Table of Contents
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
Usage Rules:
Disclaimer:
Limitation of Liability:
General:
PREFACE
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
DEDICATION
Setting the Stage: The Need of Water and Food
Abstract
Introduction
1.1. Nutrients
1.1.1. Macronutrients
1.1.1.1. Proteins
1.1.1.2. Carbohydrates
1.1.1.3. Lipids
1.1.2. Micronutrients
1.1.2.1. Minerals
1.1.2.2. Vitamins
1.1.2.3. Other Organic Nutrients
1.1.3. Water
1.2. Units of Energy
CONCLUSION
References
The Cell: The Basic Functional Unit of Life
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
2.1. From the Cell to the Body
2.1.1. Organ Systems
2.1.1.1. The Integumentary System
2.1.1.2. The Nervous System
2.1.1.3. The Immune and Lymphatic System
2.1.1.4. The Cardiovascular System
2.1.1.5. The Respiratory System
2.1.1.6. The Muscular System
2.1.1.7. The Skeletal System
2.1.1.8. The Urinary System
2.1.1.9. The Digestive System
2.1.1.10. The Reproductive System
2.1.1.11. The Endocrine System
2.1.2. Tissues
2.1.2.1. Epithelial Tissue
2.1.2.2. Connective Tissue
2.1.2.3. Muscle Tissue
2.1.2.3.1. Skeletal Muscle
2.1.2.3.2. Visceral (Smooth) Muscle
2.1.2.3.3. Cardiac Muscle
2.1.2.4. Nervous Tissue
2.1.3. Cells
2.1.3.1. The Plasma Membrane
2.1.3.2. The Nucleus
2.1.3.3. Mitochondria
2.1.3.4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2.1.3.5. Golgi Apparatus
2.1.3.6. Lysosomes
2.1.3.7. Peroxisomes
2.1.3.8. Autophagosomes
2.1.3.9. Ribosomes
2.1.3.10. Centrosome
2.1.3.11. Flagella and Cilia
2.1.3.12. The Cytoskeleton
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Food Intake Regulation: Factors Influencing Food Intake
Abstract
Introduction
3.1. Regulation of Feed Intake
3.1.1. Factors that Influence the Choice of Food
3.1.1.1. Food Intake and Chemical Senses
3.1.1.1.1. Gustation
3.1.1.1.2. Olfaction
3.1.1.2. (Psycho)socio-economic and Cultural Factors
3.1.1.3. Chemical and Physical Properties of the Food
3.1.1.4. Physiological Conditions of the Animal
3.1.1.4.1. Pregnancy-gestation
3.1.1.5. Management Factors
3.1.1.6. Environmental Factors
3.1.1.6.1. Heat Stress
3.1.1.6.2. Dehydration
3.1.1.6.3. Cold Stress
3.1.1.6.4. Effects of Environmental Factors (Heat or Cold) on Food Choice
3.1.1.6.5. Effect of Light
3.1.1.7. Effects of Disease and Fever
Conclusion
References
Regulation of Food Intake: Central Mechanisms
Abstract
Introduction
4.1. Classical Central Effector Pathways
4.1.1. NPY/AgRP and POMC/CART Neuropeptides
4.1.2. Melanocortin System
4.1.3. Melanin-concentrating Hormone (MCH)
4.1.4. Orexins/hypocretins
4.1.5. Galanin
4.1.6. Galanin-like Peptide (GALP)
4.1.7. Cerebellin 1
4.1.8. Glucagon-like Peptide
4.1.9. Corticotropin-releasing Factor (CRF)
4.1.10. Neurotensin
4.1.11. Nesfatin 1
4.1.12. FMR Famides
4.2. New Central Molecular Pathways
4.2.1. Neurosecretory Protein GL and GM (NPGL and NPGM)
4.2.2. AMP-activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) Pathway
4.2.3. Hypothalamic Fatty Acids
4.2.3.1. Central De-novo Fatty acid Synthesis
4.2.3.2. Central Fatty Acid Oxidation and Carnitine Palmitoyl-transferase (CPT)
4.2.3.3. Central Lipolysis and Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL)
4.2.4. Hypothalamic Glucose
4.2.5. Hypothalamic Proteins and Amino Acids
4.2.6. Non-coding RNAs
4.2.7. Autophagy
4.2.7.1. Autophagy Machinery
4.2.7.2. Autophagy and Food Intake
4.2.8. Hypothalamic Mitochondrial Mitofusin 2
Conclusion
References
Regulation of Food Intake: Peripheral Mechanisms
Abstract
Introduction
5.1. Short-term Regulation of Food Intake
5.1.1. Ghrelin
5.1.2. CCK
5.1.3. Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1)
5.1.4. Oxyntomodulin (OXM)
5.1.5. Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)
5.1.6. Peptide YY (PYY)
5.1.7. Amylin
5.1.8. Enterostatin
5.1.9. Apolipoprotein A-IV (ApoA-IV)
5.2. Long-term Regulation of Food Intake
5.2.1. Leptin
5.2.2. Insulin
5.2.3. Adiponectin
5.2.4. Visfatin
5.2.5. Downstream Signaling Pathways and Feeding
5.3. Hedonic (Non Homeostatic) Regulation of Food Intake
Conclusion
References
Body Fluid Homeostasis and Water Intake Regulation
Abstract
Introduction
6.1. Organs Involved in Osmoregulation
6.2. Water and Sodium Taste
6.3. Central Sensing Mechanisms for Internal Water Homeostasis and Thirst Regulation
6.3.1. Neurochemical Circuits
6.4. Peripheral Osmoreceptors
6.5. Molecular Basis of Body Fluid Regulation
6.5.1. Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid (TRPV) Channels
6.5.2. The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
6.5.3. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
6.5.4. Oxytocin
6.5.5. Secretin
6.5.6. Serotonin
6.5.7. Aquaporins (AQPs)
6.5.8. Other Regulators of Water Fluid Homeostasis
6.5.9. Non-coding RNAs
6.6. Interaction Between Hunger- and Thirst-motivational Drives
Conclusion
References
Proteins, Amino Acids, and Nitrogen Metabolism
Abstract
Introduction
7.1. Protein and Amino Acid Structure
7.2. Classification of Amino Acids
7.3. Protein Digestion and Absorption
7.4. Protein Synthesis
7.4.1. Importance of Balanced Dietary Amino Acids
7.4.2. Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
7.4.2.1. Transcription
7.4.2.2. Translation
7.4.2.3. Regulation of Protein Synthesis by Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR)
7.4.2.4. Protein Structure
7.4.2.5. Protein and Amino Acid Modifications
7.4.2.6. Amino Acid Metabolism
7.4.2.6.1. Transamination
7.4.2.6.2. Deamination
7.4.2.6.3. Fate of Amino Acid Degradation
7.4.2.6.4. The Alanine-Glucose Cycle
7.4.2.6.5. The Urea Cycle
7.5. Protein Degradation and Turnover
7.5.1. The Ubiquitin-proteasome System
7.5.2. The Autophagy Machinery
Conclusion
References
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Abstract
Introduction
8.1. Types and Characteristics of Carbohydrates
8.1.1. Monosaccharides
8.1.2. Di- and Polysaccharides
8.2. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
8.3. Carbohydrate Metabolisms
8.3.1. Carbohydrate Uptake
8.3.1.1. Role and Function of Insulin
8.3.1.2. Role and Function of Glucagon
8.3.1.3. Role and Function of Epinephrine
8.3.2. Fate of Intracellular Glucose and Major Metabolic Pathways
8.3.2.1. Glycolysis
8.3.2.2. Fate of Pyruvate
8.3.2.3. Transfer of Cytosolic NADH into the Mitochondria
8.3.2.4. Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
8.3.2.5. Anaerobic Glycolysis
8.3.2.6. Glycogenesis
8.3.2.7. Glycogenolysis
8.3.2.8. Gluconeogenesis
8.3.2.9. The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Conclusion
References
Lipid Metabolism
Abstract
Introduction
9.1. Classification of Lipids
9.1.1. Fatty Acids
9.1.2. Essential Fatty Acids
9.1.3. Triglycerides
9.1.4. Phospholipids
9.1.5. Cholesterols and Steroids
9.2. Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
9.3. Lipoprotein Metabolism
9.3.1. VLDL Metabolism
9.3.2. LDL Metabolism
9.3.3. HDL Metabolism
9.3.4. Cholesterol Metabolism and Reverse Cholesterol Transport
9.4. Fatty Acid Synthesis
9.5. Fatty Acid Degradation (Lipolysis)
9.6. Fatty Acid Oxidation
9.7. Ketogenesis and Ketone Body Metabolism
Conclusion
References
Summary
Nutritional Biochemistry: From the Classroom to the Research Bench
Authored by
Sami Dridi
Laboratory of Avian Endocrinology & Molecular Genetics
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. If you do not agree to these terms and conditions then you should not use the Work.
Bentham Science Publishers agrees to grant you a non-exclusive, non-transferable limited license to use the Work subject to and in accordance with the following terms and conditions. This License Agreement is for non-library, personal use only. For a library / institutional / multi user license in respect of the Work, please contact: [email protected].
Usage Rules:
All rights reserved: The Work is 1. the subject of copyright and Bentham Science Publishers either owns the Work (and the copyright in it) or is licensed to distribute the Work. You shall not copy, reproduce, modify, remove, delete, augment, add to, publish, transmit, sell, resell, create derivative works from, or in any way exploit the Work or make the Work available for others to do any of the same, in any form or by any means, in whole or in part, in each case without the prior written permission of Bentham Science Publishers, unless stated otherwise in this License Agreement.You may download a copy of the Work on one occasion to one personal computer (including tablet, laptop, desktop, or other such devices). You may make one back-up copy of the Work to avoid losing it.The unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted or other proprietary content is illegal and could subject you to liability for substantial money damages. You will be liable for any damage resulting from your misuse of the Work or any violation of this License Agreement, including any infringement by you of copyrights or proprietary rights.
Disclaimer:
Bentham Science Publishers does not guarantee that the information in the Work is error-free, or warrant that it will meet your requirements or that access to the Work will be uninterrupted or error-free. The Work is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or implied or statutory, including, without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the results and performance of the Work is assumed by you. No responsibility is assumed by Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction, advertisements or ideas contained in the Work.
Limitation of Liability:
In no event will Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors, be liable for any damages, including, without limitation, special, incidental and/or consequential damages and/or damages for lost data and/or profits arising out of (whether directly or indirectly) the use or inability to use the Work. The entire liability of Bentham Science Publishers shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the Work.
General:
Any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims) will be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the U.A.E. as applied in the Emirate of Dubai. Each party agrees that the courts of the Emirate of Dubai shall have exclusive jurisdiction to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims).Your rights under this License Agreement will automatically terminate without notice and without the need for a court order if at any point you breach any terms of this License Agreement. In no event will any delay or failure by Bentham Science Publishers in enforcing your compliance with this License Agreement constitute a waiver of any of its rights.You acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, and agree to be bound by its terms and conditions. To the extent that any other terms and conditions presented on any website of Bentham Science Publishers conflict with, or are inconsistent with, the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement, you acknowledge that the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement shall prevail.
Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Executive Suite Y - 2
PO Box 7917, Saif Zone
Sharjah, U.A.E.
Email: [email protected]
PREFACE
Sami Dridi
Professor
Director of Laboratory of Avian Endocrinology & Molecular Genetics
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA
The idea of writing a book has had a relatively long gestation period. From a young age in the mid-eighties, as a biology and biochemistry volunteer tutor for underrepresented and disadvantaged high school students in Tunisia, I have had a profound desire to contribute to the personal and professional development of others. I feel the most fulfilled when I am educating and serving others. At that time, several students suggested that my notes could be organized and compiled in a text book. Unfortunately, although the idea was inspiring, I couldn’t write the book for diverse reasons including lack of infrastructure (computer, etc.) and scientific maturity as well as economic disadvantages and constraints.
As I am drawn to the challenges of teaching and research because it gives me the opportunity to mentor students and contribute to their intellectual growth, which I consider to be the most valuable and worthwhile accomplishment, I joined the University of Arkansas in 2013 to conduct research on avian molecular nutrition and to develop and taught a biochemical nutrition course (POSC/ANSC 5143). At the beginning of this class, my students from different departments (poultry, animal, and food science, kinesiology, and nursing) and I used several biochemistry and nutrition conventional textbooks that we ordered through textbook department. After interaction with several students, the idea of organizing and collate my course notes in a text book was revived and regenerated. Taking advantage of technology expanding and advancement, I decided to compile my course in an electronic book (book) to enhance the learning process, encourage the students’ creativity and learning autonomy, and reduce the burden of carrying heavy textbooks. This in turn, allows me to gain new perspectives on biochemical nutrition topics that inform my research, and reexamine the key ideas and assumptions that shape the production of knowledge in my field.
This book is intended to provide the readers with a comprehensive account of the interrelationship of nutrition and metabolism as well as an understanding of physiological changes that occur in the whole body as a result of excessive or deficient diets, and the endocrine and molecular regulatory mechanisms controlling such changes.
I tried to keep the book current with latest scientific advances and at the same time maintain a clear and readable style. It is my wish that this book will be revised and updated every five years because of the plenitude of new information and progress. Mrs. Humaira Hashmi, In-charge eBook department, at Bentham Science has been a source of support and encouragement. I owe a debt of gratitude to my family, my wife and my kids, for their unflagging support and their tolerance of my absence. Also, my students were the original inspiration for this book and I remain endlessly grateful to them, because from them I learn how to think and how to communicate knowledge in the most efficient, clear, and meaningful way.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not Applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
Sami Dridi
Professor
Director of Laboratory of Avian Endocrinology & Molecular Genetics
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA
INTRODUCTION
Biochemical nutrition can be defined as the science of nutrition and chemical basis of life. It is a combination of two very broad, but tightly interconnected and complementary disciplines. As the cell is the basic unit of life, and nutrition is meant to provide the necessary energy for cellular functions (maintenance, proliferation, differentiation, division, etc.), thus biochemical nutrition can also be described as the study of the interaction between nutrients and the chemical constituents of living cells and of the reactions and processes they undergo. Following this definition, biochemical nutrition encompasses various and diverse aspects of biochemistry (the study of chemical characteristics and reactions of a particular living organism or biological substance), nutrition (the study of nutritional needs of a particular living organism), dietetics (diet formulation), integrative physiology (the study of body function), pathology (the study of causes and effects of diseases), cellular biology (the study of cell structure and function), molecular biology (the study of the structure and function of cellular macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids), neuroendocrinology (the study of the physiological interactions between the central nervous system and the endocrine system), immunology (the study of the immune system), microbiology (the study of microorganisms and their interaction with the host), behavior (the study of organismal action and response patterns to stimuli or stress), and more recently modeling and computational biology (the study of biological system networks using algorithms and models). The ultimate goal of biochemical nutrition is to help apprehend the origin of life by unraveling, at the molecular levels, all the chemical pathways associated with living cells, to define their energetic (nutrient) requirements, and to integrate biochemical and nutritional knowledge into efforts to not only maintain life and well-being through health improvement, but also to understand diseases for subsequent development of effective preventions or therapies.
The major objectives of the present book are to provide students and readers with a detailed, simplified, and comprehensive account of the interrelationship of nutrition and metabolism which is defined as the totality of chemical processes that occur in a living organism in order to maintain life, an understanding of physiological changes that occur in specific organs and in the whole body as a result of feeding diets with excess or deficient amounts of nutrients, and the endocrine and molecular regulatory mechanisms controlling such changes. As there are considerable differences in metabolism, nutrient requirement, and sometime in molecular pathways between mammalian and non-mammalian species, a comparative approach is often taken.
I know that biochemistry and nutrition present sometime an unusual challenge for students due to their diverse backgrounds, learning preferences, and aptitude and levels of interest. By writing this book, my fervent hope is to help diverse students from anywhere at any time to learn fast, integrate relevant principles in physiology, biochemistry, and molecular signaling pathways as they relate to nutrition of the whole organism, and to evaluate current nutrition concepts with a better understanding of how nutrition affects health, welfare, and performance. This book should enable students to formulate a biochemical approach to an experimental nutrition problem thus supporting the application of basic sciences and problem solving skills.
After an overview of the need of food and water (chapter 1), and describing the cell and organ system components (Chapter 2), the book focuses on the regulation of food intake from the factor influencing appetite to the central and peripheral underlying mechanisms (chapters 3, 4, and 5). In chapter 6, author will discuss water intake and water homeostasis regulation. In chapters 7, 8, and 9, protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism are addressed from digestion and absorption to transport, utilization, synthesis, degradation, and molecular regulation. In conclusion, chapter 10 briefly summarizes the whole objective of the book.
DEDICATION
To my beloved parents, may their souls be blessed in eternal peace
To my caring wife Stephanie and my kids Jalila and Noham
& to all who have inspired me –my children, family, students, mentors, and colleagues
Setting the Stage: The Need of Water and Food
Sami Dridi
Abstract
This chapter sets the stage and provides current knowledge related to water and food necessities. Both water and food are essential for life and major keys to survival. Although water is not included in the diet formulation, it is considered an inorganic nutrient, and it is consumed mostly as drinking water and from feedstuffs. A further source of water is metabolic water or oxidation water, which is produced when macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) are oxidized to yield energy. Water comprises 75% body weight in infants to 55% in the elderly and is essential for cellular homeostasis. Similarly, the macronutrients provide energy (measured in Kcals) and essential components to sustain cellular homeostasis and life. These macronutrients are consumed in different combinations and ratios to help achieve different goals and health (disease) states. In this chapter, a brief description of these nutrients is provided.
Keywords: Food, Water, Nutrients, Macronutrients, Energy, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats.
Notes
1Kjeldahl method or Kjeldahl digestion, developed by Johan Kjeldahl, is a procedure for the quantitative determination of nitrogen contained in organic substances plus the nitrogen contained in the inorganic compounds ammonia and ammonium
2Entropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder.
References
[1]Chatterjee IB, Majumder AK, Nandi BK, Subramanian N. Synthesis and some major functions of vitamin C in animals. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1975; 258(1 Second Confer): 24-47.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb29266.x] [PMID: 1106297][2]Flier JS, Underhill LH, Levine M. New concepts in the biology and biochemistry of ascorbic acid. N Engl J Med 1986; 314(14): 892-902.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198604033141407] [PMID: 3513016][3]Carr AC, Frei B. Toward a new recommended dietary allowance for vitamin C based on antioxidant and health effects in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69(6): 1086-107.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/69.6.1086] [PMID: 10357726][4]Gerster H. Human vitamin C requirements. Z Ernährungswiss 1987; 26(2): 125-37.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02019608] [PMID: 3307183][5]Desenclos JC. Relief food and vitamin C deficiency. Lancet 1987; 330(8556): 462-3.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91006-3] [PMID: 2887771][6]Sato PH, Roth LA, Walton DM. Treatment of a metabolic disease, scurvy, by administration of the missing enzyme. Biochem Med Metab Biol 1986; 35(1): 59-64.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0885-4505(86)90058-7] [PMID: 3778677][7]Granger M, Eck P. Dietary Vitamin C in Human Health. Adv Food Nutr Res 2018; 83: 281-310.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2017.11.006] [PMID: 29477224][8]Poe SE, Mitchell GE, Jr, Ely DG. Rumen development in lambs. 3. Microbial B-vitamin synthesis. J Anim Sci 1972; 34(5): 826-9.[http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/jas1972.345826x] [PMID: 5022491][9]Cover S, Dilsaver EM, Hays RM. Variation Among Lamb Carcasses in the B Vitamin Content of Meat. Science 1947; 105(2727): 364-5.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.105.2727.364] [PMID: 17800879][10]Seck M, Linton JAV, Allen MS, Castagnino DS, Chouinard PY, Girard CL. Apparent ruminal synthesis of B vitamins in lactating dairy cows fed diets with different forage-to-concentrate ratios. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100(3): 1914-22.[http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-12111] [PMID: 28109593][11]Cooper SJ. From Claude Bernard to Walter Cannon. Emergence of the concept of homeostasis. Appetite 2008; 51(3): 419-27.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.06.005] [PMID: 18634840][12]Jeanrenaud B, Cusin I, Rohner-Jeanrenaud F. [From Claude Bernard to the regulatory system between the hypothalamus and the periphery: implications for homeostasis of body weight and obesity]. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil 1998; 192(5): 829-41. [From Claude Bernard to the regulatory system between the hypothalamus and the periphery: implications for homeostasis of body weight and obesity].[PMID: 9871796][13]Vickery HB. The origin of the word protein. Yale J Biol Med 1950; 22(5): 387-93.[PMID: 15413335][14]Wink M. Special nitrogen metabolism 1997.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012214674-9/50013-8][15]Thier SO, Alpers DH. Disorders of intestinal transport of amino acids. Am J Dis Child 1969; 117(1): 13-23.[PMID: 4883974][16]Meade RJ. Biological availability of amino acids. J Anim Sci 1972; 35(3): 713-23.[http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/jas1972.353713x] [PMID: 4626785][17]Paulson JC. Glycoproteins: what are the sugar chains for? Trends Biochem Sci 1989; 14(7): 272-6.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0968-0004(89)90062-5] [PMID: 2672447][18]Burr GO, Burr MM. Nutrition classics from The Journal of Biological Chemistry 82:345-67, 1929. A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet. Nutr Rev 1973; 31(8): 248-9.[PMID: 4586201][19]Hansen AE, Haggard ME, Boelsche AN, Adam DJD, Wiese HF. Essential fatty acids in infant nutrition. III. Clinical manifestations of linoleic acid deficiency. J Nutr 1958; 66(4): 565-76.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/66.4.565] [PMID: 13621281][20]Spinazzi M, De Lazzari F, Tavolato B, Angelini C, Manara R, Armani M. Myelo-optico-neuropathy in copper deficiency occurring after partial gastrectomy. J Neurol 2007; 254(8): 1012-7.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-006-0479-2] [PMID: 17415508][21]Kumar N, Elliott MA, Hoyer JD, Harper CM, Jr, Ahlskog JE, Phyliky RL. “Myelodysplasia,” myeloneuropathy, and copper deficiency. Mayo Clin Proc 2005; 80(7): 943-6.[http://dx.doi.org/10.4065/80.7.943] [PMID: 16007901][22]Stern BR, Solioz M, Krewski D, et al. Copper and human health: biochemistry, genetics, and strategies for modeling dose-response relationships. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2007; 10(3): 157-222.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10937400600755911] [PMID: 17454552][23]Danks DM. Copper deficiency in humans. Annu Rev Nutr 1988; 8(1): 235-57.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nu.08.070188.001315] [PMID: 3060166][24]Klevay LM. The influence of copper and zinc on the occurrence of ischemic heart disease. J Environ Pathol Toxicol 1980; 4(2-3): 281-7.[PMID: 7007558][25]Strain JJ. Newer aspects of micronutrients in chronic disease: copper. Proc Nutr Soc 1994; 53(3): 583-98.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PNS19940067] [PMID: 7886057][26]Loef M, Walach H. Copper and iron in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and its dietary implications. Br J Nutr 2012; 107(1): 7-19.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S000711451100376X] [PMID: 21767446][27]O’Donohue J, Reid M, Varghese A, Portmann B, Williams R. A case of adult chronic copper self-intoxication resulting in cirrhosis. Eur J Med Res 1999; 4(6): 252.[PMID: 10383882][28]Lazarchick J. Update on anemia and neutropenia in copper deficiency. Curr Opin Hematol 2012; 19(1): 58-60.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOH.0b013e32834da9d2] [PMID: 22080848][29]Langley A, Dameron CT. Copper and anesthesia: clinical relevance and management of copper related disorders. Anesthesiol Res Pract 2013; 2013: 1-10.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/750901] [PMID: 23762044][30]Scheinberg IH, Sternlieb I. Wilson disease and idiopathic copper toxicosis. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 63(5): 842S-5S.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/63.5.842] [PMID: 8615372][31]Kaler SG. Metabolic and molecular bases of Menkes disease and occipital horn syndrome. Pediatr Dev Pathol 1998; 1(1): 85-98.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s100249900011] [PMID: 10463276][32]Rockey DC, Cello JP. Evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract in patients with iron-deficiency anemia. N Engl J Med 1993; 329(23): 1691-5.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199312023292303] [PMID: 8179652][33]Michaëlsson G. Diet and Acne. Nutr Rev 1981; 39(2): 104-6.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1981.tb06740.x] [PMID: 6451820][34]Gurvits GE, Tan A. Burning mouth syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19(5): 665-72.[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v19.i5.665] [PMID: 23429751][35]Knudsen N, Laurberg P, Perrild H, Bülow I, Ovesen L, Jørgensen T. Risk factors for goiter and thyroid nodules. Thyroid 2002; 12(10): 879-88.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/105072502761016502] [PMID: 12487770][36]Rose NR, Bonita R, Burek CL. Iodine: an environmental trigger of thyroiditis. Autoimmun Rev 2002; 1(1-2): 97-103.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1568-9972(01)00016-7] [PMID: 12849065][37]Selwitz RH, Ismail AI, Pitts NB. Dental caries. Lancet 2007; 369(9555): 51-9.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60031-2] [PMID: 17208642][38]Kleerekoper M. The role of fluoride in the prevention of osteoporosis. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1998; 27(2): 441-52.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8529(05)70015-3] [PMID: 9669148][39]Riggs BL, Hodgson SF, O’Fallon WM, et al. Effect of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 322(12): 802-9.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199003223221203] [PMID: 2407957][40]Gupta R, Kumar AN, Bandhu S, Gupta S. Skeletal fluorosis mimicking seronegative arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 2007; 36(2): 154-5.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03009740600759845] [PMID: 17476625][41]Gessner BD, Beller M, Middaugh JP, Whitford GM. Acute fluoride poisoning from a public water system. N Engl J Med 1994; 330(2): 95-9.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199401133300203] [PMID: 8259189][42]Cotzias GC, Papavasiliou PS, Hughes ER, Tang L, Borg DC. Slow turnover of manganese in active rheumatoid arthritis accelerated by prednisone. J Clin Invest 1968; 47(5): 992-1001.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI105814] [PMID: 4868949][43]Fincham JE, van Rensburg SJ, Marasas WF. Mseleni joint disease--a manganese deficiency? S Afr Med J 1981; 60(12): 445-7.[PMID: 7280891][44]Hall AJ, Margetts BM, Barker DJP, et al. Low blood manganese levels in Liverpool children with Perthes’ disease. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1989; 3(2): 131-6.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.1989.tb00505.x] [PMID: 2734231][45]Borchers A, Epstein SE, Gindiciosi B, Cartoceti A, Puschner B. Acute enteral manganese intoxication with hepatic failure due to ingestion of a joint supplement overdose. J Vet Diagn Invest 2014; 26(5): 658-63.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1040638714544316] [PMID: 25080444][46]Kawata F. Studies on monoamine metabolism in the rat brain with overdosage of manganese. Nippon Hoigaku Zasshi 1990; 44(2): 137-46.[PMID: 2402098][47]Moreno-Reyes R, Suetens C, Mathieu F, et al. Kashin-Beck osteoarthropathy in rural Tibet in relation to selenium and iodine status. N Engl J Med 1998; 339(16): 1112-20.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199810153391604] [PMID: 9770558][48]Hopkins FG. The analyst and the medical man. Analyst (Lond) 1906; 31(369): 385b.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/an906310385b][49]Lunin N. Über die Bedeutung der anorganischen Salze für die Ernährung des Thieres. Z F Physiol Chem 1881; 5: 31.[50]Dumas J B A. Note sur la constitution du lait et du sang. Le Monit Sci 3 ser 778(1871)[51]Hopkins FG. Feeding experiments illustrating the importance of accessory factors in normal dietaries. J Physiol 1912; 44(5-6): 425-60.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001524] [PMID: 16993143][52]Funk C. The etiology of the defi ciency diseases. Beri-beri, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic dropsy, scurvy, experimental scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pellagra. J State Med 1912; 20: 341.[53]Unglaub WG, Goldsmith GA, Gibbens J. Recent advances in nutrition and metabolism. II. Review of the literature on vitamins, 1952. AMA Arch Intern Med 1954; 94(4): 618-47.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1954.00250040110010] [PMID: 13196744][54]Brown GM, Reynolds JJ. Biogenesis of the Water-Soluble Vitamins. Annu Rev Biochem 1963; 32(1): 419-62.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bi.32.070163.002223] [PMID: 14144485][55]Martini S, Rizzello A, Corsini I, et al. Vitamin A Deficiency Due to Selective Eating as a Cause of Blindness in a High-Income Setting. Pediatrics 2018; 141 (Suppl. 5): S439-44.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2628] [PMID: 29610168][56]Dowling JE, Wald G. Vitamin a Deficiency and Night Blindness. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1958; 44(7): 648-61.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.44.7.648] [PMID: 16590255][57]Dunlap K, Loken RD. Vitamin a for Color-Blindness. Science 1942; 95(2474): 554.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.95.2474.554.a] [PMID: 17790871][58]Lind T, Öhman C, Calounova G, et al. Excessive dietary intake of vitamin A reduces skull bone thickness in mice. PLoS One 2017; 12(4): e0176217.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176217] [PMID: 28426756][59]Rodahl K. Hypervitaminosis A and scurvy. Nature 1949; 164(4169): 531.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/164531a0] [PMID: 18229143][60]Baker JR, Howell JM, Thompson JN. Hypervitaminosis A in the chick. Br J Exp Pathol 1967; 48(5): 507-12.[PMID: 6075435][61]Rodahl K. Hypervitaminosis A in the rat. J Nutr 1950; 41(3): 399-421.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/41.3.399] [PMID: 15428909][62]Mellanby K. Metabolic water and desiccation. Nature 1942; 150(3792): 21.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/150021a0][63]Tracy R, Walsberg G. Developmental and acclimatory contributions to water loss in a desert rodent: investigating the time course of adaptive change. J Comp Physiol B 2001; 171(8): 669-79.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s003600100218] [PMID: 11765976][64]Warda M, Prince A, Kim HK, et al. Proteomics of old world camelid (Camelus dromedarius): Better understanding the interplay between homeostasis and desert environment. J Adv Res 2014; 5(2): 219-42.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2013.03.004] [PMID: 25685490][65]Ortiz RM. Osmoregulation in marine mammals. J Exp Biol 2001; 204(11): 1831-44.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.11.1831] [PMID: 11441026][66]Levere TH. Dimensions of a scientist: lavoisier and the chemistry of life. Science 1985; 229(4715): 751.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.229.4715.751.a] [PMID: 17841492][67]Hargrove JL. History of the calorie in nutrition. J Nutr 2006; 136(12): 2957-61.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.12.2957] [PMID: 17116702][68]Joule JP. On the calorific effects of magneto-electricity, and on the mechanical value of heat. Philos Mag 1843; 23: 263.
