Materials E-Book

Witold Brostow

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 908

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Presents a fully interdisciplinary approach with a stronger emphasis on polymers and composites than traditional materials books

Materials science and engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. Polymer materials are often mixed with inorganic materials to enhance their mechanical, electrical, thermal, and physical properties. Materials: Introduction and Applications addresses a gap in the existing textbooks on materials science.

This book focuses on three Units. The first, Foundations, includes basic materials topics from Intermolecular Forces and Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams to Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Structures. The second Units, Materials, goes into the details of many materials including Metals, Ceramics, Organic Raw Materials, Polymers, Composites, Biomaterials, and Liquid Crystals and Smart Materials. The third and final unit details Behavior and Properties including Rheological, Mechanical, Thermophysical, Color and Optical, Electrical and Dielectric, Magnetic, Surface Behavior and Tribology, Materials, Environment and Sustainability, and Testing of Materials.

Materials: Introduction and Applications features:

• Basic and advanced Materials concepts
• Interdisciplinary information that is otherwise scattered consolidated into one work
• Links to everyday life application like electronics, airplanes, and dental materials

Certain topics to be discussed in this textbook are more advanced. These will be presented in shaded gray boxes providing a two-level approach. Depending on whether you are a student of Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Engineering Technology, MSE, Chemistry, Physics, etc., you can decide for yourself whether a topic presented on a more advanced level is not important for you—or else essential for you given your professional profile

Witold Brostow is Regents Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of North Texas. He is President of the International Council on Materials Education and President of the Scientific Committee of the POLYCHAR World Forum on Advanced Material (42 member countries). He has three honorary doctorates and is a Member of the European Academy of Sciences, Member of the National Academy of Sciences of Mexico, Foreign Member of the National Academy of Engineering of Georgia in Tbilisi and Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in London. His publications have been cited more than 7200 times.

Haley Hagg Lobland is the Associate Director of LAPOM at the University of North Texas. She is a Member of the POLYCHAR Scientific Committeee. She has received awards for her research presented at conferences in: Buzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil;  NIST, Frederick, Maryland;  Rouen, France;  and Lviv, Ukraine. She has lectured in a number of countries including Poland and Spain. Her publications include joint ones with colleagues in Egypt, Georgia, Germany, India, Israel, Mexico, Poland, Turkey and United Kingdom.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

COVER

TITLE PAGE

FOREWORD

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART 1: FOUNDATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (MSE)

1.2 ROLE OF MSE IN SOCIETY

1.3 TEACHING MSE

1.4 BASIC RULES OF MSE

1.5 STATES OF MATTER

1.6 MATERIALS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1.7 HOW TO MAKE NEW MATERIALS

1.8 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

1.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

2.1 INTERACTIONS: THE FIRST VERTEX OF THE TRIANGLE

2.2 PRIMARY CHEMICAL BONDS

2.3 PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS

2.4 FORCE AND ENERGY

2.5 INTERACTIONS AND STATES OF MATTER

2.6 CONTACTLESS TRANSPORT

2.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

3 THERMODYNAMICS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

3.1 WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS AND WHY IS IT USEFUL?

3.2 DEFINITIONS

3.3 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.5 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.6 THE SO‐CALLED THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.7 STILL MORE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS?

3.8 THERMODYNAMIC POTENTIALS

3.9 THERMODYNAMIC STABILITY CRITERIA

3.10 UNARY PHASE DIAGRAMS AND SUPERCRITICAL STATES

3.11 LIQUID‐VAPOR EQUILIBRIA

3.12 LIQUID‐LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

3.13 SOLID‐LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

3.14 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

4 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

4.1 THE NATURE OF SOLID PHASES

4.2 FORMATION OF SOLID PHASES

4.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

4.4 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS

4.5 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

5 NON‐CRYSTALLINE AND POROUS STRUCTURES

5.1 QUASICRYSTALS

5.2 MINERALOIDS

5.3 DIFFRACTOMETRY

5.4 THE BINARY RADIAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

5.5 VORONOI POLYHEDRA

5.6 THE GLASS TRANSITION

5.7 GLASSES AND LIQUIDS

5.8 AGING OF GLASSES

5.9 POROUS MATERIALS AND FOAMS

5.10 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

PART 2: MATERIALS

6 METALS

6.1 HISTORY AND COMPOSITION

6.2 METHODS OF METALLURGY

6.3 ALLOYS

6.4 PHASE DIAGRAMS OF METAL SYSTEMS

6.5 FERROUS METALS: IRON AND STEEL

6.6 NON‐FERROUS METALLIC ENGINEERING MATERIALS

6.7 STRUCTURES OF METALS IN RELATION TO PROPERTIES

6.8 GLASSY METALS AND LIQUID METALS

6.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

7 CERAMICS

7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

7.2 HISTORY OF CERAMICS

7.3 CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS

7.4 NETWORK CERAMICS: SILICATES AND SIALONS

7.5 CARBON

7.6 GLASSY CERAMICS

7.7 GLASS‐BONDED CERAMICS

7.8 CEMENTS

7.9 ADVANCED AND ENGINEERING CERAMICS

7.10 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

7.11 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

8 ORGANIC RAW MATERIALS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 NATURAL GAS

8.3 PETROLEUM

8.4 COAL AND COAL TAR

8.5 GENERAL REMARKS

8.6 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

9 POLYMERS

9.1 POLYMERS AMONG OTHER CLASSES OF MATERIALS

9.2 INORGANIC AND ORGANIC POLYMERS

9.3 THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETS

9.4 POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES

9.5 MOLECULAR MASS DISTRIBUTION

9.6 MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF IMPORTANT POLYMERS

9.7 SPATIAL STRUCTURES OF MACROMOLECULES AND ASSOCIATED PROPERTIES

9.8 COMPUTER SIMULATION OF POLYMERS

9.9 POLYMER SOLUTIONS

9.10 POLYMER PROCESSING AND THE ROLE OF ADDITIVES

9.11 APPLICATIONS OF SPECIALTY POLYMERS

9.12 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

10 COMPOSITES

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

10.3 CERMETS AND OTHER METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCs)

10.4 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCs)

10.5 CARBON–CARBON COMPOSITES

10.6 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMCs)

10.7 HYBRID COMPOSITES

10.8 LAMINAR AND SANDWICH COMPOSITES

10.9 CONCRETES AND ASPHALTS

10.10 NATURAL COMPOSITES

10.11 A COMPARISON OF COMPOSITES

10.12 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

11 BIOMATERIALS

11.1 DEFINITIONS

11.2 OVERVIEW OF BIOMATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS

11.3 JOINT REPLACEMENTS

11.4 DENTAL MATERIALS

11.5 VASCULARIZATION IN CARDIAC AND OTHER APPLICATIONS

11.6 INTRAOCULAR LENSES AND CONTACT LENSES

11.7 DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS

11.8 BIOLOGICAL AND NATURAL MATERIALS

11.9 BIO‐BASED MATERIALS

11.10 OTHER ASPECTS OF BIOMATERIALS

11.11 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

12 LIQUID CRYSTALS AND SMART MATERIALS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 LIQUID CRYSTALS

12.3 FIELD‐RESPONSIVE COMPOSITES

12.4 ELECTROCHROMIC MATERIALS

12.5 PIEZOELECTRIC AND PYROELECTRIC MATERIALS

12.6 SHAPE‐MEMORY MATERIALS

12.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

PART 3: BEHAVIOR AND PROPERTIES

13 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW AND THE MELT FLOW INDEX

13.3 VISCOSITY AND HOW IT IS MEASURED

13.4 LINEAR AND NONLINEAR VISCOELASTICITY

13.5 DRAG REDUCTION

13.6 SUSPENSIONS, SLURRIES, AND FLOCCULATION

13.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

14 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

14.1 MECHANICS AT THE FOREFRONT

14.2 QUASI‐STATIC TESTING

14.3 PROPERTIES: STRENGTH, STIFFNESS, AND TOUGHNESS

14.4 CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION

14.5 VISCOELASTICITY, DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS, AND BRITTLENESS

14.6 FRACTURE MECHANICS

14.7 IMPACT TESTING

14.8 HARDNESS AND INDENTATION

14.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

15 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES AND EQUATIONS OF STATE

15.3 DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC) AND DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS (DTA)

15.4 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS

15.5 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

15.6 NEGATIVE TEMPERATURES

15.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

16 COLOR AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 ATOMIC ORIGINS OF COLOR

16.3 COLOR AND ENERGY DIAGRAMS

16.4 LIGHT AND BULK MATTER

16.5 OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING METHODS

16.6 LASERS

16.7 ELECTRO‐OPTICAL EFFECTS AND LUMINESCENCE

16.8 PHOTOINDUCTION

16.9 INVISIBILITY

16.10 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

17 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 CONDUCTIVITY, RESISTIVITY, AND BAND THEORY

17.3 CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND INSULATORS

17.4 SEMICONDUCTORS: TYPES AND ELECTRONIC BEHAVIOR

17.5 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

17.6 PHENOMENA OF DIELECTRICAL POLARIZATION

17.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

18 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

18.1 MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THEIR CREATION

18.2 CLASSES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

18.3 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

18.4 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

18.5 FERROMAGNETIC AND ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

18.6 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

18.7 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETISM

18.8 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

19 SURFACE BEHAVIOR AND TRIBOLOGY

19.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

19.2 SURFACES: TOPOGRAPHY AND INTERACTIONS

19.3 OXIDATION

19.4 CORROSION

19.5 ADHESION

19.6 FRICTION

19.7 SCRATCH RESISTANCE

19.8 WEAR

19.9 LUBRICATION AND NANOSCALE TRIBOLOGY

19.10 FINAL COMMENTS

19.11 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

20 MATERIALS RECYCLING AND SUSTAINABILITY

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 WATER

20.3 NUCLEAR ENERGY

20.4 ENERGY GENERATION FROM SUNLIGHT

20.5 ENERGY GENERATION FROM THERMOELECTRICITY

20.6 DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS

20.7 RECYCLING

20.8 FINAL THOUGHTS

20.9 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

21 MATERIALS TESTING AND STANDARDS

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 STANDARDS AND METRICS

21.3 TESTING

21.4 MICROSCOPY TESTING

21.5 SENSORS IN TESTING

21.6 SUMMARY

21.7 SELF‐ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES

NUMERICAL VALUES OF IMPORTANT PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

List of Tables

Chapter 02

TABLE 2.1 Characteristic Interactions and Structures of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Materials

Chapter 04

TABLE 4.1 Crystalline Defects, Corresponding Affected Properties, and the Practical Applications

Chapter 06

TABLE 6.1 Hardness of Some Widely Used Materials

Chapter 07

TABLE 7.1 Melting Temperatures (

T

m

) of Selected Ceramics and Refractory Materials

TABLE 7.2 Types of Engineering Ceramics

TABLE 7.3 Ceramic Toughening Mechanisms

TABLE 7.4 Forms of Transformation Toughened Zirconia

Chapter 08

TABLE 8.1 Enthalpies of Combustion (

H

comb

) of Different Materials (Approximate Values)

Chapter 10

TABLE 10.1 Characteristic Compositions (Ceramic + Metal) of Cermets

Chapter 11

TABLE 11.1 Common Biomedical Applications of Materials

Chapter 14

TABLE 14.1 Definitions of (Time‐Independent) Mechanical Modulae

TABLE 14.2 Relationships between Mechanical Modulae: Tensile Modulus

E

, Shear Modulus

G

s

, Poisson Ratio

ν

, and Bulk Modulus

k

b

TABLE 14.3 Mohs Scale of Hardness

Chapter 18

TABLE 18.1 Magnetic Susceptibility Values

Chapter 21

TABLE 21.1 Summary of Main Forms of Microscopy and Their Features and Limitations

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

FIGURE 1.1 The basic triangle of Materials Science and Engineering.

FIGURE 1.2 Basic states of matter and the transitions between them. Enthalpy of the system increases to the right. The melting transition is known also as fusion.

FIGURE 1.3

La Réponse imprévue

by René Magritte.

Chapter 02

FIGURE 2.1 Dispersion forces. Part (a) shows the electrons of atoms 1 and 2 momentarily concentrated near atom 1. The partial charges of each atom—owing to the situation in (a)—are denoted in (b).

FIGURE 2.2 Dipole‐dipole forces. Polar molecules are shown as elongated spheres with permanent charge separation. Attractive and repulsive forces are indicated by solid (—) and dashed (---) lines, respectively.

FIGURE 2.3 (a) Ion‐dipole and (b) ion‐induced dipole forces.

FIGURE 2.4 (a) Schematic of H

2

O (water) showing the partial negative (

δ

−) and partial positive (

δ

+) charges on the atoms. (b) Dotted lines represent hydrogen bonding, which occurs between H and O atoms on neighboring molecules.

FIGURE 2.5 Forces

F

and interaction energy

u

of a pair of particles as a function of interparticle distance

R

.

F

rep

and

F

att

refer to repulsive and attractive forces, respectively.

R

σ

is the collision diameter, and

R

m

signifies the bottom of the potential well.

FIGURE 2.6 Origins of surface tension: schematic shows directionality of forces in a liquid drop on a solid substrate.

FIGURE 2.7 Schematic of the experimental setup for determination of the contact angle

θ

of a sessile drop of liquid on a solid.

Chapter 03

FIGURE 3.1 Illustration of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics. Double lines are adiabatic walls. Single lines are diathermic walls.

FIGURE 3.2 Three ways of performing work. (a) Heat added to the system causes expansion of the gas, and the piston goes up: work is done by the system. This example illustrates “the whole First Law” since heat and work are connected. (b) Work is done on the system: lowering a weight over a pulley causes stirring of the paddle, which increases the temperature of fluid in the vessel. Energy associated with Δ

T

is equal to that supplied by lowering the weight. (c) Work is done because of the voltage or potential difference Δ

E

which causes the current

I

to flow; note that we are saying the current flows from the positive side to the negative side—while in reality electrons are moving in the opposite direction. The amount of work done is proportional to the time interval Δ

t

during which the current flows.

FIGURE 3.3 Perturbation of equilibrium in a human system.

FIGURE 3.4 Phase diagram of magnesium.

FIGURE 3.5 Phase diagram of carbon dioxide.

FIGURE 3.6 Phase diagram of H

2

O, including the triple point A and the liquid‐vapor critical point C. nbp = normal boiling point, at 1 atm. nmp = normal melting point, at 1 atm. Coordinates are shown in parentheses for

T

and

P

at the triple point at A and critical point C.

FIGURE 3.7 Binary zeotropic equilibrium diagram.

FIGURE 3.8 A rectification column for separation and purification of materials.

FIGURE 3.9 Binary positive azeotropic system. Azeotropic point is denoted by the dashed line.

FIGURE 3.10 Binary negative azeotropic system. Azeotropic point is denoted by the dashed line.

FIGURE 3.11 A ternary system with three binary azeotropes and a ternary azeotrope.

FIGURE 3.12 Binary dodecane + ethanol liquid‐liquid equilibrium diagram.

FIGURE 3.13 Isothermal water + propionic acid + cyclohexyl acetate liquid‐liquid equilibrium diagram.

FIGURE 3.14 Cu + Ni solid‐liquid equilibrium diagram and cooling curve. L refers to liquid phase; α corresponds to a solid phase.

FIGURE 3.15 Expanded view of a middle part of the Cu + Ni solid‐liquid equilibrium diagram.

FIGURE 3.16 Several types of solid‐liquid equilibrium diagrams (central parts without pure components). α, β, and γ phases are solids. From the top: (a) eutectic, (b) eutectoid, (c) peritectic, and (d) peritectoid. (In the figure, (s) = solid state, L = liquid state.)

FIGURE 3.17 H

2

O + NaCl solid‐liquid equilibrium diagram showing eutectic point.

Chapter 04

FIGURE 4.1 (a) Dark field STEM (scanning tunneling electron microscope) image of a fabricated material stack to be used as a slot waveguide for electrical injection. (b) Bright field TEM image of the slot region showing the polycrystalline, amorphous, and single crystalline layers (top to bottom).

FIGURE 4.2 Examples of some types of phase transitions. (a) First order transition: discontinuity in the first derivative

S

and change of slope in Gibbs function

G

. (b) Second order transition: discontinuity in the second derivative heat capacity (

C

p

) and change of slope in the first derivative

S

. (c) Mixed transition: according to Rustum Roy [3], involving both change in slope and discontinuity of a function denoted

F

, such as entropy

S

, at the transition.

FIGURE 4.3 Schematic curves of Gibbs function

G

versus temperature for liquid and solid states of a crystalline material.

G

f

is the Gibbs function change on fusion.

FIGURE 4.4 Gibbs function change

G

nucl

on formation of a solid nucleus in a supercooled liquid phase as a function of the nucleus radius

R

. Dashed lines represent the contributions featured on the right‐hand side of Eq. (4.2); continuous line is the resulting

G

nucl

curve.

FIGURE 4.5 Two‐dimensional example illustrating the definitions of lattice, basis, and crystal structure. Here the fish represents an atom or atom group; two motifs are shown, with the fish in different positions relative to the lattice point. A lattice times an atom group produces a structure. We see two crystal structures shown, based on the two motifs. Lattice points do not necessarily lie at the center of atoms, just as the fish does not have to be centered on the lattice points. Various unit cells are drawn on the lattice; P = primitive, NP = non‐primitive.

FIGURE 4.6 Unit cells of the 14 Bravais lattices.

FIGURE 4.7 The artwork

Depth

, based on the monoclinic P lattice.

FIGURE 4.8 Three different unit cells are drawn on the lattice. The square cell is the simplest, contains the least number of points within its cell, and provides the symmetry of the lattice.

FIGURE 4.9 Both primitive and non‐primitive unit cells are shown on the lattice. The non‐primitive cell accurately represents the symmetry of the lattice.

FIGURE 4.10 (a) A hexagonal lattice and the hexagonal unit cell. (b) Hexagonal structure of graphite on which atoms are drawn as open circles. The hexagonal unit cell (identical to that in (a)) is placed on the structure at two different positions, creating two motifs. (c) A motif with atoms at four corners and one interior atom. (d) A motif with two interior atoms in the hexagonal unit cell.

FIGURE 4.11 Unit cells: Simple (or primitive), Body‐centered, and Face‐centered. Coordinate axes are labeled

x

,

y

, and

z

. Labels are defined as: P = primitive, I = body‐centered, F = face‐ or side‐centered.

FIGURE 4.12 The (110) crystal plane (shaded)—shown to illustrate the process of determining Miller indices—corresponding to Example 4.2 in the text.

FIGURE 4.13 Close‐packing of two layers of atoms, in two dimensions. The holes are referred to as interstitial sites. Tetrahedral holes have four nearest sphere neighbors, distributed between layers. Octahedral holes have six nearest neighbors, also distributed between layers (not in a single plane).

FIGURE 4.14 Three‐dimensional hard sphere representation of atomic stacking in close‐packed structures.

FIGURE 4.15 The diamond crystal lattice.

FIGURE 4.16 Crystalline symmetry: from the left, 2‐fold, 3‐fold, and 4‐fold.

FIGURE 4.17 Schematic representation of point defects in a crystal: (1) vacancy; (2) self‐interstitial (same atom type as matrix atoms); (3) interstitial impurity; (4) and (5) substitutional impurities. Arrows indicate the local stresses imposed by the point defects.

FIGURE 4.18 Representations of line defects, shown with a corresponding perfect lattice (a) for comparison: (b) edge dislocation and (c) screw dislocation. Burgers vectors are shown (shaded arrows) for each type of dislocation.

FIGURE 4.19 Two‐dimensional representation of (a) a perfect single crystal and (b) a poly‐crystal with many defects and grain boundaries. In (b) one can see defects such as extra atoms (of the same and different (gray colored) types), missing atoms, and a missing half row of atoms.

FIGURE 4.20 (a) Schematic representation of a twin boundary. (b) Schematic of twin (or tilt) boundaries from slip due to deformation.

FIGURE 4.21 Micrograph image of a crystal lattice defect.

Chapter 05

FIGURE 5.1 (a) Original electron diffraction pattern from the icosahedral phase. (b) Image of the potential energy surface (PES) of an adsorbed atom on a 5‐fold icosahedral quasicrystal surface.

FIGURE 5.2 An opal, with the play of colors visible.

FIGURE 5.3 A schematic of the X‐ray diffraction principle for a material in reflection geometry; 2

θ

is the scattering angle.

FIGURE 5.4 The scheme presents the concept of radial distribution. It illustrates the method for obtaining the radial distribution function

g

(

R

) for a system of atoms, as described in the text.

FIGURE 5.5 An illustration of shells surrounding an atom and the corresponding histogram as a function of distance

R

. Distances correspond roughly to gaseous Ar.

FIGURE 5.6 Construction of the radial distribution function

g

(

R

), called in this figure

n

(

r

), for Ar. Shown is the function based on atom A as the reference. (

y

‐axis label is 4

πr

2

g

(

R

) / nm

3

.)

FIGURE 5.7 The normalized radial distribution function

g

(

R

) for two argon samples; B and C notations refer to atoms specified in Figure 5.6.

FIGURE 5.8 (a)

g

(

R

) functions for solid and liquid Ar. (b)

g

(

R

) functions for liquid and gaseous Ar.

FIGURE 5.9 The Voronoi polygon for a particle.

FIGURE 5.10 An example of Voronoi tessellation in 2 dimensions. Particles are shown as dots with polygon defined by thick lines.

FIGURE 5.11 Delaunay tessellation (black) and Voronoi (gray) diagram for a set of points (particles, as black dots).

FIGURE 5.12 Partitioning of 3D space (a cube in the present case) containing a randomly placed set of particles (dots) into Voronoi polyhedra.

FIGURE 5.13 Specific volume as a function of temperature for poly(vinyl acetate) determined at two cooling rates and including the glass transition.

FIGURE 5.14 (a) Models describing (or attempting to describe)

T

g

versus composition dependence of itraconazole (ITZ, an HIV drug compound) + PLS‐630 (a copolymer) blends. Inset: compositional variation of density

ρ

and excess mixing volume

V

E

(per gram of mass) for the same mixture. (b) Dependence of

T

g

on composition in certain binary systems: poly(styrene‐

co‐N

,

N

‐dimethylacrylamide) with 17 mol.% of

N

,

N

‐dimethylacrylamide (SAD17) + poly(styrene‐

co

‐acrylic acid) with 18, 27, or 32 mol.% acrylic acid. Thick lines are fits to Eq. (5.2) (the BCKV equation).

FIGURE 5.15 Two phase hard sphere packing model for the Ge–As–Se glasses comprising 103 atoms. (a) An outer surface view, and (b) the embedded tetrahedral GeSe

2

network is revealed (blue).

FIGURE 5.16 Models of monodisperse and polydisperse foams; after Kraynik [30]. The Voronoi structure was relaxed to produce the monodisperse foam. These disordered structures contain 216 cells in the representative volume (unit cell).

Chapter 06

FIGURE 6.1 Periodic table of chemical elements.

FIGURE 6.2

Blacksmith Apprentice

,

Williamsburg

,

VA

, watercolor by Raymond H. Pahler, 1986.

FIGURE 6.3 Diagram of a blast furnace.

FIGURE 6.4 Metal hardness versus annealing temperature (a qualitative diagram).

FIGURE 6.5 A dislocation at point A, for consideration of two scenarios. What happens if the dislocation moves to the left? To the right?

FIGURE 6.6 The Pb + Sn solid‐liquid equilibrium diagram. Solvus, Solidus, and Liquidus refer to the boundary lines.

FIGURE 6.7 Interstitial (black) impurity atoms in a lattice of gray atoms.

FIGURE 6.8 Metal strengthening by a substitutional impurity atom.

FIGURE 6.9 (a) Photomicrograph of carbon steel containing 0.33% carbon (Micrograph) X200. (b) Voronoi tessellation model of the steel structure at left.

FIGURE 6.10 The Chevron pattern of crack propagation.

FIGURE 6.11 Iron + carbon phase diagram.

FIGURE 6.12 Comparison of ferrous metals.

FIGURE 6.13 Comparison of non‐ferrous metals.

FIGURE 6.14 Strength of several classes of materials versus elastic limit (refer to Chapter 14 for mechanical properties).

FIGURE 6.15 The two‐phase structure of DH3, a metallic glass alloy of five different metals with glassy matrix and a crystalline dendritic phase; when the spaces between the dendritic branches are the right width, they can stop cracks before they propagate.

FIGURE 6.16 Crack propagation through (a) crystalline and (b) amorphous metals.

Chapter 07

FIGURE 7.1 Illustration of an ionic lattice with a cation vacancy and a cation interstitial— shown here as an example of a metal + nonmetal ceramic.

FIGURE 7.2 The zinc blende structure.

FIGURE 7.3 A spinel structure.

FIGURE 7.4 Perovskite cell structure.

FIGURE 7.5 Cutaway of a turbine engine.

FIGURE 7.6 Silicate structures.

FIGURE 7.7 Determination of a structure of a sodium silicate glass by ankylography based on a simulated 2D spherical diffraction pattern alone. Left: the Ewald sphere; Right: 3D structure with red, purple, and yellow spheres representing, respectively, the positions of O, Na, and Si atoms. The accuracy is 0.2 nm.

FIGURE 7.8 Structure of graphene.

FIGURE 7.9 The structure of buckminsterfullerene, C

60

, as a ball and stick model at left (a) and showing bond structure at right (b).

FIGURE 7.10 Types of carbon nanotubes.

FIGURE 7.11 The structure of lonsdaleite.

FIGURE 7.12 A Venetian mirror.

FIGURE 7.13 A section of the Hall of Mirrors.

FIGURE 7.14 Classification of silicates.

FIGURE 7.15 The top part of figure shows the basic structural units of clay minerals and the silica and alumina layers formed by them. There is the sheet structure of silicon tetrahedron arranged in a hexagonal network and the sheet structure of aluminum–hydroxyl octahedron. The lower part shows schematically the structures of (a) kaolinite, (b) illite, and (c) montmorillonite, based on the sheets defined in the upper part of the figure.

FIGURE 7.16 Meissen porcelain tiles, on which are shown trademark symbols (shown here in black) of Meissener Porzellan Manufaktur.

FIGURE 7.17 The growth of a “silicate garden”. (a) Growth from a crystal of Co(NO

3

)

2

immersed in dilute sodium silicate solution; sequence of 1–4 occurs in approximately 30 seconds. (b) Schematic diagram of growth of a “silicate garden”.

FIGURE 7.18 Cement hydration seen in high voltage electron microscopy (HVEM). Cement is shown (a) after 3 hours, showing the initial gel coating around a cement grain and small angular crystals of Portlandite (at left); (b) after more than 1 day, showing fibrillar development of gel around the cement grains, which is illustrated in more detail in (c).

Chapter 08

FIGURE 8.1 Structure and formula of basic hydrocarbons.

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic diagram of a rectification column used for separation and purification of materials, such as for separating different hydrocarbons in petroleum.

FIGURE 8.3 Schematic of the basic process for coal tar production (top) and structures of some common chemical products derived from coal tar (bottom).

FIGURE 8.4 Delineation of coal tar markets and products.

FIGURE 8.5 Comparison of chemicals and associated C/H ratios typically produced from petroleum and coal tar.

Chapter 09

FIGURE 9.1 Types of copolymers based on structural assembly of the monomer units; (a) is

alternating

, (b) is

random

, (c) is

block

, and (d) is

grafted

. Dark and light spheres represent different monomer building blocks.

FIGURE 9.2 Vulcanization of natural rubber.

FIGURE 9.3 Rubber bicycle tire.

FIGURE 9.4 Thermoplastic (left) and thermoset (right) subjected to a horizontal tensile force.

FIGURE 9.5 Styrene/butadiene copolymer.

FIGURE 9.6 Scheme of a micelle formed by surfactant molecules in an aqueous solution.

FIGURE 9.7 Polymers or polymer classes, representative functional units, and typical applications.

FIGURE 9.8 Structures of two Nylons.

FIGURE 9.9 Synthesis of Kevlar from the monomers 1,4‐phenylene‐diamine (

para‐phenylenediamine

) and terephthaloyl chloride. Hydrochloric acid is produced as a byproduct of the step growth (condensation) polymerization reaction.

FIGURE 9.10 Carbonic chains with single bonds only. Schematics (b) and (c) illustrate possible structural formations given the natural bond angle shown in (a) for carbon in single bonds.

FIGURE 9.11 Tacticity of polymers. From top to bottom: isotactic, syndiotactic, atactic.

FIGURE 9.12 A dendrimer polymer; note symmetry with respect to the center.

FIGURE 9.13 A hyperbranched polymer chain.

FIGURE 9.14 Structure of a semicrystalline polymer. Left: contrast in electron micrograph. Right: two crystalline regions with an amorphous region in the middle.

FIGURE 9.15 Key processing methods for thermoplastics (not to scale): (a) extrusion; (b) injection molding; (c) blow molding; (d) thermoforming; (e) calendaring; and (f) spinning.

FIGURE 9.16 Schematic of the phases of parison extrusion and blowing in the blow molding process.

Chapter 10

FIGURE 10.1 A box of chocolates (made in Lithuania by Vilniaus Pergalē). (http://www.pergale.lt/en/box‐of‐sweets‐pupa‐3/.)

FIGURE 10.2 Typologies of fiber‐reinforced composites.

FIGURE 10.3 Four layers of a material reinforced with continuous fibers; the angle of orientation is rotated for each subsequent layer. Laminar composites have the direction of high‐strength orientation varied between layers.

FIGURE 10.4 SEM picture of SiBN

3

C fibers (Siboramic).

FIGURE 10.5 An assembled sandwich composite panel A. Beneath it are the facing layers B and honeycomb core layer C, shown unassembled.

FIGURE 10.6 Sandwich core structures: honeycomb, waffle, corrugated, foam, prism.

FIGURE 10.7

Twig Cross Section

by Raymond H. Pahler, mixed media.

Chapter 11

FIGURE 11.1 Biomaterials constituents and common applications.

FIGURE 11.2 Abbreviated timeline of advances in biomaterials through the 1970s. Recent advances are too numerous to list and span many specialties in biomedicine.

FIGURE 11.3 A titanium hip prosthesis (stem), with a ceramic head and polyethylene acetabular cup.

FIGURE 11.4 Schematic illustration of surface modification of synthetic materials by biofunctional peptides and nanotopographic features. Biofunctionalization of the polymer surface (shown as a flat blue plane) can facilitate the attachment of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs, shown as blue cells) in the circulatory blood by providing cell‐specific adhesion motifs (shown brownish gold) on the surface of the synthetic biomaterial that promote in situ endothelialization. Endothelial progenitor cells can proliferate and differentiate to mature endothelial cells and have an important role in neovascularization and angiogenesis. Potentially, they can be used in the endothelialization process of biomaterials.

FIGURE 11.5 Representation of the SSAV (semi‐stented aortic valve): (a) isometric view and (b) technical specifications used: total height = 20 mm, aortic protrusion = 14, internal diameter = 21 mm, and external diameter = 22 mm. The SSAV is based on a design strategy aimed at reducing the energy absorbed during the operating cycle, which results in high hydrodynamic performances and reduced stress levels. The valve design also aims to facilitate easy surgical procedure with minimal damage to the native tissue and improved hemodynamic performance.

FIGURE 11.6 Schematic of a liposome used as a drug delivery system.

FIGURE 11.7 Skeletal structure of a seahorse.

FIGURE 11.8 Schematic illustration of natural and synthetic fiber structures.

FIGURE 11.9 Schematic of the miniemulsion process.

FIGURE 11.10 Scheme of possible applications of nanoparticles and nanocapsules prepared by the miniemulsion process.

Chapter 12

FIGURE 12.1 Schlieren‐texture of a nematic phase liquid crystal: Schlieren‐Textur der nematischen Phase eines kalamitischen Flüssigkristalls—1,5‐hexandiol‐bis{4‐[4‐(4‐

n

‐octyloxy‐benzoyloxy)benzylidenamino]benzoat} bei 250°C.

FIGURE 12.2 (a) Schematic of mesogen alignment in a liquid crystal nematic phase. (b) Schematic of mesogen ordering in chiral liquid crystal phases. The chiral nematic phase (left), also called the cholesteric phase, and the smectic C* phase (right). The asterisk denotes a chiral phase. (c) Schematic of mesogen ordering in the smectic liquid crystal phases: smectic‐A (layered) and smectic‐C (layered and tilted).

FIGURE 12.3 Changes of the director between consecutive layers in a cholesteric liquid crystal. Total thickness shown here is half the pitch (denoted

p

).

FIGURE 12.4 Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display (LCD). 1. Vertical filter film to polarize the light as it enters. 2. Glass substrate with ITO (indium tin oxide) electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the dark shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned on. Vertical ridges are etched on the surface so the liquid crystals are in line with the polarized light. 3. Twisted nematic liquid crystals. 4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter. 5. Horizontal filter film to block/allow through light. 6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer.

FIGURE 12.5 Surface images of a cholesteric PLC + a nematic MLC sandwiched between 2 Si strips. Top: red surface of the unstretched material. Bottom: color changes to green when stretched 20%. Thus the material can be used as a sensor of deformation.

FIGURE 12.6 Changes in melt viscosity of polypropylene as a function of concentration of a PLC (PET/0.6PHB where PET = poly(ethylene terephthalate) and 0.6 is the mole fraction of

p

‐hydroxybenzoic acid in the PLC copolymer).

FIGURE 12.7 Schematic of a magnetorheological fluid—magnetic particles suspended in a carrier oil—solidifying in response to an external magnetic field and thereby blocking a pipe.

FIGURE 12.8 Three modes of operation of magnetorheological fluids.

FIGURE 12.9 Various MR‐brake designs: (a) drum, (b) inverted drum, (c) T‐shaped rotor, (d) disk, (e) multiple disks.

FIGURE 12.10 Behavior of an electrorheological fluid in response to an applied electric field (

E

). Columnar formation (top) of suspended particles increases viscosity or stiffness of the fluid and the corresponding effect on shear stress (bottom).

FIGURE 12.11 The ER fluid frame (right) provides hydraulic dampers against seismic vibrations in the Kajima Shizuoka Building in Shizuoka, Japan (left).

FIGURE 12.12 Electrochromic goggles: tint switches between blue (left) and transparent (right) in 3 seconds at ±1.5 V (+1.5 for oxidation and −1.5 V for reduction).

FIGURE 12.13 Electrochromic window in airplane: color switches between blue (left) and transparent (right) at ±1.5 V in 6 seconds.

FIGURE 12.14 Generator and motor actions of a piezoelectric element. Possible scenarios of piezoelectric and inverse piezoelectric effects.

FIGURE 12.15 Crystal properties and the pyroelectric effect. Variables correspond to electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties.

FIGURE 12.16 A single‐element pyroelectric detector. In this configuration intended to monitor radiation with a wavelength near 10 µm, two lead titanate pyroelectric elements are used. One detector element is exposed to incoming radiation, and another shielded under a metal strip. Both crystals are electrically connected with opposite polarities to cancel out the effect of any drift in ambient temperature.

FIGURE 12.17 Transformation mechanism of metal shape‐memory alloys. Deformation is elastic.

FIGURE 12.18 Slip mechanism of deformation in ordinary metals.

FIGURE 12.19 (a) Molecular mechanism of the thermally induced shape‐memory effect.

T

trans

 = thermal transition temperature related to the switching phase. (b) Schematic illustration of shape changing of a shape‐memory element.

Chapter 13

FIGURE 13.1 Types of flow.

FIGURE 13.2 Velocity profile of a flow as it relates to distance

y

from the bed. Mean velocity

ū

 = 0 at the solid boundary (

y

 = 0). Velocity reaches a constant value

u

∞

, the free stream velocity, at some distance above the boundary.

δ

denotes thickness or depth of the boundary layer.

FIGURE 13.3 The shearing force

F

acts on the top plate as indicated. The velocity

u

i

of the fluid layer of depth

d

decreases going down along the vertical vector

y

since the velocity at the bottom plate is necessarily 0. The velocity profile from the top to bottom is not necessarily a straight line as shown; it can be concave looking from the right (the

capillary effect

, better seen in narrow cylindrical conduits).

FIGURE 13.4 Newtonian and non‐Newtonian fluids. Shear stress is

τ

; shear rate is Γ = ∂

u

/∂

y

on

x

‐axis. Pseudo‐plastic fluids are shear thinning; dilatant fluids are shear thickening.

FIGURE 13.5 Tubular cross‐sections illustrating the different types of fluid flow: (a) telescoping (laminar); (b) rotational; (c) twisting.

FIGURE 13.6 Testing geometries for a rotational viscometer. (a) cylindrical measuring system; (b) cone/plate measuring system; (c) plate/plate measuring system.

FIGURE 13.7 Model of a viscoelastic material. The spring element represents elastic behavior; the dashpot represents viscous behavior. The elements are connected in series.

FIGURE 13.8 Viscoelasticity determination for polymer melts. Effects with time are measured while the temperature is constant. Top: force application; bottom: stress and the resulting strain. Stress = 

F

/

A

. Strain = deformation (in

x

or

y

coordinate depending on test geometry.

x

for shear).

FIGURE 13.9 The

base

is under “

a salt.

”

FIGURE 13.10 Effect of solvents on chain dimensions in solution. The chain dimensions in the theta solvent (also called the Flory solvent) are the same in solution as they are (or would be) in the solid (amorphous) state. In a good solvent the chain pervades a higher volume than that; in a poor solvent the chain pervades a lower volume.

FIGURE 13.11 Solvation model of drag reduction by polymers. Thick line represents a fragment of a polymeric chain. Shaded region is solvated;

d

g

is the average width of the good sequence,

d

p

analogously for the poor sequence;

d

is the average width of the entire domain, here flowing horizontally to the right.

Chapter 14

FIGURE 14.1 Common modes of deformation occur from tensile stress, compressive stress, and shear stress. Specimen length denoted by

l

.

FIGURE 14.2 Isostatic material deformation.

P

represents the applied hydrostatic pressure.

FIGURE 14.3 Girl with a jug, ca. 1900, by Apoloniusz Kedzierski (1861–1939).

FIGURE 14.4 “Dogbone” specimen evolution during tensile testing (left) and the stress versus strain diagram (right) for a metal other than steel.

FIGURE 14.5 Stress versus strain curve for mild steel.

FIGURE 14.6 Strain hardening (work hardening) of a metal.

FIGURE 14.7 Diagram of engineering stress versus engineering strain and of true stress versus true strain for a non‐ferrous metal.

FIGURE 14.8 Stress

σ

versus strain

ε

diagram for a ceramic material.

FIGURE 14.9 General stress versus strain diagram for various types of polymers.

FIGURE 14.10 Dependence of polymer elastic modulus on temperature.

FIGURE 14.11 Three‐point bending test: three‐point configuration shown at left; typical appearance of deformation from the test shown at right.

FIGURE 14.12 Creep and stress relaxation.

FIGURE 14.13 Schematic of a universal testing apparatus used to measure stress relaxation. A rigid support cylinder is used to determine the extension ratio while the force acting on the sample is measured by displacement of the spring.

FIGURE 14.14 Isothermal stress relaxation results for a polymer (Bayer Makrolon®, which is a polycarbonate, 3 mm thick sheets) at three temperatures.

FIGURE 14.15 Creep of a plastic pipe, unreinforced and reinforced with steel. The ISO 9967 Standard was used to determine the creep.

FIGURE 14.16 Bouncing a ball off a floor: There is an elastic response represented by the storage modulus

E

′ and the liquid‐like response represented by the loss modulus

E

″. The latter is so named because it is evident from the illustration that some of the original energy is lost—largely, but not only, by internal motions of the ball. In this scenario the ball and its behavior illustrate a polymer and viscoelasticity.

FIGURE 14.17 Imposition of a sinusoidal stress on a viscoelastic solid and the material response in terms of strain.

FIGURE 14.18 Dynamic mechanical analysis results for polystyrene + Boehmite. On the left, the curves at the top which at higher temperatures descend are those for

E

′. The curves which on the left are close to the bottom but form peaks at higher temperatures are for tan

δ

. Data for 2 frequencies are shown: 0.1 Hz (▴) and 1.0 Hz (x). For the higher frequency, there is a small shift to the right in the major drop in

E

′ and in the peak of tan delta.

FIGURE 14.19 (A) Schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing. (a) Brittle fracture, (b) Ductile fracture after local necking, and (c) Completely ductile fracture. (B) Stress fracture of a bicycle pedal arm (Kettler aluminum wheel of about 1990). Light: the brittle, forced rupture. Dark: the fatigue fracture with snap lines. (C) Ductile fracture of a metal rod.

FIGURE 14.20 Three modes of crack extension. Mode I: opening = tensile mode. Mode II: in‐plane shear = sliding mode. Mode III: out‐of‐plane (antiplane) shear = tearing mode.

FIGURE 14.21 Geometry of a crack or notch. Depth of the crack is

h

; radius of curvature at the crack tip is

L

.

FIGURE 14.22 Crack propagation rates of three polyethylenes with different average molecular masses A, B, and C.

FIGURE 14.23 Impact test of a notched sample. Sample orientation and direction of the hammer strike are indicated for Charpy and Izod test methods.

FIGURE 14.24 Dependence of the Charpy impact strength on brittleness for a number of different polymers (each data point represents a different polymer).

FIGURE 14.25 Toughness

τ

(the surface area under the tensile stress vs. strain curve) versus brittleness

B

for a variety of polymers with different chemical structures.

FIGURE 14.26 Vickers hardness determination, a schematic view.

Chapter 15

FIGURE 15.1 A DSC diagram for poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS).

FIGURE 15.2 Thermogravimetric analysis of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC): curves shown for neat PVC and for 50 wt.% each of PVC and crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE).

FIGURE 15.3 Thermal conductivity of copper and sapphire as a function of temperature.

FIGURE 15.4 Thermal conductivities of polymeric materials as a function of temperature.

FIGURE 15.5 Artistic illustration of five different thermal Boltzmann distributions. The first container on the left shows a gas at a very small positive temperature, close to absolute zero. Most atoms are close to the lowest energy state, which is given by the lower energy bound, indicated by the cover at the bottom. The second container also shows a gas at positive temperature, but at a much higher temperature. Some atoms also occupy high energy states. In the center container, the gas is at positive or negative infinite temperature, which are physically the same. All energies are equally likely. In this case, both a lower and an upper energy bound is required. In the fourth container, the gas is at negative temperature, at a large negative value. For negative temperatures, an upper energy bound is required, but not necessarily a lower. The gas in the container on the right is at negative temperature, at a very small negative value. Most atoms are close to the maximum energy.

Chapter 16

FIGURE 16.1 Electromagnetic spectrum.

FIGURE 16.2 Some of the incident light is reflected (a), some is transmitted (b).

FIGURE 16.3 Left: Newton’s color wheel, in which colors opposite to each other are complementary. The table at right lists the complementary colors with greater specification. (R, red; O, orange; Y, yellow; G, green; B, blue; I, indigo; V, violet.)

FIGURE 16.4 Antarctica: The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The freshwater stays on top of the lake and freezes, sealing in briny water below.

FIGURE 16.5 Increased number of lines represent density of states.

FIGURE 16.6 The probability of an electron in a metal occupying a certain energy level is

p

(

E

), defined by Eq. (16.2). At

T

 = 0 K, the Fermi energy, denoted

E

F

, separates occupied from unoccupied levels. At higher temperatures, the function is no longer rectangular.

FIGURE 16.7 Alternate presentation of the Fermi‐Dirac distribution of electronic energy states. Curves in (a) indicate the changes in occupied levels as temperature increases. The image in (b) pictorially shows, for

T

 > 0 K, as dots the conducting electrons above the Fermi energy

E

F

and as open circles the holes (electron vacancies).

FIGURE 16.8 The energy gap

E

g

is illustrated by a modified schematic of the electron probability distribution shown in Figure 16.6. Energy bands are shown for (a) a metal and (b) a semiconductor.

E

F

is the Fermi energy.

FIGURE 16.9 Birefringence (explanation in text). Shown here: two rays with parallel directions but perpendicular polarization passing through a birefringent material.

FIGURE 16.10 An optical illusion: the blue and green spirals are actually the same color.

FIGURE 16.11 An optical illusion from effects of lighting and reflection. The reflection of light on the lower tile makes it seem lighter than the upper tile. However, if one covers the region where the dark gray and white tiles come together, it becomes obvious that both tiles are the same shade of gray.

FIGURE 16.12 An optical camera image of a camouflage fatigue; (a) top left: no modification; top middle: reflectin coated tape squares; top right: a plant leaf; (b) bottom images correspond to the top ones but under IR illumination.

Chapter 17

FIGURE 17.1 The probability of an electron in a metal occupying a certain energy level is

P

(

E

), defined by Eq. (16.2). At

T

 = 0 K, the Fermi energy, denoted

E

F

, separates occupied from unoccupied levels. At higher temperatures, the function is no longer rectangular.

FIGURE 17.2 The energy gap

E

g

is illustrated by a modified schematic of the electron probability distribution shown in Figure 16.6. Energy bands are shown for (a) a metal and (b) a semiconductor.

E

F

is the Fermi energy.

FIGURE 17.3 Kinetic energy

U

M

as a function of the wave vector

k

for a free electron.

FIGURE 17.4 Schematic representation of potential energy

u

e

of electrons in different types of solid crystals: (a) metal; (b) tightly bound covalent crystal; (c) ionic solid; (d) a simplified rectangular well model (also called the Kronig‐Penney model).

FIGURE 17.5 Relation between the kinetic energy

U

M

of an electron in the crystal lattice and the wave vector

k

.

FIGURE 17.6 Equal energy contours in the first Brillouin zone of a two‐dimensional square lattice.

FIGURE 17.7 The work function

φ

, showing the minimum energy required to remove an electron to a vacuum away from the atom, is shown for (a) a metal and (b) a semiconductor.

FIGURE 17.8 Energy bands of a semiconductor. (a) Valence band (VB) is full, and there is no conductivity at

T

 = 0 K. (b) At temperatures above absolute zero, electrons can acquire enough energy to move to the conduction band (CB). Dark dots represent electrons in the conduction band, and white dots represent the corresponding holes in the valence band.

FIGURE 17.9 (a) Crystal structure of Ge. (b) Schematic of Ge lattice. (c) The band gap for Ge is 0.7 eV. The mechanism of conductivity for an intrinsic semiconductor involves the moving of an electron from the Ge lattice into the conduction band, leaving a hole behind, as shown here and in (d).

FIGURE 17.10 An extrinsic semiconductor. (a) Two‐dimensional representation of

P

inserted into Si lattice. (b)

P

donates an extra electron (compared to Si) to the conduction band. (c) A donor level is created in the band gap, from which electrons can be promoted to the conduction band.

FIGURE 17.11 A p‐type semiconductor: Si doped with Al. (a) The lattice. (b) Movement of an electron within the structure. (c) The presence of a hole in the valence band drives the movement of electrons from Si to the acceptor band.

FIGURE 17.12 (a) Representation of a diode and (b) the electrical symbol for a diode.

FIGURE 17.13 Urbach tails scheme.

FIGURE 17.14 A parallel‐plate capacitor with a distance

d

between the plates, a dielectric material between the plates, an electric field

E

across the plates, and a voltage

V

.

FIGURE 17.15 Hysteresis curve for polarization

P

versus imposed electric field

E

for a ferroelectric material.

FIGURE 17.16 An illustration of piezoelectricity. The active people induce some mechanical stress to the material, and the resultant dielectric polarization completes the circuit, turning on the light.

Chapter 18

FIGURE 18.1 Magnetic field sources.

FIGURE 18.2 Magnetic field lines.

FIGURE 18.3 Removal of a small cylinder of length

dl

from inside a larger cylinder having relative permeability

μ

r

. A current, indicated by the circular arrows passing around the cavity walls, restores the magnetic induction to the value before the removal.

FIGURE 18.4 Magnitude and orientation of magnetic spins in materials. Arrows indicate spin direction, while different sizes of arrows reflect unequal spin size.

FIGURE 18.5 The magnetic hysteresis loop in the magnetic induction

B

versus magnetic field strength

H

coordinates. The distinction between “soft” and “hard” material is somewhat subjective, it relies on the perception that the loop is “lean” or “fat”.

FIGURE 18.6 Temperature dependence of magnetic susceptibility for: (a) paramagnetic material; (b) ferromagnetic material with transition into paramagnetic shown; and (c) antiferromagnetic material, also with transition into paramagnetic behavior shown.

T

C

is the Curie temperature;

T

N

is the Néel temperature.

FIGURE 18.7 A magnetic levitation train car.

FIGURE 18.8 Illustration of how magnetic levitation propulsion operates.

Chapter 19

FIGURE 19.1 Schematic of a solid surface and typical surface layers. Adsorbed contaminants may result from physisorption, chemisorption, and chemical reactions. The oxide layer formed on many types of materials constitutes a chemically reacted layer. The deformed layer is subdivided into 3 separate layers. In some metals and alloys a microcrystalline or amorphous structure known as the Beilby layer is present. Underneath that are more and less heavily deformed layers, resulting from processing and prior history of the material part. Finally, underneath all the surface layers is the base material from which are derived the bulk material properties. All surfaces have a roughness, determined by prior history and the nature and composition of the layer.

FIGURE 19.2 Physicochemical properties, effects, and testing methods in solid surface layers.

FIGURE 19.3 A drop of a liquid on a solid surface, with the wetting angle

θ

between the two phases indicated.

FIGURE 19.4 The wetting angles of several liquid polymers on the surface of a semiconductor, before curing them, as a function of temperature. Lower wetting angles prove to be an indicator of good adhesion.

FIGURE 19.5 Test setup for determination of static and dynamic friction using a mechanical testing machine. The standard load cell is fitted with a nylon filament that passes through a low‐friction pulley. The material (steel, Teflon, etc.) of the plane countersurface is selected for the desired system conditions. The sample is mounted underneath the sled, which is pulled by the nylon filament.

FIGURE 19.6 Schematic of the main components of a pin‐on‐disc tribometer.

FIGURE 19.7 Dynamic friction of a commercial epoxy as a function of concentration of a fluoropolymer (12F‐PEK) additive.

FIGURE 19.8 Scanning electron micrographs of blends of epoxy + 12F‐PEK (a fluoropolymer). The top images show epoxy + 5% 12F‐PEK cured at (a) 24°C and at (b) 70°C. The bottom two images show epoxy + 30% 12F‐PEK cured at (c) 24°C and at (d) 70°C.

FIGURE 19.9 Schematic illustration of micro‐scratch test operation for scratch resistance determination.

FIGURE 19.10 Penetration and recovery depths as a function of increasing load on a polymer specimen.

FIGURE 19.11 Grooves resultant from scratch testing a polymer under a constant load. The loads decrease from right to left.

FIGURE 19.12 (a) Penetration depth and (b) residual depth of a commercial epoxy with fluoropolymer additive, as a function of concentration of the 12F‐PEK fluoropolymer. The epoxy curing was performed at 24°C.

FIGURE 19.13 Surface tension of epoxy + 12F‐PEK fluoropolymer as a function of the fluoropolymer concentration. Surface tension total values at 25°C calculated from the van Oss–Good method. Measurements taken on the top surface.

FIGURE 19.14 Results of scratch testing of an uncoated tooth (extracted from a volunteer).

FIGURE 19.15 Sliding wear determination (i.e., multiple scratching along the same groove) for polymers and polymer composites. Solid symbols are used for penetration depth (

R

p

); open symbols are used for residual depth (

R

h

). UH, Hy, PCL, and CBDO are neat polymers. UHWG, HyAl, and PCL‐SIL are composites. The force applied during testing was 10 N.

FIGURE 19.16 A relationship between the viscoelastic recovery

f

in sliding wear determination (horizontal asymptotic behavior) and brittleness for a variety of polymers and composites. (Abbreviations for materials are defined in [39].) Original Caption: The percentage of viscoelastic recovery as a function of brittleness for all materials (excluding metals). The solid line represents an exponentially decaying function defined by Eq. (19.3) fit to the experimental data points.

FIGURE 19.17 Schematic of operation of atomic force microscopy (AFM) with a piezoelectric (PZT) scanner.

Chapter 20

FIGURE 20.1 Unscrupulous industrial companies contaminate water, in this case the Delaware river.

FIGURE 20.2 An advertisement for a solar water heater dating to 1901.

FIGURE 20.3 A laundromat in California with panels on the roof providing hot washing water.

FIGURE 20.4 Schematic illustrating the uses of the Peltier (left) and the Seebeck (right) effects. The thermoelectric materials are n‐type and p‐type semiconductors.

FIGURE 20.5 Thermoelectric module showing the direction of charge flow on both cooling and power generation.

FIGURE 20.6 Work for the preservation of our planet—as well as against it.

FIGURE 20.7 “I guess gray is the new green.” Irony in the name: A manufacturing plant intended for drug production actually appears to be generating a health

problem

by polluting air and water, and possibly the drug is intended to treat problems caused by just such pollution!

Guide

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MATERIALS

Introduction and Applications

WITOLD BROSTOW

University of North TexasDenton, Texas, USA

HALEY E. HAGG LOBLAND

University of North TexasDenton, Texas, USA

Copyright © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data:

Names: Brostow, Witold, Hagg Lobland, Haley E.Title: Materials : introduction and applications / Witold Brostow, Haley E. Hagg Lobland.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016006351| ISBN 9780470523797 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119281009 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Materials science–Study and teaching. | Surfaces–Study and teaching. | Thermodynamics–Study and teaching.Classification: LCC TA404 .B76 2016 | DDC 620.1/1–dc23LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016006351

Cover image courtesy of the authors.

“Keep away from people who try to belittle your ambitions. Small people always do that, but the really great make you feel that you, too, can become great.”—Mark Twain

FOREWORD

There are many textbooks in the Materials Science and Engineering (MSE) field, why bother about one more? An important objective of this Foreword is to try to answer this question. We know that for thousands of years, materials—whether stone, iron, bronze, or clay—have largely influenced the ways people live. Matter, what makes up materials, is an integral part of society. This is no less true in the 21st century than it was in the 1st century or at any time before that. There is, therefore, a need for scientists, engineers, and laymen alike to understand the nature of materials.

One develops new materials and solves problems in MSE following three kinds of approaches (alone or in different combinations): experiment, theory, and computer modeling and simulations. All three approaches are covered in this book. A reader thus obtains not only a description of experimental facts but also improved explanation of what has been observed and above all indication of how one moves towards prediction—which provides direction for the development of new materials.