Net-Zero and Low Carbon Solutions for the Energy Sector E-Book

Amin Mirkouei

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 514

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Net-Zero and Low Carbon Solutions for the Energy Sector Guide to choosing and investing in decarbonization technologies for the energy sector Net-Zero and Low Carbon Solutions for the Energy Sector proposes mature (high technology readiness level) net-zero and low carbon pathways and technologies in the energy sector, discussing net-/near-zero solutions for producing and storing power, heat, biofuel, and hydrogen, and highlighting various pathways and processes to achieve net-zero targets and address climate concerns. Each chapter provides a relevant case study to aid in the practical application of concepts, covering decarbonization solutions that have high potential to be used in the near future, such as solar-hybrid systems for net-zero power generation, CCUS-hybrid systems for low carbon power generation, pumped hydropower for power storage, commercial concentrating solar power plants for heat generation, gasification with CCUS for biofuel production, hybrid thermochemical process for hydrogen production, and more. Written from the perspective of firsthand research experience in the field, this book includes information on: * Net-zero power generation via solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, hydrogen, and marine processes * Near-zero power generation via nuclear, coal, natural gas, biomass, and ammonia processes * Mechanical and battery-based power storage and heat storage via physical and thermochemical processes * Near-zero heat generation processes and biofuels production, including biogas, biomethane, bioethanol, and biodiesel * Hydrogen production via electrolysis and thermochemical processes with CCUS and low-emission technologies for hydrogen storage Net-Zero and Low Carbon Solutions for the Energy Sector is a valuable resource for business professionals, academics, and policy makers who are active in contributing to net-zero emissions targets for keeping the atmospheric CO2 levels in an acceptable range.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

About the Author

Acknowledgments

Acronyms

List of Figures

List of Tables

Introduction

What to Expect in This Book

Audience

Benefits of Applying this Book

1 Power Generation (Net‐Zero Solutions)

1.1 Solar

1.2 Wind

1.3 Hydropower

1.4 Geothermal

1.5 Hydrogen

1.6 Marine

1.7 Case Study: Solar Hybrid Energy Systems

1.8 Denmark Case Study

References

2 Power Generation (Low‐Carbon Solutions)

2.1 Nuclear

2.2 Coal

2.3 Natural Gas

2.4 Biomass

2.5 Ammonia

2.6 Case Study: CCUS‐Hybrid Energy Systems

References

3 Power Storage

3.1 Battery

3.2 Mechanical Energy Storage

3.3 Case Study: Pumped Hydropower Energy Storage

References

4 Heat Generation

4.1 Low‐Emission Technologies

4.2 Case Study: Geothermal Heat Pumps

References

5 Heat Storage

5.1 Physical

5.2 Thermochemical

5.3 Case Studies: Commercial Concentrating Solar Power Plants

References

6 Biofuel Production

6.1 Biogas

6.2 Biomethane

6.3 Bioethanol

6.4 Biodiesel

6.5 Case Study: Gasification with CCUS

References

7 Hydrogen Production

7.1 Thermochemical with CCUS

7.2 Electrolysis

7.3 Case Study: Hybrid Thermochemical Hydrogen Production

References

8 Hydrogen Storage

8.1 Physical‐based Storage

8.2 Material‐based Storage

8.3 Case Study: Aboveground and Underground Hydrogen Storage

References

Appendix 1: Opportunities to Study or Work with the Author

Appendix 2: Author’s Publications

Books, Magazines, and Contributions to Other Volumes

Refereed Journal Publications

Peer‐Reviewed Conference Publications

Appendix 3: Self‐Check Questions and Answers

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 CO

2

emissions from the energy sector (million metric tons).

Table 1.2 Unsubsidized levelized cost of energy.

Table 1.3 Top 10 countries with high wind power capacity.

Table 1.4 Emission (CO

2

, SO

2

, NO

x

) benefits by the U.S. regions in 2021.

Table 1.5 Annual and cumulative growth in U.S. wind power capacity over the ...

Table 1.6 Annual U.S. market share of wind turbine manufacturers by MW betwe...

Table 1.7 Average water consumption for energy generation.

Table 1.8 Comparison of different geothermal technologies for power generati...

Table 1.9 Comparison of high TRL technologies for power generation from hydr...

Table 1.10 Relative contribution of resource types in annual capacity additi...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Share of the U.S. power generation.

Table 2.2 U.S. Renewable energy consumption (Quadrillion Btu).

Table 2.3 Comparison of leading CCUS approaches from coal‐fired power plants...

Table 2.4 Comparison of mature technologies for power generation from ammoni...

Table 2.5 Comparison of IGCC, SCPC, and NGCC for power generation with and w...

Table 2.6 Comparison of key nature‐based carbon removal methods.

Table 2.7 Hydrogen production facilities with CCUS.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Comparison of lithium‐ion batteries with redox flow batteries.

Table 3.2 Comparison of different energy storage technologies.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Examples of geothermal heat pump projects in the world.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Comparison of sensible storage media properties.

Table 5.2 Comparison of heat storage technologies.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Energy content of various fuels.

Table 6.2 Physical and chemical characteristics comparison of biodiesel and ...

Table 6.3 Example of commercial gasification technologies.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Hydrogen quality requirements.

Table 7.2 Mature hydrogen production method comparison.

Table 7.3 An overview of techno‐economic and environmental impact assessment...

Table 7.4 Current operating and planned hydrogen production plants with CCUS...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Material‐based hydrogen storage attributes.

Table 8.2 Hydrogen storage for light‐duty fuel cell vehicles.

Table 8.3 Hydrogen storage attributes in different forms.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Energy generation from renewable resources.

Figure 1.2 Key power generation methods.

Figure 1.3 Major solar technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.4 Solar PV progress and targets.

Figure 1.5 Schematic of C‐Si solar cells.

Figure 1.6 Schematic and example of a multijunction solar cell.

Figure 1.7 Schematic of stand‐alone floating solar PV system (a) and hybrid ...

Figure 1.8 Schematic of the CIGS PV cell.

Figure 1.9 Schematic of the organic solar cell.

Figure 1.10 Schematic and examples of perovskite PV cells.

Figure 1.11 CSP progress and goals.

Figure 1.12 Schematic of a solar thermal tower receiver with heliostats fiel...

Figure 1.13 Schematic of the parabolic trough (a) and parabolic dish (b)....

Figure 1.14 Schematic of the linear Fresnel reflector.

Figure 1.15 Leading wind technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.16 Example of onshore wind technology for power generation.

Figure 1.17 Schematic of offshore wind turbines for power generation.

Figure 1.18 Example of offshore wind technology for power generation.

Figure 1.19 Examples of airborne wind technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.20 Airborne wind energy system classification.

Figure 1.21 Example of power generation through hydropower technology.

Figure 1.22 Example of geothermal power generation.

Figure 1.23 Main geothermal technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.24 Schematic of dry steam technology for power generation.

Figure 1.25 Schematic of flash steam technology for power generation.

Figure 1.26 Schematic of binary cycle technology for power generation.

Figure 1.27 Schematic of EGS for power generation.

Figure 1.28 Schematic of electrolysis for power generation from hydrogen....

Figure 1.29 Main hydrogen technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.30 Example of hydrogen gas turbine with 30 MW capacity.

Figure 1.31 Power generation through hydrogen fuel cells.

Figure 1.32 Major marine technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.33 Examples of ocean technologies.

Figure 1.34 Schematic of wave energy technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.35 Schematic of a closed Rankine cycle ocean thermal energy convers...

Figure 1.36 Schematic of salinity gradient power generation with the TaPa‐SO

Figure 1.37 Schematic of SUNSTORE configuration in Marstal, Denmark.

Figure 1.38 Comparison of Solar PV cells (a) and modules (b) efficiency.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Example of advanced light‐water nuclear technology for power gene...

Figure 2.2 Main nuclear technologies for power generation.

Figure 2.3 Schematic of the molten salt reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.4 Schematic of sodium‐cooled fast reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.5 Schematic of a high‐temperature reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.6 Schematic of the advanced small modular reactor (top) and microre...

Figure 2.7 Schematic of a fusion reactor.

Figure 2.8 Example of emissions released from a coal power plant.

Figure 2.9 Main carbon‐capturing technologies from coal‐fired power generati...

Figure 2.10 Flow diagram of pre‐combustion CCUS technology for power generat...

Figure 2.11 Flow diagram of the post‐combustion CCUS technology for power ge...

Figure 2.12 Flow diagram of oxy‐fuel combustion CCUS technology for power ge...

Figure 2.13 Flow diagram of chemical looping CCUS technology for power gener...

Figure 2.14 Schematic of CO

2

utilization and storage for the enhanced oil re...

Figure 2.15 Example of advanced post‐combustion carbon capture technology fr...

Figure 2.16 Schematic of post‐combustion/chemical absorption processes for C...

Figure 2.17 Schematic of supercritical CO

2

‐based power cycles: (a) indirectl...

Figure 2.18 Schematic of biomass use for CCUS and power generation.

Figure 2.19 Main technologies for power generation from ammonia.

Figure 2.20 Example of a chemical plant for ammonia production.

Figure 2.21 Key carbon removal technologies.

Figure 2.22 CCUS technology development progress.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Classification of power storage technologies.

Figure 3.2 Example of lithium‐ion batteries.

Figure 3.3 Schematic of lithium‐ion power storage technology.

Figure 3.4 Schematic of redox flow batteries.

Figure 3.5 Schematic of pumped storage.

Figure 3.6 Schematic of flywheel power storage technologies.

Figure 3.7 Schematic of compressed air power storage technologies.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Schematic of centralized (top) and decentralized (bottom) solar t...

Figure 4.2 Ducted air‐source heat pumps (a) and geothermal heat pumps (b)....

Figure 4.3 Schematic of geothermal heat pumps: (a) different collector types...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Classification of heat storage technologies.

Figure 5.2 Schematics of different latent heat storage systems.

Figure 5.3 Schematic of thermochemical energy storage principles.

Figure 5.4 Schematic of sorption‐based heat storage system.

Figure 5.5 Energy density comparison of different materials with charging te...

Figure 5.6 Energy storage capacity of combined 100 battery plants with two C...

Figure 5.7 Schematic of a solar power tower plant.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 The most common biofuel production processes.

Figure 6.2 A schematic of the anaerobic digestion process and its products....

Figure 6.3 Biogas production on a farm processing cow dung.

Figure 6.4 Classification of the most used biomethane production technologie...

Figure 6.5 A schematic of the gasification and upgrading processes and its p...

Figure 6.6 Classification of mature bioethanol production technologies.

Figure 6.7 Process flows of bioethanol production through gasification synga...

Figure 6.8 Process flows of bioethanol production through enzymatic fermenta...

Figure 6.9 Classification of mature biodiesel production technologies.

Figure 6.10 Process flow of basic esterification process.

Figure 6.11 Alcohol‐to‐jet fuel pathway.

Figure 6.12 Block diagram of fast pyrolysis and upgrading processes.

Figure 6.13 Block diagram of hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading process...

Figure 6.14 Block diagram of gasification and FT with hydrotreating processe...

Figure 6.15 Process flow of microalgae transesterification for biodiesel pro...

Figure 6.16 Process flow of microalgae hydrotreating for biofuel production....

Figure 6.17 Process flow of gasification mixed with CCUS for power generatio...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Classification of low‐emission hydrogen production technologies....

Figure 7.2 Classification of hydrogen production technologies

Figure 7.3 Schematic of methane steam reforming process for hydrogen product...

Figure 7.4 Block diagram of hydrogen production through natural gas autother...

Figure 7.5 Block diagram of hydrogen production from gasification syngas usi...

Figure 7.6 Schematic of hydrogen production through methane pyrolysis.

Figure 7.7 Environmental impact assessment of a ton hydrogen production thro...

Figure 7.8 Schematic of electrolysis process with alkaline membrane for hydr...

Figure 7.9 Schematic of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer.

Figure 7.10 Schematic of solid oxide fuel cell.

Figure 7.11 Example of hydrogen production through solar thermochemical wate...

Figure 7.12 Schematic of concentrated solar power for hydrogen production vi...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Mature hydrogen storage technologies.

Figure 8.2 Schematic of physical‐based hydrogen storage forms.

Figure 8.3 Energy density comparison of different energy sources and fuels o...

Figure 8.4 Schematic of underground hydrogen storage techniques.

Figure 8.5 Gravimetric capacity of many unique hydrogen storage materials:...

Figure 8.6 Schematic of material‐based hydrogen storage methods.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

About the Author

Acknowledgments

Acronyms

List of Figures

List of Tables

Introduction

Begin Reading

Appendix 1: Opportunities to Study or Work with the Author

Appendix 2: Author’s Publications

Appendix 3: Self‐Check Questions and Answers

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

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Net‐Zero and Low Carbon Solutions for the Energy Sector

A Guide to Decarbonization Technologies

Amin Mirkouei

University of Idaho, Idaho Falls, ID, USA

Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:

Hardback ISBN: 9781119982166

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Andriy Onufriyenko/Getty Images

About the Author

Dr. Amin Mirkouei is an associate professor at the University of Idaho, certified professional engineer (PE), and an experienced technologist. He has over 10 years of experience contributing and leading cross‐disciplinary projects in decarbonization technologies, renewable materials, sustainable energy systems, design and manufacturing, cyber‐physical control and optimization, and operations research, particularly renewable fuels, green chemicals, and rare earth elements and minerals from various waste streams, such as biomass feedstocks, plastic wastes, e‐wastes, and animal manure. Currently, he is a major advisor in Industrial Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Biological Engineering, and Environmental Science programs at the University of Idaho in Idaho Falls, where he directs the Renewable and Sustainable Manufacturing Laboratory (RSML). RSML aims to maintain many research opportunities that can positively impact all segments of sustainable manufacturing, especially sustainable food–energy–water systems (FEWS).

Dr. Mirkouei has served on several university committees, such as member of the UI President’s Sustainability Working Group, UI Safety and Loss Control Committee, and chair of the UI‐IF Environmental, Health, and Safety Committee. He also served in ASME conference as organizer, Forbes as sustainability contributor, several journals as editorial board member or reviewer, and several federal agency panels as a proposal reviewer (e.g., NSF SBIR, USDA‐NIFA, and NSF ERC programs). He received several state and national media coverages in Here We Have Idaho, Yahoo Finance, Bloomberg, etc. about several of his projects.

In addition, he has published and co‐authored over 40 articles in scientific journals and peer‐reviewed conference proceedings. He also received over $2.5 million in research grants from private companies and state and federal agencies, as well as honors and awards, such as the “2022 University of Idaho Interdisciplinary and Collaboration Excellence Award” and the 2022 ASME/IDETC‐DFMLC best paper award.

Here is the list of his sponsors and collaborators:

Idaho Global Entrepreneurial Mission

(

IGEM

)‐Commerce

Aquaculture Research Institute

(

ARI

)

Idaho Water Resources Research Institute

(

IWRRI

)

Idaho Geological Survey

(

IGS

)

United States Geological Survey

(

USGS

)

University of Idaho

Office of Research and Economic Development

(

ORED

)

Center for Advanced Energy Studies

(

CAES

)

National High

Magnetic Field Laboratory

(

MagLab

)

Idaho National Laboratory

(

INL

)

College of Eastern Idaho

(

CEI

)

National Science Foundation

(

NSF

)

Idaho Strategic Resources Inc.

(

IDR

)

Riverence Provisions LLC

You can find more information about the author and his projects at the RSML website: https://webpages.uidaho.edu/rsml.

Acknowledgments

I am inspired by earlier research and studies in renewable and sustainable energy, and I have been fortunate to work with some leading researchers and experts in this field. I sincerely thank all my students and others who contributed to this book or offered advice and suggestions. I am also very grateful for the support from Wiley, especially Summers Scholl, Executive Editor of Physical Sciences, Kubra Ameen, Managing Editor, and Hafiza Tasneem, Content Refinement Specialist, at Wiley. Finally, I would like to appreciate readers’ new ideas, comments, and recommendations, and I will strive to address them in future editions.

Acronyms

ATR

Autothermal reforming

a‐Si:H

Hydrogenated amorphous silicon

BOS

Balance of system

BTU

British Thermal Unit

CCUS

Carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration

C‐Si

Crystalline silicon

CdTe

Cadmium telluride

CFC

Chlorofluorocarbon

CHP

Combined heat and power

CIGS

Copper indium gallium diselenide

CPV

Concentrated photovoltaic

CPVT

Concentrated photovoltaic with thermal systems

CSP

Concentrated solar power

DOE

U.S. Department of Energy

EOR

Enhanced oil recovery

EGS

Enhanced geothermal systems

EIA

U.S. Energy Information Administration

FAME

Fatty acid methyl esters

FT

Fischer–Tropsch

GE

General Electric

GHG

Greenhouse gas

GWdc

Gigawatts direct current

GWP

Global warming potential

HCFC

Hydrochlorofluorocarbon

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

IEA

International Energy Agency

IGCC

Integrated gasification combined cycle

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

kWh

Kilowatt hour

LCOE

Levelized cost of energy

LED

Light‐emitting diode

LFR

Linear Fresnel reflector

MeO

Metal oxide

MGS

Metallurgical‐grade silicon

MWth

MW thermal energy

NGCC

Natural gas combined cycle

NETL

National Energy Technology Laboratory

NREL

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

ORC

Organic Rankine cycle

PCM

Phase‐change material

PEM

Polymer electrolyte membrane

PET

Polyethylene terephthalate

PPM

Parts per million

PV

Photovoltaic

PVF

Polyvinyl fluoride

PVDF

Polyvinylidene fluoride

PVT

Photovoltaic with thermal systems

SCPC

Supercritical pulverized coal with carbon capture

SFR

Sodium‐cooled fast reactor

SNG

Synthetic natural gas

SMR

Stream methane reforming

TRL

Technology readiness level

TWh

Terawatt hours

USGS

United States Geological Survey

WEF

World Economic Forum

WGS

Water–gas shift

List of Figures

Figure 1.1

Energy generation from renewable resources.

Figure 1.2

Key power generation methods.

Figure 1.3

Major solar technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.4

Solar PV progress and targets.

Figure 1.5

Schematic of C‐Si solar cells.

Figure 1.6

Schematic and example of a multijunction solar cell.

Figure 1.7

Schematic of stand‐alone floating solar PV system (a) and hybrid floating solar PV with hydropower system (b).

Figure 1.8

Schematic of the CIGS PV cell.

Figure 1.9

Schematic of the organic solar cell.

Figure 1.10

Schematic and examples of perovskite PV cells.

Figure 1.11

CSP progress and goals.

Figure 1.12

Schematic of a solar thermal tower receiver with heliostats field.

Figure 1.13

Schematic of the parabolic trough (a) and parabolic dish (b).

Figure 1.14

Schematic of the linear Fresnel reflector.

Figure 1.15

Leading wind technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.16

Example of onshore wind technology for power generation.

Figure 1.17

Schematic of offshore wind turbines for power generation.

Figure 1.18

Example of offshore wind technology for power generation.

Figure 1.19

Examples of airborne wind technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.20

Airborne wind energy system classification.

Figure 1.21

Example of power generation through hydropower technology.

Figure 1.22

Example of geothermal power generation.

Figure 1.23

Main geothermal technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.24

Schematic of dry steam technology for power generation.

Figure 1.25

Schematic of flash steam technology for power generation.

Figure 1.26

Schematic of binary cycle technology for power generation.

Figure 1.27

Schematic of EGS for power generation.

Figure 1.28

Schematic of electrolysis for power generation from hydrogen.

Figure 1.29

Main hydrogen technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.30

Example of hydrogen gas turbine with 30 MW capacity.

Figure 1.31

Power generation through hydrogen fuel cells.

Figure 1.32

Major marine technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.33

Examples of ocean technologies.

Figure 1.34

Schematic of wave energy technologies for power generation.

Figure 1.35

Schematic of a closed Rankine cycle ocean thermal energy conversion system.

Figure 1.36

Schematic of salinity gradient power generation with the TaPa‐SO

3

H membrane.

Figure 1.37

Schematic of SUNSTORE configuration in Marstal, Denmark.

Figure 1.38

Comparison of Solar PV cells (a) and modules (b) efficiency.

Figure 2.1

Example of advanced light‐water nuclear technology for power generation.

Figure 2.2

Main nuclear technologies for power generation.

Figure 2.3

Schematic of the molten salt reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.4

Schematic of sodium‐cooled fast reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.5

Schematic of a high‐temperature reactor for power generation.

Figure 2.6

Schematic of the advanced small modular reactor (top) and microreactor (bottom).

Figure 2.7

Schematic of a fusion reactor.

Figure 2.8

Example of emissions released from a coal power plant.

Figure 2.9

Main carbon‐capturing technologies from coal‐fired power generation plants.

Figure 2.10

Flow diagram of pre‐combustion CCUS technology for power generation from coal.

Figure 2.11

Flow diagram of the post‐combustion CCUS technology for power generation from coal.

Figure 2.12

Flow diagram of oxy‐fuel combustion CCUS technology for power generation from coal.

Figure 2.13

Flow diagram of chemical looping CCUS technology for power generation from coal.

Figure 2.14

Schematic of CO

2

utilization and storage for the enhanced oil recovery.

Figure 2.15

Example of advanced post‐combustion carbon capture technology from a natural gas power plant with up to 12 MWe and 200 tons CO

2

/day.

Figure 2.16

Schematic of post‐combustion/chemical absorption processes for CCUS from natural gas power plant.

Figure 2.17

Schematic of supercritical CO

2

‐based power cycles: (a) indirectly heated closed‐loop Brayton cycle and (b) directly heated cycle.

Figure 2.18

Schematic of biomass use for CCUS and power generation.

Figure 2.19

Main technologies for power generation from ammonia.

Figure 2.20

Example of a chemical plant for ammonia production.

Figure 2.21

Key carbon removal technologies.

Figure 2.22

CCUS technology development progress.

Figure 3.1

Classification of power storage technologies.

Figure 3.2

Example of lithium‐ion batteries.

Figure 3.3

Schematic of lithium‐ion power storage technology.

Figure 3.4

Schematic of redox flow batteries.

Figure 3.5

Schematic of pumped storage.

Figure 3.6

Schematic of flywheel power storage technologies.

Figure 3.7

Schematic of compressed air power storage technologies.

Figure 4.1

Schematic of centralized (top) and decentralized (bottom) solar thermal district heating system.

Figure 4.2

Ducted air‐source heat pumps (a) and geothermal heat pumps (b).

Figure 4.3

Schematic of geothermal heat pumps: (a) different collector types and connection used and (b) heating and cooling systems.

Figure 5.1

Classification of heat storage technologies.

Figure 5.2

Schematics of different latent heat storage systems.

Figure 5.3

Schematic of thermochemical energy storage principles.

Figure 5.4

Schematic of sorption‐based heat storage system.

Figure 5.5

Energy density comparison of different materials with charging temperature.

Figure 5.6

Energy storage capacity of combined 100 battery plants with two CSP plants in the United States.

Figure 5.7

Schematic of a solar power tower plant.

Figure 6.1

The most common biofuel production processes.

Figure 6.2

A schematic of the anaerobic digestion process and its products.

Figure 6.3

Biogas production on a farm processing cow dung.

Figure 6.4

Classification of the most used biomethane production technologies.

Figure 6.5

A schematic of the gasification and upgrading processes and its products.

Figure 6.6

Classification of mature bioethanol production technologies.

Figure 6.7

Process flows of bioethanol production through gasification syngas fermentation of lignocellulosic feedstocks.

Figure 6.8

Process flows of bioethanol production through enzymatic fermentation of lignocellulosic feedstocks.

Figure 6.9

Classification of mature biodiesel production technologies.

Figure 6.10

Process flow of basic esterification process.

Figure 6.11

Alcohol‐to‐jet fuel pathway.

Figure 6.12

Block diagram of fast pyrolysis and upgrading processes.

Figure 6.13

Block diagram of hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading processes.

Figure 6.14

Block diagram of gasification and FT with hydrotreating processes for biofuel production.

Figure 6.15

Process flow of microalgae transesterification for biodiesel production.

Figure 6.16

Process flow of microalgae hydrotreating for biofuel production.

Figure 6.17

Process flow of gasification mixed with CCUS for power generation (top) and chemical production (bottom).

Figure 7.1

Classification of low‐emission hydrogen production technologies.

Figure 7.2

Classification of hydrogen production technologies

Figure 7.3

Schematic of methane steam reforming process for hydrogen production in the presence of Ni with the support of TiO

2

.

Figure 7.4

Block diagram of hydrogen production through natural gas autothermal reforming.

Figure 7.5

Block diagram of hydrogen production from gasification syngas using membrane or pressure swing adsorption.

Figure 7.6

Schematic of hydrogen production through methane pyrolysis.

Figure 7.7

Environmental impact assessment of a ton hydrogen production through the gasification of biomass or coal.

Figure 7.8

Schematic of electrolysis process with alkaline membrane for hydrogen production.

Figure 7.9

Schematic of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer.

Figure 7.10

Schematic of solid oxide fuel cell.

Figure 7.11

Example of hydrogen production through solar thermochemical water splitting.

Figure 7.12

Schematic of concentrated solar power for hydrogen production via direct thermal cycles.

Figure 8.1

Mature hydrogen storage technologies.

Figure 8.2

Schematic of physical‐based hydrogen storage forms.

Figure 8.3

Energy density comparison of different energy sources and fuels on lower heating values.

Figure 8.4

Schematic of underground hydrogen storage techniques.

Figure 8.5

Gravimetric capacity of many unique hydrogen storage materials:

Figure 8.6

Schematic of material‐based hydrogen storage methods:

List of Tables

Table 1.1

CO

2

emissions from the energy sector (million metric tons).

Table 1.2

Unsubsidized levelized cost of energy.

Table 1.3

Top 10 countries with high wind power capacity.

Table 1.4

Emission (CO

2

, SO

2

, NO

x

) benefits by the U.S. regions in 2021.

Table 1.5

Annual and cumulative growth in U.S. wind power capacity over the last 10 years.

Table 1.6

Annual U.S. market share of wind turbine manufacturers by MW between 2017 and 2021.

Table 1.7

Average water consumption for energy generation.

Table 1.8

Comparison of different geothermal technologies for power generation.

Table 1.9

Comparison of high TRL technologies for power generation from hydrogen.

Table 1.10

Relative contribution of resource types in annual capacity additions.

Table 2.1

Share of the U.S. power generation.

Table 2.2

U.S. Renewable energy consumption (Quadrillion Btu).

Table 2.3

Comparison of leading CCUS approaches from coal‐fired power plants.

Table 2.4

Comparison of mature technologies for power generation from ammonia.

Table 2.5

Comparison of IGCC, SCPC, and NGCC for power generation with and without carbon capturing.

Table 2.6

Comparison of key nature‐based carbon removal methods.

Table 2.7

Hydrogen production facilities with CCUS.

Table 3.1

Comparison of lithium‐ion batteries with redox flow batteries.

Table 3.2

Comparison of different energy storage technologies.

Table 4.1

Examples of geothermal heat pump projects in the world.

Table 5.1

Comparison of sensible storage media properties.

Table 5.2

Comparison of heat storage technologies.

Table 6.1

Energy content of various fuels.

Table 6.2

Physical and chemical characteristics comparison of biodiesel and diesel #2.

Table 6.3

Example of commercial gasification technologies.

Table 7.1

Hydrogen quality requirements.

Table 7.2

Mature hydrogen production method comparison.

Table 7.3

An overview of techno‐economic and environmental impact assessment of different hydrogen production technologies with CCUS.

Table 7.4

Current operating and planned hydrogen production plants with CCUS.

Table 8.1

Material‐based hydrogen storage attributes.

Table 8.2

Hydrogen storage for light‐duty fuel cell vehicles.

Table 8.3

Hydrogen storage attributes in different forms.

Introduction

The climate impacts of rising global temperatures to 2 °C and beyond are disastrous. The evidence is all around us, such as rising sea levels, warming oceans, melting glaciers, and more frequent and intense floods, fires, droughts, storms, and heat waves. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the current emission reduction efforts to keep warming at 1.5 °C are nowhere near enough. Recent IPCC reports show that energy consumption, deforestation and land use, and industrial chemicals and cement are the major greenhouse gas (GHG) emission contributors, with around 70, 10, and 3%, respectively. Approximately 59% of the emission remains in the air, and 41% is captured by nature’s reservoirs, such as land and ocean, with around 24 and 17%, respectively. Latest studies estimated that human activities annually release over 50 billion metric tons of GHGs (including CO2, CH4, and N2O), of which CH4 has over 30% global warming potential (GWP) in the short term (20–50 years) and CO2 has a greater GWP in the long term (100 years).

We started adding emissions to the atmosphere unintentionally about 300 years ago, which resulted in increasing the atmospheric CO2 concentration (around 120 ppm) and changing our climate. According to the IPCC reports, there is a 66% chance of keeping the global temperature below 2 °C if no more than 1,000 billion tons of GHG are emitted between 2011 and 2100, and since 2011, 200 billion tons have been emitted. The 2015 Paris Agreement concluded that fully implemented strategies and policies after 2030 will lead to 2.7 °C by 2100. In response, decarbonization technologies can reduce GHG emissions and limit the rising global temperature below 2 °C by taking GHGs from the atmosphere and putting them back into geologic reservoirs and terrestrial ecosystems.

Most climate studies and assessment models reported that CO2 concentration must start reducing (or stop increasing) in the 21st century to meet the 2 °C target and the associated climate crises, and address the raised 1 °C in the 20th century. We have two types of emissions: biogenic (natural‐made) and anthropogenic (human‐caused). The dominant anthropogenic sources are energy consumption, agriculture, land‐use change, and cement production. Businesses generate direct and indirect anthropogenic emissions. Direct emission sources include business‐owned facilities and equipment, such as vehicles. Indirect emission sources include purchased resources (water and electricity for heating and cooling) and equipment and facilities that are not owned by the business but that the company uses for various purposes and services, such as supply chain and distribution. According to the Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit and Oxford Net Zero, roughly 20% (400 out of 2,000) of the world’s largest publicly traded companies have established net‐zero targets, and roughly 30% (120 out of 400) of these companies aim to achieve these targets by 2030.

Companies must shift their operations, use carbon removal technologies, support climate solutions and policies, prioritize suppliers that adopt emission reduction targets, support low‐carbon materials, phase out unsustainable operations, engage employees on climate solution opportunities, and offer them climate‐friendly investments. The latest report from IPCC demonstrated that human activities profoundly impact environmental degradation, and global action is needed to prevent further loss and threats to biodiversity, natural carbon sinks, and ecosystems. Natural carbon sinks, such as oceans, wetlands, and forests, naturally manage the global carbon balance. Reducing supply chain emissions requires collaboration between companies and countries since it happens outside of companies and is out of their control due to the overlap. According to the World Economic Forum (WEF) report, roughly 83% of carbon footprint release is outside of a company’s direct control and considered supply chain emissions. To fully control the products’ life cycle, businesses must avoid or limit partnering with or serving fossil fuel companies that hurt global efforts to reduce carbon emissions as much as possible. Wealthier companies carry more responsibilities than emerging companies due to their higher emissions and footprints from current and past business developments. Businesses can prioritize sustainable waste management, carbon‐friendly production, low‐carbon materials, and circular practices by producing their products from reused and recycled materials.

Nature‐based solutions can reduce climate‐related events (e.g., droughts, floods, fires, and resource scarcity) by around 37% through protecting and restoring forests and wetlands, and properly managing agriculture and grasslands. Electrification powered by renewable energy sources in some energy‐intensive sectors will be the heart of the energy transition and crucial to net‐zero emissions success. The core sources are biomass, solar, onshore and offshore wind, and geothermal. Various sustainability and circular economy methods, such as carbon capturing, utilization, and sequestration (CCUS) and 6R (i.e., reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, redesign, and remanufacturing), offer a comprehensive response to climate‐related crises by mitigating pollution and waste. The 2021 global economy was around 8.5% circular, which required more attention on the segments and steps that consume more resources. For example, 6R methods can tackle emissions (over 45%) associated with making products by reducing the demand for raw materials, such as plastic, cement, aluminum, or steel. The emphasis on 6R and circular economy methods is simply for overshooting emissions earlier and avoiding environmental consequences that cannot be fully addressed by future GHG removal, and can lead to crucial irreversible crises, such as land degradation and biodiversity loss.

The long‐term goal of net‐zero (carbon neutral) emission target is to keep the increased warming at 1.5 °C by 2050, using different net‐zero and low‐carbon solutions in various sectors. However, the net‐zero target only works if all companies and countries commit the same, which is a highly unlikely prospect. In addition, net‐zero targets have several unintended consequences (biodiversity loss) due to delaying emission reduction efforts. Therefore, we must pursue decarbonization solutions (e.g., CCUS technologies and forest restoration and protection) and net‐negative targets to address the lack of accountability mechanisms. Decarbonization technologies strive to remove more emissions than they emit to meet intermediate target (net‐zero) goals.

Several businesses are not able to meet net‐zero targets, such as fossil fuel producers, airlines, and steel manufacturers; however, they pay other companies to remove emissions from the air (carbon offsetting), using different solutions, such as renewable material development or reforestation. Carbon offsetting is one of the emission reduction strategies for companies that cannot change their entire operations and reduce their emissions to zero in the short term due to the lack of technologies or pathways to remove emissions at a meaningful scale. While carbon offsetting has benefits to protecting the natural ecosystems, it can host a lot of problems in other locations by granting a few companies permission to avoid shifting their business models. Several operations can emit GHG emissions or heat‐trapping gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, and N2O), and pollutants into the atmosphere, such as traveling by vehicles and airplanes, burning fossil fuels for power generation, transportation, cooling, and heating, and manufacturing metals and cement, degrading soils, forests, and other ecosystems. Most of these heat‐trapping gases stay in the Earth’s atmosphere, a portion of these emissions is captured through natural processes, such as photosynthesis by plants in soils, seas, or oceans.

Decarbonization and carbon capturing strategies are the points that we can reduce GHG emissions in the atmosphere and eventually limit the warming. The Earth is warming up due to natural and anthropogenic GHGs that can trap heat. These emissions have different attributes and lifetimes: some of them can trap way more heat (e.g., CH4, N2O, CFC, and HFC), and some of them last longer in the atmosphere, such as CO2. Particularly, CO2 stays for centuries in the atmosphere, but CH4 remains for decades. The concept of carbon budget introduced by IPCC is the total emissions (including from GHG and land‐use change) that can be added without exceeding the target temperatures. Based on the IPCC, the budget limit for the 2 °C target is 1,000 billion tons of CO2 by 2100.

Over 90% of GHGs come from primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors of economy, particularly energy, agriculture and land use, manufacturing, transportation, and construction. Power generation is the biggest contributor, emitting roughly 25% of GHGs from burning natural gas or coal at power plants. The 2nd biggest contributor is agriculture and land use for food production, emitting around 24% of GHGs. Manufacturing industry creates approximately 21% of GHGs for producing different products, such as plastics, cement, and steel. Transportation and building generate roughly 14 and 6% of GHGs, respectively. The last 10% GHG emitters are mainly from escaped GHGs accidentally from the energy sector, such as leaky oil and natural gas pipelines. Finally, attacking the five main GHG emitters is the 1st step to meeting low‐carbon economy and eventually net‐zero targets. These emission contributors are interconnected to one another; for example, we use power and industrial products (e.g., furnaces, air conditioners, and heaters) in our buildings.

Recent studies reported that 12% of generated power is consumed in buildings for lighting, heating, and cooling, and 11% is used in industry for manufacturing different products. For every kilowatt hour (kWh) of power generation from coal and natural gas, the emitted CO2 is roughly 1 and 0.5 kg (2.2 and 1.2 Ibs), respectively. Other sources (e.g., wind, solar, and nuclear) do not emit any CO2 during power generation. An average American house consumes around 1,100 kWh per month, which is roughly 7,700 kg (17,000 Ibs) of CO2 per year. Consuming power more efficiently and shifting to renewable sources can reduce the emitted CO2 to around zero. There are several solutions to enhance efficiency, using new technologies and automation, such as light‐emitting diode (LED) lights, smart thermostats and heating systems, efficient insulations and roofs, and high‐performance glasses and pumps. To shift power generation from coal and natural gas, we can use solar panels, wind turbines, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass‐based energy, nuclear power, and waste‐based energy from methane capturing.

Manufacturing industry produces many products, using big machines and intensive operations with high temperatures. The main products that emit the most GHGs are metals (5%), chemicals (3%), cement (3%), and waste (3%). Roughly, 1–1.5% of GHGs come from plastic production, use, and disposal. To meet net‐zero targets, we must improve processes, materials, and waste management in lands and water resources. Also, we should transition to climate‐friendly refrigerants to limit the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and other chemicals that can contribute to global warming and damage the ozone layers. Other solutions are using waste for renewable energy and recycled material production.

The major GHG emitter in the transportation sector is road transport (with roughly 10%), using personal vehicles or trucks. Commercial and military aviation is the 2nd major contributor to GHG, with roughly 2%. For example, burning a gallon of gasoline releases around 9 kg (20 Ibs) of CO2 that could stay in the atmosphere for centuries. Roughly 5,440 kg (12,000 Ibs) of CO2 per year is emitted by an average car with 25 miles per gallon and 15,000 miles per year. On average, airplanes get up to 60 miles per gallon per passenger. To meet the net‐zero targets, we can shift to alternative options, such as walking, biking, mass transportation, and hybrid or electric vehicles, as well as enhance the efficiency of the existing cars, trucks, trains, airplanes, and ships.

Residential and commercial buildings are the primary GHG contributors, emitting roughly 4 and 2%, respectively, using furnaces, boilers, heaters, air conditioners, refrigerators, and freezers. An average home in the southern U.S. with a warm climate burns approximately 100,000 BTUs (British Thermal Unit or a therm) of natural gas for cooking or water and space heating that releases 6 kg (over 13 Ibs) of CO2. In a colder climate, it can reach up to 1,000 therm per year, emitting 5,900 kg (over 13,000 Ibs) of CO2.

What to Expect in This Book

This book can serve as a comprehensive desk reference for seasoned professionals, focusing on net‐ or near‐zero solutions for the energy sector since energy generation, storage, and consumption release over 70% of GHG emissions. For those who are new in this field or support environmentally friendly solutions, this book can provide a step‐by‐step guide, context, and encouragement to understand the existing solutions in the energy sector. To meet net‐zero targets, we need to shift to alternative energy sources that do not emit GHG emissions during generation, storage, and consumption (e.g., solar, wind, and hydropower) or use low‐carbon energy sources (e.g., nuclear power and natural gas), along with enhancing efficiencies in various sectors. According to the IPCC and Global Carbon Project, current major emission contributors are power generation (25%), food, agriculture, and land use (24%), industry (21%), transportation (14%), buildings (6%), and others (10%).

This book proposes mature net‐zero and low‐carbon pathways and technologies in the energy sector for producing and storing power, heat, biofuel, and hydrogen. It also highlights various processes for achieving net‐zero targets and addressing climate concerns, with case studies demonstrating their applications. Each chapter provides a case study, covering decarbonization solutions that have high potential to be used in the near future, such as solar hybrid systems for net‐zero power generation, CCUS hybrid systems for low‐carbon power generation, pumped hydropower for power storage, commercial concentrating solar power plants for heat generation, gasification with CCUS for biofuel production, and hybrid thermochemical processes for hydrogen production. It is not enough to have solutions; we need realistic, sustainable, and feasible solutions regarding scale and resources. In this book, the main focus is on solutions with high technology readiness levels (TRLs). TRL is a measure for evaluating a technology’s maturity from basic research to commercialization, and a higher number indicates that the technology is closer to commercialization in the market. The standard TRL classification is as follows:

TRL 1: Initial idea with basic concept and principles

TRL 2: Application formulated using the solution concept

TRL 3: Solution needed to be prototyped, applied, and validated

TRL 4: Early prototype in test conditions

TRL 5: Large prototype with proven components in specific conditions

TRL 6: Full prototype at scale

TRL 7: Precommercial demonstration in expected conditions

TRL 8: First commercial demonstration, full‐scale deployment in final form

TRL 9: Commercial operation in a relevant environment, needs evolutionary improvement to stay competitive

TRL 10: Integration needed at scale with further integration efforts

TRL 11: Proof of stability reached with predictable growth

Audience

This book is written to be a valuable resource for businesses, academics, and policymakers looking for net‐zero and low‐carbon solutions in the energy sector and actively contributing to net‐zero emission targets for keeping the atmospheric CO2 equivalent levels below the dangerous range, for example, Environmental Scientists, Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineers, Chemical and Biological Engineers, Process Designers, Policymakers, Chemists and Biologists, Government Employees in Economic and Environmental Affairs, Professors, Post‐Doc Scholars, Graduate and Undergraduate students in Engineering, Science, and Business Schools, Managers, CEOs, and any company in a position to invest in these technologies across industrial sectors.

Benefits of Applying this Book

Recent studies reported that the decade to 2030 will be decisive in addressing climate concerns. The existing solutions are no longer sufficient to meet net‐zero emission targets and achieve the Paris Agreement goals. Global leaders and governments must commit to net‐zero and net‐negative (removal exceeds emissions) targets to keep the atmospheric CO2 equivalent levels below the dangerous range of 500 parts per million (ppm) by mid‐century. Currently, the global energy sector is the primary source of GHG emissions. Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) production and combustion represent 89% of global GHG emissions. For rapid transition, we need to use renewable or low‐carbon energy sources. Electrification powered by renewable resources (wind and solar) plays a crucial role in phasing out fossil fuels, mainly coal and petroleum. Natural gas has lower environmental impacts than coal and crude oil, which can be used for power generation before a complete transition to renewable alternatives. Steel, cement, and chemical manufacturing, as well as long‐distance and heavy transportation, are some of the most energy‐intensive economic activities, which are not yet technically feasible for electrification powered by renewable or low‐carbon energy sources. Meeting ambitious international climate goals may require global carbon emissions to fall below zero in the second half of this century, achieving what is known as net‐zero emissions. Carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration strategies are not only a long‐term solution. The technologies can also play an essential, near‐term role in clean‐energy transitions. They can neutralize or offset emissions that are currently technically challenging or prohibitively expensive to address.

1Power Generation (Net‐Zero Solutions)

Energy is the most important source for economic growth and food‐water security of a nation. The primary energy sources on the earth are the sun, geothermal, nuclear reactions, fossil fuels, and gravitational (motion) of the sun, moon, and earth (e.g., wind and tidal). Currently, most of the generated energy sources utilize fossil fuel resources (over 80% in 2022), involving hazardous gases and toxic emissions, such as CO2, CH4, and N2O. Combusting fossil fuel sources has changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans, particularly increasing CO2 in the atmosphere (from 270 to 410 ppm in 300 years) and changing the ocean pH and carbonic acid, which led to several climate‐related effects, such as global warming and ocean acidification. Among greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, CO2 has the largest impact on the earth’s climate by trapping thermal radiation into the atmosphere, raising the temperature, melting ice caps, and rising oceans. Currently, the global energy sector is the primary contributor to GHG emissions. Particularly, fossil fuel‐based energy production and combustion, from coal, petroleum, and natural gas, represent 89% of global GHG emissions [1, 2]. For rapid transition, we need to use renewable or low‐carbon energy sources. Electrification powered by renewable resources (e.g., wind and solar) plays a key role in phasing out fossil fuels (mainly coal and petroleum). Natural gas has lower environmental impacts than coal and oil, which can be used for power generation before a complete transition to renewable alternatives (Figure 1.1) [3]. Steel, cement, and chemicals manufacturing, as well as long‐distance and heavy transportation, are some of the most energy‐intensive economic activities, which are not yet technically feasible to use electrification powered by renewable or low‐carbon energy sources.

Renewable energy sources are able to address energy needs and environmental degradation due to the use of fossil fuel‐based energy. Among these sources, the leading renewable energy sources are the sun, geothermal, and planetary motion. Recently, the utilization of renewable or low‐carbon energy sources, especially power generation from solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and nuclear, has attracted huge interest. These energy sources can meet various energy needs in different sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing, and construction (housing), along with addressing sustainability challenges, such as socio‐environmental aspects, including pollution and job creation. In order to be economically viable, supportive policies, such as carbon tax, subsidies, or feed‐in tariff, are necessary. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the total energy consumption will increase to nearly 50% by 2050 [4], and the United States recently committed to reducing 50% of the GHG emissions from the 2005 level by 2030, power emission‐free by 2035, and net‐zero emission economy‐wide by 2050 (Table 1.1) [6].

Figure 1.1 Energy generation from renewable resources.

Source: John Wiley & Sons.

Table 1.1 CO2 emissions from the energy sector (million metric tons).

Source

2021

2022

2023

Coal

1,002

943

886

Natural gas

1,657

1,739

1,678

Petroleum

2,234

2,282

2,267

Source: Adapted from U.S. EIA [5].

Power (electricity) generation is the most critical energy need in the world that can be evaluated using various criteria, such as science, functionality, usability, compatibility, security, performance, sustainability (e.g., techno‐economic and socio‐environmental), and technology readiness level. The basic science of power generation technologies is an essential factor to consider, which includes the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and materials science. A couple of critical parameters for power generation include reliability and efficiency, compatibility with the required configurations, security, ease of use and user‐friendly interfaces, and repair and maintenance aspects. The main performance factors are efficiency, capacity, and power output which can reduce total cost and environmental impacts. Technology readiness level is a measure for evaluating a technology’s maturity from basic research to commercialization, and a higher number indicates that the technology is closer to commercialization in the market. Figure 1.2 presents the commercialized methods for power generation.

Figure 1.2 Key power generation methods.

An overview of key net‐zero solutions for power generation using various resources is presented in this chapter. Particularly, this chapter provides 29 technologies with high technology readiness levels (TRLs), along with a case study about solar hybrid systems. Table 1.2 presents the unsubsidized levelized cost of energy (LCOE) generation, using both conventional and renewable sources [7].

1.1 Solar

The sun is the most abundant energy source for the earth and shows immense potential to satisfy global energy needs. Particularly, solar energy falls on the earth’s surface at the rate of 120 petawatts (1 million gigawatts) that can meet the global demand for over 20 years with just a day’s energy received from the sun [8]. Solar‐based energy is one of the dominant renewable energy sources that can generate clean energy from light to voltage by harvesting photons from the sun, energizing electrons, and creating the electrical current, using photovoltaic (PV) systems (e.g., rooftop solar panels), solar thermal systems, or mixed solar PV and thermal systems (Figure 1.3). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), solar‐based energy can be a dominant source of power and heat generation and supply between 17 and 27% of the global power for keeping the average global temperature below 2 °C. Globally, the primary methods use PV or solar thermal systems with either concentrated or non‐concentrated collectors within solar‐only and solar hybrid configurations. Latest studies reported that generating power and heat, using solar‐based technologies is a sustainable and cost‐effective approach to invest in various scales (e.g., small, medium, and large).

Table 1.2 Unsubsidized levelized cost of energy.

Solutions

Cost ($/MWh)

Coal

65–159

Gas combined cycle

44–73

Gas peaking

151–198

Geothermal

59–101

Nuclear

129–198

PV community

63–94

PV crystalline

31–42

Solar

PV rooftop

74–227

PV thin film

29–38

Thermal tower with storage

126–156

Wind

Onshore

26–54

Offshore

86

Source: Adapted from Lazard [7].

Figure 1.3 Major solar technologies for power generation.

Over the last 20 years, solar power generation has grown from prototype to mature technology and reached high TRLs, but it needs further integration efforts. The latest U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) goal is to supply at least 40% of power through solar‐based plants by 2035 without increasing the price [9]. The latest studies reported that the solar power and heat industry created over 230,000 jobs with a wage higher than the national average in the United States, and the power sector could employ between 0.5 and 1.5 million people by 2035 [6]. The main demands for solar‐based energy are power, space heating, hot water, space cooling, refrigeration, and drinking water, using PV technologies. The high interest comes from many reasons, such as the use of domestic and free energy sources, increased energy security, and reduced dependency on fossil fuels and emissions. Earlier studies mainly focused on residential consumers. Recent studies have analyzed commercial scales such as school, hospital, and industry processes [10]. The key parameters or variables are plant type and configuration (e.g., solar with biomass, wind, geothermal, or hydrogen), energy inputs and outputs, and locations because renewable sources could vary from one region to another. The energy outputs are power, heating, cooling, and drinking water. Generally, most solar‐based power generation technologies with steam Rankine cycle, organic Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, small‐capacity fuel cells, and storage systems are already commercialized. The storage options are electrical, hydrothermal, hydrogen, and compressed air.

The efficiency and reliability of solar‐based technologies can be impacted by materials science, semiconductor physics, and optics. Solar‐based power generation technologies are generally easy to use and are designed for long life with minimal maintenance. These technologies can be connected to the grid or used in stand‐alone systems, and they can be designed to work with other renewable or conventional power generation systems. The existing technologies are relatively secure and can be designed to be resilient against cyber and physical threats. For example, solar PV technology has a range of efficiencies depending on the materials that can be impacted by shading or dust. Solar thermal systems have lower efficiency due to heat losses, and can be less affected by shading. Solar‐based power and heat generation are among the most sustainable technologies with no or very low GHGs and environmental impacts during the operation. Producing solar panels (PV cells) has environmental impacts due to their unique materials that can be mitigated by recycling the used materials. Also, recycling the materials can reduce the total cost and make this technology more cost‐competitive. Emissions from solar panel production are lower, and the costs have been decreasing, making this technology more reliable than other technologies. Reducing installation and maintenance costs can make solar panels more cost‐competitive compared to other power generation systems. Currently, efficiency, durability, and cost reduction are the main parameters to improve the maturity of this technology. Countries in tropical or subtropical regions receive high amounts of solar radiation and can harness solar energy for power and heat generation most of the year. Small‐scale applications of solar energy show social acceptability at both macro and micro levels, particularly in rural and remote areas that can use electrification for transportation, communication, and air conditioning. South‐facing roofs are ideal for power generation using solar panels with at least five hours of sunlight, and west‐facing roofs are the next best option. To summarize, each solar energy technology has its own advantages and disadvantages, and it highly depends on the technology type, location, and application. Solar‐based power and heat generation provide a primary net‐zero solution for addressing environmental degradation and climate mitigation.

1.1.1 Photovoltaic (Seven Technologies)

Solar PV technologies are the most researched approach for supplying both power and heat. PV panels can directly convert incident solar energy to power, following the principle of the photoelectric effect. Some of the most used materials in PV panels are crystalline silicon (C‐Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), perovskites, multijunction (iii–v), and organic. PV array contains multiple solar cells, and several hundreds of solar arrays form a large‐scale solar power generation device. The general performance and efficiency of PV systems highly depend on the semiconductor materials. PV systems can be either grid‐connected or stand‐alone, which are typically oriented to the south at north‐facing latitudes and vice versa. Solar panels convert photons to electrons and generate around 200 terawatt‐hours (TWh) of world power, and this figure could grow up to 11,000 TWh by 2050 and cut up to 70 gigatons of GHGs globally. Solar panels use silicon crystals to move subatomic particles and electrons to generate affordable electricity. Rooftop solar systems account for around 30% of worldwide capacity. Solar panels can generate up to 25% (approximately 17,000 TWh) of energy worldwide by 2050 from about 1% in 2020, and cut over 100 gigatons of GHGs. Cost reduction and incentives can accelerate rooftop solar system growth. Detailed comparisons of solar PV generation using different materials are provided by [8]. Figure 1.4