities, and especially so when one considers that all of our sample consisted of engineers by original training. Open personalities are better learners on the whole and deal with uncertainty much more easily than those who measure as more closed. Open personalities are more likely to listen to more points of view as well. Among the seven successful leaders with whom we conducted in-depth interviews, we found that most had very clear and well-articulated approaches to learning.
The successful leaders scored higher on five of the six scales measuring different attributes of emotional intelligence.5 Emotional intelligence is different than standard IQ. Emotional intelligence measures people skills and overall facility with recognizing and using emotions. Such skills might be a plus for the manager of a simple project, but they are a must for project leaders because project leaders are not so much governors of tasks as they are leaders of managers and aligners of stakeholders. Strong people skills are integral to effective leadership.
Successful leaders tended to have had a more varied career, especially early on. They were more likely to have worked for another company in another industry before settling into their career. They were much more likely to have worked as a liaison in a joint venture operated by another company than unsuccessful leaders.
WHAT SUCCESSFUL LEADERS DO
Personality and emotional intelligence don't develop and execute projects. What they do, however, is shape the tasks that project leaders like to do and find important to do. Leaders with open personalities with high emotional intelligence focused their work on communication, people management, stakeholder management, and working with people in the supply chain. Those with more black-and-white personalities found dealing with emotions more difficult and focused their attention on work process, project management tasks, controls, and engineering tasks. In other words, those that had failed complex projects focused on the classical project management tasks. Those who succeeded focused on the classical leadership tasks. Not a very surprising conclusion but one that is rewarding to actually prove.
A successful project leader is able to get the needed practices accomplished at the right time while their failing colleagues cannot. The reader should recognize that getting the right things done at the right time for complex projects is very difficult. It requires that a lot of things are accomplished in a short period of time by people who often have never worked together before. Implementing the right practices at the right time is a manifestation of the ability of the successful complex project leader to generate extraordinary levels of cooperation from all involved.
FROM TASKS TO PRACTICES
Of course, at the end of the day, it is good practices, especially upfront, combined with dedicated people ready to react to the inevitable surprises, that actually get projects done successfully. A seeming paradox in our analysis is that those complex project leaders who focused on work process and practices rather than leadership weren't able to get the practices done correctly. Those who focused on leadership were. The resolution of the paradox is simple – the job of the leader is to facilitate others getting the practices done properly by keeping everyone focused on the goals of the project and keeping at bay all the stakeholders who might be tempted to disrupt the progress of the project. The leader's job is not only to give vision and to guide but also to protect the good work being done by others.
If your goal is to improve the results of the most important projects that you do, you must focus on how you are selecting the people who lead them. This book tells you how to do that.
NOTES
1
Tim Haidar and Clare Colhoun, “Death of the Megaprojects?
” Oil and Gas IQ,
January 2018.
2
Peter Morris and George Hough,
The Anatomy of Major Projects: A Study of the Reality of Project Management
(Wiley, 1987); Edward Merrow,
A Quantitative Analysis of Very Large Civilian Projects
(The Rand Corporation, 1988); Edward Merrow and Ralph Shangraw, “Understanding the Costs of Schedules of World Bank Supported Hydroelectric Projects,” Energy Series Paper No. 31 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1990); “Road to Tragedy: A History of Big Dig Problems” and “Comparing the Big Dig's Costs to Megaprojects Around the World,”
Boston Globe
, December 29, 2015.
3
Bent Flyvbjerg, Nils Bruzelius, and Werner Rothengatter,
Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition
(Cambridge University Press, 2002).
4
Edward Merrow,
Industrial Megaprojects
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2011).
5
On the only scale in which successful leaders were not higher – regulating emotions – the reason is that both groups were equally high. This scale measures one's ability to keep one's cool.
CHAPTER 1GETTING GROUNDED
There are literally thousands of books about project management and how it should be done for all manner of projects, large and small. But, ironically, there are almost no books about project managers, the people who actually organize and lead projects and get the work done. In this book we explore the makeup of a particular subset of project managers: those who lead major complex projects for the sponsors (owners) of the projects.1 The leaders of large complex projects usually carry the title of project director rather than project manager. We will use that term or simply project leader to differentiate them from the managers of simpler projects or of the subprojects that usually accompany a large, complex capital venture.
Management is all about the efficient organization of tasks in a project, making rational assignments to team members and contractors based on their strengths, monitoring performance of individuals and teams, and getting work accomplished. All projects require management or they will fail. But not all projects require leadership.
Leadership is rather different from management even if exercised by the same person. Leadership is all about inducing people to cooperate in pursuing a goal (a vision if you prefer) that the leader has articulated. The notion of leadership implies followership. The notion of followership implies a degree of volition. We contend that smaller, simpler projects can usually be managed without much true leadership, but large complex projects must always be led. We understand, of course, that this is a matter of degree and situation. For example, a small project staffed entirely by volunteers may require leadership as well as management because the staff can walk away if they are unhappy or even bored. Those who sponsor and invest in projects must come to understand which projects require leaders and what characteristics of those leaders help predict which candidate will most likely be successful. Providing that knowledge is the primary goal of this book.
We have known for some time that the fate of difficult projects seems to hinge more on the project leaders than the results of simpler projects.2 In complex projects, the loss of continuity in project leadership at any point from the start of project execution planning forward results in much worse outcomes with the failure rate more than doubling. The effect is present in simpler projects too, but the effect on outcomes is much larger in complex projects. Our goal in undertaking the research that led to this book was to understand the personalities, prior experience, and habits of mind that make some complex project leaders successful while others fail. The reason that this book is needed is that far too many large complex projects fail. We have become convinced through the course of this research that one of the major reasons why so many complex projects fail is because the leader was miscast in his or her role.
THE SELECTION PROCESS FOR COMPLEX PROJECT LEADERS IS NOT WORKING
We conclude from the analysis described in Chapters 4 and 5 of this book that the process that industrial companies are using to select leaders for their most important projects is broken. Before we dive into what leads us to that conclusion, we describe how the current selection process actually works.
To better understand how leaders are actually selected for complex projects, we surveyed 13 industrial companies, all in the petroleum industry, that have numerous complex megaprojects in their portfolios. All of the companies will typically have multiple multibillion-dollar projects underway at any point so their need for complex project leaders is sustained. We asked representatives of the companies how project leaders are selected, by whom, and at what point in time in the project's evolution. We were fortunate to have multiple responses from most companies because the multiple responses indicated the extent to which the selection process is consistent and understood. At least one representative from each company was a senior manager within the project's organization. Forty-nine people completed the survey, giving us an average of almost four responses per company.
Who Selects the Leaders?
Eight of the 13 companies reported that complex project leaders are selected by senior management within the projects organization, although one of those eight indicated that a “functional professional development committee” within the project organization made the assignment. In three cases a senior business executive selected the project leader, and in two cases the selection is made jointly by the business and projects. While one might guess that selection by a business executive would be more common in smaller companies where the business professionals are more likely to know the project leaders personally, there is actually no pattern at all. Rather, sole selection by the business appears to reflect weakness in the project's organization. In the cases of joint selection, one company is a very large, nationally owned company and the other a much smaller independent.
What Are the Selection Criteria?
While the selection criteria are not exactly random, there is not much hint of scientific method. Experience – undefined – was the most commonly cited criterion followed by availability, and then by “politics or favoritism.”3 Of our total of 49 respondents, only two claimed that any personality characteristics were included in the selection criteria, although one indicated that language skills and cultural understanding were important. Two respondents indicated that familiarity with the technology to be used on the project was important.
The picture that emerges from our survey is of selection processes that are largely ad hoc. Experience, which we take to mean prior track record of success, is important but relatively little else. There are several problems with this approach. First, at any point in time, a significant fraction of all complex project leaders will be doing their first complex project. This is because most project managers who graduate to complex project leadership have already spent 20 years in project management and therefore have only one or two megaprojects left in their careers.4 Only in the most unusual cases do we see more than two or three complex projects in a career. This means that the experience measure that companies are using is often based on performance on less complex projects. Unfortunately, there is no evidence to support the notion that successful experience on less complex projects is a good predictor of success in difficult projects. The great majority of those selected to lead their first complex projects were successful simpler-project managers. Success in one's first complex project is a good predictor of success in a second. But it is not even clear that a long career progression in smaller, less complex projects is of any substantial value to the complex project leader at all. A few of our most successful leaders were assigned – usually out of necessity – to their first complex project at an earlier (inexperienced) point in their careers. A few more of our most successful leaders had never actually managed any capital project prior to their first megaproject, although they had been in positions that were closely aligned with projects, such as disciplinary heads of engineering. If an effective selection process were in place to identify effective project leader candidates earlier in their careers, it would significantly increase the supply of these critical human resources.
When Are Project Directors Usually Installed?
There is an ongoing debate within the industrial megaprojects community about what constitutes the ideal time to appoint and install the leader for projects. The point of contention is whether leaders who are adept at developing the right scope for a project also have the right skills (and perhaps temperament) to execute a project. Those who believe that the temperaments and skillsets are necessarily different argue to bring the project leader on at the beginning of FEL 35 or even at the start of detailed engineering rather than earlier in front-end loading. Those who believe that a single project leader can lead the entire process want the project leader involved as early as reasonably practical so that the project leader deeply understands the scope.
We asked our survey respondents when project directors are usually appointed for their projects and in those cases in which they were installed at the start of scope development whether they actually controlled the scope development process or acted more in an observer role. The results are shown in Figure 1.1. One of the 13 companies represented in the survey brings the leader on at the beginning of FEL 1 and makes that leader accountable for scope development.6 Six companies bring the leader onto the projects at the start of scope development and five of those six make the project leader responsible for scope development. Two companies bring the leader on after the basic scope is developed but still during the FEL 2 (scope development) phase of the project. None of the 13 companies routinely wait until the beginning of FEED7 (FEL 3) to bring the leader onto the project. Four of the companies, including some of the largest, have no established policy around the timing of project leader installation; they sometimes bring the leader on at the start of FEL 2 and others at FEL 2A and still others at the start of FEED. In no case did any respondent suggest that start of execution was ever intended to be the start of the project director's tenure.
Figure 1.1When Complex Project Leaders Are Appointed for Their Projects
The patterns that we find here represent a substantial shift of philosophy in the petroleum industry over the past 20 years. Twenty years ago, the great majority of companies would have responded that the project leader who will lead execution was not installed until FEED at the earliest and frequently not until the start of formal execution.
This change reflects the industry's migration from functionally based and centered project organizations (weak matrix) to strong, team-based (strong matrix) systems.8
