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- Herausgeber: Science & Technology Publishing
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Of Medicine In Eight Books is a comprehensive medical treatise attributed to Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a prominent Roman encyclopedist of the early first century AD. This seminal work, originally written in Latin as De Medicina, stands as one of the most significant surviving sources on ancient medical knowledge and practice. Spanning eight detailed books, the text systematically covers a wide array of medical topics, reflecting the accumulated wisdom of Greek and Roman physicians up to Celsus’s time. The first book introduces the general principles of medicine, including the preservation of health, the causes and symptoms of diseases, and the importance of diet, exercise, and hygiene. The second and third books delve into the treatment of general diseases and specific ailments, offering detailed descriptions of symptoms and recommended therapies. Celsus’s approach is methodical, emphasizing observation, diagnosis, and the careful application of remedies. Books four and five focus on the treatment of specific diseases affecting different parts of the body, such as fevers, respiratory conditions, and digestive disorders. Celsus provides practical advice on the use of medicinal plants, minerals, and other substances, as well as instructions for preparing and administering various remedies. The sixth and seventh books are devoted to surgery, a field in which Celsus was particularly influential. He describes numerous surgical procedures, including the treatment of wounds, fractures, and dislocations, as well as operations for conditions such as hernias and bladder stones. His accounts are notable for their clarity and attention to detail, offering insights into the surgical techniques and instruments of the ancient world. The eighth and final book addresses diseases of the skin, the treatment of ulcers, and the management of more complex or chronic conditions. Throughout the work, Celsus emphasizes the importance of balancing theory with practical experience, advocating for a rational and humane approach to medical care. Of Medicine In Eight Books is not only a valuable historical document but also a testament to the enduring legacy of classical medicine. Its influence persisted throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, shaping the development of Western medical thought for centuries. Today, it remains an essential resource for historians, medical professionals, and anyone interested in the origins of medical science.
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Transcriber’s notes:
This e-book has an unusual structure, being a compilation of eight smaller books accompanied by eight related sets of numbered explanatory notes provided by the author. It also contains several hundred footnotes scattered throughout the text (many being Greek spellings of words in the text). These have been given alphabetic labels and are now grouped together as endnotes. All notes have been hyperlinked to facilitate access. Hyperlinks have also been added to index items and to the table of contents.
Numerous asterisks are present in parts of the text; these represent uncertain quantities, not footnotes, as explained in notes on p. xxxii. The text also contains archaic characters that may not display correctly with all viewing devices or fonts. For best viewing, the device’s character encoding should be set to Unicode (UTF-8), and one of the following fonts selected: Arial Unicode MS, DejaVu, Segoe UI Symbol or FreeSerif.
The text has been preserved as in the original, including inconsistent punctuation, capitalisation and hyphenation. Archaic and inconsistent spellings have been retained except where obviously misspelled in the original. A list of these and other corrections has been appended at the end.
The cover image of the book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.
A. CORN. CELSUSOFMEDICINEIN EIGHT BOOKS.
SIR,
The favourable opinion you have been pleased to express of the following translation, and the trouble you have taken to revise the chirurgical part, are obligations, which I embrace this opportunity of acknowledging with the highest pleasure.
And though I had not received such marks of your friendship, yet there is no person, to whom a translation of Celsus can be more properly addressed; since no writer in this age appears to have a more just esteem for this excellent author, or to have imitated his conciseness and elegance, with so much success.
I am, with great esteem,Sir, your most obedient, humble servant,James Greive.
London,January 26th, 1756.
PREFACE.
It has been a question much debated, whether, and how far the writings of the ancient physicians are of service to direct our practice in the cure of diseases; but without repeating what has been already said on this point, I imagine their usefulness may be inferred from this single consideration, that the mechanism of the human body being always and every where the same, a faithful history of diseases must necessarily be one of the surest guides to the application of proper remedies. Moreover, if the diagnostics and prognostics be of the greatest moment in physic, and are only to be collected from long and accurate observation, then the records left us by the ancients, who were so assiduous in their observations, so clear and exact in their descriptions, must be allowed to contain a valuable treasure of medical knowledge.
We have seen, in the present age, many learned physicians, who, though they readily admit the improvements of the moderns, nevertheless apply themselves with great industry to the study of the ancients; and indeed, to say nothing of the superiority of some of the ancients in stile and composition, as a matter of taste, I think it can hardly be denied, that a man, capable of making proper allowances for the variations in respect of climate and manner of living, may receive great benefit from the materials left us by these ingenious writers of antiquity, and find many hints, which, pursued with diligence, and applied with caution, may both correct and enlarge his practice.
Celsus is justly esteemed one of the most valuable amongst the ancients. He is so often quoted, with approbation, by our best writers in physic, and so much admired by the learned world for propriety, ease, and elegance, that it is a needless attempt in these days to draw his character. However, he is so little mentioned by the ancients, that our curiosity cannot be gratified with any particulars of his life; nor can we even determine what was his profession, if it does not appear from his writings.
Quintilian often mentions a treatise of his upon rhetoric, which though he hardly ever quotes, but where he differs from him, he allows to be composed with accuracy. But whatever he thought of his oratory, he gives an honourable testimony to the extent of his learning. For to persuade his student of eloquence to make himself master of all the sciences, after mentioning the greatest geniuses that ever appeared in Greece or Rome, as Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Cato the censor, Varro, and Cicero, he adds, “Why should I name any more instances? when even Cornelius Celsus, a man of a moderate share of genius, has not only composed treatises on all these arts, but has also left precepts of the military art, agriculture, and medicine. The bare attempt requires us to believe he understood all these subjects: but to give perfection to so great a work is a difficult task, to which no man was ever found equal[ A ].”
Some have complained of the partiality, or jealousy of the rhetorician, who allows Celsus only a moderate share of genius. Others esteem it no diminution to be placed in a rank below the writers above named. Without doubt, this would do him very great honour: but if we even take the character literally, still we are to consider Quintilian as having every where in view the perfection of oratory. Now this, it should appear, Celsus hardly affected, by his confining the orator to questions in dispute[ B ]; which in great measure excludes the descriptive and moving parts of the art: therefore Quintilian’s man of middling genius may be a perfect writer in the instructive manner, though he want the qualifications for the bar or the forum. But to do Celsus some farther honour, may it not be supposed, that had Quintilian been as competent a judge of his medical, as of his rhetorical writings, he would not have stiled him, Vir mediocri ingenio. I have made bold to hazard this observation from an opinion, that none but a physician can form a just idea of the excellence of this work; much less could any but a physician be the author of it. Celsus the physician might very well write on agriculture, &c. but it by no means follows, that Celsus, not versed in the practice of physic, could have written accurately on diseases. If then this notion be just, it may reasonably be concluded, that his medical writings were the most perfect, as being the fruit of his principal and particular studies.
Columella (De re rustica) often quotes him with great deference to his authority; he equals him to the most learned writers on husbandry; and when he is correcting a vulgar error, expresses his surprise that Cornelius Celsus could be misled, “who was not only skilled in agriculture, but took in the whole compass of natural knowledge[C].” I shall not recite all the passages, where he mentions Celsus, but cannot help transcribing one, it is so expressive of our author’s manner. It is on the article of bees, “concerning which (says he) it is impossible to surpass the diligence of Hyginus, the profusion of ornaments in Virgil, and the elegance of Celsus. Hyginus has with great industry collected the precepts, which lay scattered in the ancients; Virgil has adorned the subject with poetic flowers; and in Celsus we find a judicious mixture of both these manners[ D ].”
From Columella’s mentioning Celsus as a contemporary, but not as a living writer[ E ], and our author’s speaking of Themison in the same manner[ F ], Le Clerc infers, with great probability, that Celsus wrote towards the latter end of the reign of Augustus, or at latest, in the beginning of Tiberius; in which last period he is placed by Fabricius[ G ]. And that he cannot have been later, appears not only from these authorities, but almost undeniably from the purity and elegance of his style, more nearly allied to the Augustan, than any of the succeeding ages.
Both Columella and Quintilian seem to speak of him as a Roman, and indeed our author himself, when he is giving the Greek name for any distemper, and is to add the Roman, frequently uses this phrase, nostri vocant, our countrymen call it, or some other expression of the same nature[ H ].
We have seen by the above quotations, how many treatises were composed by Celsus, which have all perished in the barbarous ages, except this work on medicine; which from the manner of its beginning, Ut alimenta sanis corporibus agricultura, sic medicina ægris sanitatem promittit, seems to have immediately followed his book on husbandry: for this easy transition is very common with our author in connecting different subjects. What confirms this is, that H. Stephens, upon the authority of an ancient manuscript, has prefixed as the title, Aurelii Cornelii Celsi de re medica libri octo; operis ab eo scripti de artibus pars sexta. It would be still more evident, if we could depend upon the manuscript in the library of Alex. Paduan: in which, at the end of the fourth book is written, Artium Cornelii Celsi liber nonus, idem medicinæ liber quartus explicit feliciter[ I ]. For his agriculture contained five books[ J ], with which the first four of this work make up the nine.
Every trifling circumstance relating to our author has employed the industry of his learned commentators. The English reader will therefore forgive me for observing, that in most of the manuscripts, his name is written A. Cornelius Celsus. And Rubeus informs us, the ancient manuscript in the Vatican library has this title, Auli Cornelii Celsi liber sextus, idemque medicinæ primus. As Aurelius was the name of a Roman family, it is not probable that this would be his praenomen; on the contrary, Aulus is found to be a common praenomen in the Cornelian family[ K ]. For these reasons, I read his name A. that is Aulus, &c. instead of Aurelius, as most of the printed copies have it.
From our author’s admirable abstract of the history of physic, it is easy to see he had studied and thoroughly digested the writings of the preceding physicians, and been attentive to the practice, as well as to the arguments of the several sects. We have no reason to doubt he made the best use of them; for we see that he confined himself to no one party, but selected from each what he judged to be most salutary. Though he has quoted many authors, sometimes with a view to recommend their practice in particular cases, at other times to shew the impropriety of it; yet through the whole, Hippocrates and Asclepiades seem to have been highest in his esteem; but he does not give up his judgment implicitly to these for he often leaves both, and advances very good reasons for differing from them. He ingenuously owns[ L ], that he has borrowed the prognostics from Hippocrates, “because,” says he, “though the moderns have made alterations in the method of curing, nevertheless they allow, that he has left the best prognostics.” With regard to the critical days, he entirely condemns his doctrine, and follows Asclepiades in rejecting the notion as idle and chimerical[ M ]. But from both these authors he dissents in his rules about bleeding.
It would be superfluous for me to prefix to this translation a general view of Celsus’s practice in the various diseases; for besides that this is already done by the learned Le Clerc[ N ], our author’s method is so clear and concise, that the reader will acquire, with ease, the most perfect idea from the book itself.
Whenever he differs in opinion from writers, whose authority he otherwise reveres, we find his reasoning modest, concise, close, and admirably well adapted to the subject in dispute; but the delicacy of his expression, when he condemns others, and the caution with which he avoids speaking of himself, have led some to believe he was not a practitioner: though the strongest argument against his having practised physic is drawn from the silence of Pliny, who names Celsus, in several books, among the authors from whom he took his materials, and never ranks him in the list of physicians, whom he separates from the others. But I am surprised it has escaped the observation of the critics, that these catalogues of physicians consist only of foreigners, whom Pliny distinguishes from other foreigners, who were not physicians; whereas Celsus stands always amongst the Romans. Now Pliny, in his list of Roman writers, has not noted their several professions: for in most of the places, where we read the name of Celsus, we also find that of Antonius Castor, without any mention of his profession, though Pliny himself in another place tells us[ O ], he was a physician of great reputation, whom he saw living in retirement, and cultivating a kind of physic-garden, when he was above an hundred years old. Thus, the name of Antonius Castor would have been lost with his writings, notwithstanding the figure he made among his contemporaries, had he not happened to be mentioned by Pliny. And hence it appears, that nothing can be inferred from the silence of Pliny and the other ancients, in regard to the profession of Celsus; though he should not be Cornelius the physician, mentioned by Galen, as Le Clerc thinks it probable he is.
I might have urged many passages in this book to prove that he was a physician, if I had not reason to think the present age is already satisfied in that point. There are two, however, so remarkable, that they ought not to be omitted. When our author is considering the proper time for allowing nourishment, after saying that some gave their patients food in the evening, he gives reasons against that method, and then adds, “Ob haec ad mediam noctem decurro, i. e. For these reasons I defer it till midnight.” Thus most of the older copies read, and also Morgagni’s manuscript; so that Linden is not easily to be forgiven for making alterations in so material a place[ P ]. In the other passages there is no variation in the reading. In that species of the ancyloblepharon, where the eye-lid unites with the white of the eye, our author, after describing the method of cure, immediately adds, “Ego sic restitutum neminem memini. Meges se quoque multa, &c. i. e. I do not remember an instance of any person cured in this way. Meges also has told us that he has tried many methods, and never was successful, because the eye-lid always united again to the eye[ Q ].” The form of expression here used by our author, in a manner peculiar to a practitioner, would come very improperly from a mere compiler. The connection of these two sentences by quoque seems to put our author’s own observation upon the same footing with that of Meges, whom he quotes on several occasions as a most accomplished surgeon[ R ].
It may not be amiss, however, to take notice of a distinction Celsus makes between two kinds of professors of physic. When he is shewing the necessity of circumspection in the physician, he adds, “From[ S ] these things it may be inferred, that many people cannot be attended by one physician; and that the man to be trusted is he, who knows his profession, and is not much absent from the patient. But they, who practice from views of gain, because their profits rise in proportion to the number of patients, readily fall in with such rules, as do not require a close attendance, as in this very case. For it is easy for such as seldom see the patient, to count the days and the paroxysms: but it is necessary for him to sit by his patient, who would form a true judgment of what is alone fit to be done, when he will be too weak, unless he get food.” As his censure is so severe upon a practice, which he thought too extensive, it is natural to suppose, that his was confined to his acquaintance, and that his fortune and generosity rendered him superior to the view of living by the profession.
To all the later copies of Celsus is prefixed an index of the several editions, which makes it needless for me to give an account of them. All the older ones, printed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, abound with numberless gross errors, that in many places utterly destroy the construction. These, Vander Linden undertook to correct, and the authorities he used for that purpose are contained in a catalogue annexed to his preface, in which he tells us he has made very few changes from his own conjecture, and none of these, but where the subject evidently required them. In the dedication he says, “Who would imagine, that after the diligent labours of so many illustrious men, as Egnatius, Cæsarius, Constantine, Stephens, Pantinus, Ronsseus, and Rubeus, I should have corrections to make in more than two thousand places?”
As it was proper I should translate from one particular edition, I chose for that purpose Linden’s; or Almeloveen’s, who has followed him almost in every letter; as these are generally esteemed by far the most correct: though it must be owned, that Linden has made many alterations without necessity, and sometimes for the worse. Where the sense was either obscure or inconsistent with the context, I have often been assisted by the more ancient editions. On such occasions I have given my authority and reasons in the notes. In passages where I found a reading in the old copies much preferable to Linden’s, but not altogether necessary upon account of the sense, I have marked it in a note, without adopting it into the next.
There are very few places, where I have ventured to alter the reading on my own conjecture, and these are all noted in the margin, where I have assigned my reasons, which, I hope, will convince the learned reader. My notes will shew in how many instances I have been obliged to the excellent epistles of Morgagni. This learned and ingenious author has, in my opinion, entered more into the spirit and true meaning of Celsus, than any of the preceding commentators[ T ].
Had there been so correct an edition of Celsus, as I think may be made, with proper judgment, from the editions and manuscripts extant, it would have shortened my labour.
That Celsus divided his books into chapters, appears from several passages: whereas no person, as far as I can find, pretends, that the marginal contents came from the author himself. The editions differ in these; but as it is of small importance, I have not troubled the reader with any remarks on that article. Where I found those of Linden evidently wrong, I have endeavoured to supply the defect.
With regard to the materia medica, the notes are drawn chiefly from Pliny and Dioscorides, whom I esteemed the best authors on that article. When I have given English names to any of the simples, I follow the most judicious moderns; though it must be remembered, that many of them cannot be determined with absolute certainty.
Through most of the compositions the text is miserably corrupted; and what is worse, I do not find, that by comparing the various editions this part can be restored. I had once some thoughts of labouring this point particularly, but as it would have been expected I should support every alteration with proper reasons, and as I despaired of executing it so, as to meet with universal approbation, and after all it would have been more a matter of curiosity than of real use, I omitted that part of my design; besides, this must have considerably increased the number of my notes, which I have endeavoured should be as few as the nature of the undertaking would admit of. For these reasons I have closely adhered to the text of Linden, without even departing from it, where the nature of the whole composition will evidently demonstrate the proportions of several ingredients to be highly incongruous.
It has been my principal care to convey the precise meaning of my author, and also to preserve the genius of his style, where the English idiom would allow. I have likewise been careful not to wrest any expression of Celsus, in order to deceive the reader into a greater opinion of his knowledge, than he really deserves. His merit is sufficiently great without pretending to find in him any discoveries, the honour of which is due to the moderns. Every man of learning, who is acquainted with the state of physic among the ancients, and knows how far it differs from the modern, must be sensible of the difficulty of translating an author so elegant and concise, with the strictness necessary in a work of this nature. Such judges, I hope, will censure the faults, which cannot escape their observation, with the candour inseparable from true criticism.
It only remains, that I return thanks to my ingenious and learned friends of the faculty, who have favoured me with their opinions on several passages, particularly to Dr. Maghie of Guy’s hospital.
CONTENTS.
PREFACE
CHAP. I.
Rules for the healthy,
Rules for valetudinary people,
Observations suited to new incidents, and the different constitutions, sexes, and ages; and the seasons of the year,
Rules for those that have a weakness in the head,
Directions for those that labour under a lippitude, gravedo, catarrh, and disorders of the tonsils,
The proper regimen for people liable to a purging,
Rules for those that are liable to a pain of the colon,
Rules for one that has a weak stomach,
Directions for those that are liable to pains of the nerves,
Directions in a pestilence,
PREFACE,
CHAP. I.
Of the different seasons, weather, ages, constitutions, and the diseases peculiar to each,
Of the signs of an approaching illness,
Good symptoms in sick people,
Bad symptoms in sick people,
Signs of long sickness,
The symptoms of death,
Of the signs in particular diseases,
What symptoms are dangerous, or hopeful in particular diseases,
Of the cure of diseases,
Of bleeding,
Of cupping,
Of purging by internal medicines and clysters,
Of vomiting,
Of friction,
Of gestation,
Of abstinence,
Of sweating,
The different kinds of food and drink,
General properties of different foods,
Of things containing good juices,
Of foods containing bad juices,
Of mild and acrid things,
Of those things which generate a thick and a fluid phlegm,
Of what agrees with the stomach,
Of things hurtful to the stomach,
Of those things which occasion flatulencies; and the contrary,
Of those things which heat and cool,
Of what is easily corrupted in the stomach,
Of what opens the belly,
Of what binds the belly,
Of diuretic meats and drinks,
Of soporiferous, and exciting substances,
Of those things which draw, repel, or cool, or heat, or harden, or soften,
CHAP. I.
General division of distempers,
General diagnostics of acute and chronic, increasing and declining diseases; the difference of regimen in each; and precautions necessary upon the apprehension of an approaching illness,
Of the several kinds of fevers,
Of the different methods of cure,
Particular directions for giving food in the different species of fevers,
The proper times for giving drink to persons in fevers; and the kinds of aliments suited to the several stages of the distempers; together with some general observations,
The cure of pestilential, and ardent fevers,
The cure of a semitertian,
The cure of slow fevers,
Remedies for the concomitant symptoms of fevers,
Remedies against a coldness of the extremities, preceding a fever,
The cure of a shuddering before fevers,
The cure of a quotidian fever,
The cure of a tertian,
The cure of a quartan,
The cure of a double quartan,
The cure of a quotidian arising from a quartan,
Of the several kinds of madness, and their cure,
Of the cardiac disorder, and its cure,
Of the lethargy, and its cure,
Of the several species of the dropsy, and their cure,
Of the several species of consumptions, and their cure,
Of the epilepsy, and its cure,
Of the jaundice, and its cure,
Of the elephantiasis, and its cure,
Of apoplectic patients, and their cure,
Of a palsy, and its cure,
Of a pain of the nerves,
Of a tremor of the nerves,
Of internal suppurations,
CHAP. I.
Of the Internal parts of the human body,
Of the disorders of the head, and their cure,
Of pains of the head, and a hydrocephalus,
Of the cynicus spasmus,
Of a palsy of the tongue,
Of a catarrh and gravedo,
Of diseases of the neck, and their cure,
Of diseases of the fauces,
Several species of angina,
Difficulty of breathing,
An ulcer in the fauces,
A cough,
A spitting of blood,
And their cure,
Of the disorders of the stomach, and their cure,
Of pains of the sides and a pleurisy, and their cure,
Of a peripneumony, and its cure,
Of the diseases of the liver, and their cure,
Of the diseases of the spleen, and their cure,
Of the diseases of the kidneys, and their cure,
Of the cholera, and its cure,
Of the coeliack distemper of the stomach, and its cure,
Of the distemper of the small gut, and its cure,
Of the distemper of the large intestine, and its cure,
Of a dysentery, and its cure,
Of a lientery, and its cure,
Of worms in the belly, and their cure,
Of a tenesmus, and its cure,
Of a simple purging, and its cure,
Of the diseases of the womb, and their cure,
Of an excessive discharge of semen, and its cure,
Of the diseases of the hips, and their cure,
Of a pain in the knees, and its cure,
Of the diseases of the joints of the hands and feet, and their cure,
Of the treatment of patients recovering,
PREFACE,
CHAP. I.
Medicines for stopping blood,
Agglutinants and restringents,
Medicines for promoting a suppuration,
Medicines for opening wounds,
Cleansers,
Corroding medicines,
Eating medicines,
Caustics,
Medicines for forming crusts upon ulcers,
Resolvents for crusts,
Discutients,
Evacuating and drawing medicines,
Lenients,
Incarning medicines,
Emollients,
Cleansers of the skin,
Of the mixture of simples, and the proportion of the weights,
Of malagmas, in all thirty-six recited,
Of plaisters, in all twenty-nine recited,
Of troches, in all seven recited,
Of pessaries, in all seven recited,
Medicines, used either in a dry form, or mixed with liquids,
Of antidotes, and their use,
Of acopa,
Of catapotia,
Of five different kinds of disorders incident to the body; and of the nature, symptoms, and cure of wounds,
Bad consequences from wounds,
Cure of an old ulcer,
Cure of an erysipelas,
Cure of a gangrene,
Of wounds caused by bites, poisons taken internally, and burns,
Of external disorders proceeding from internal causes, and their cure,
Of a carbuncle,
Of a cancer,
Of a therioma,
Of the ignis sacer,
Of the chironian ulcer,
Of ulcers occasioned by cold,
Of the scrophula,
Of a furuncle,
Of phymata,
Of a phygethlon,
Of abscesses,
Of fistulas,
Of the cerion ulcer,
Of the acrochordon, &c.
Of pustules,
Of the scabies,
Of the impetigo,
Of the papula,
Of the vitiligo,
CHAP. I.
Of hairs falling off the head,
Of a porrigo,
Of the sycosis,
Of the areæ,
Of vari, lenticulæ, and ephelides,
Of the disorders of the eyes, carbuncles of the eyes, pustules, wasting, lice in the eye-lids, dry lippitude, dimness, a cataract, palsy, mydriasis, a weakness, and external hurts in the eyes, and the various collyriums adapted to each disorder,
Of the diseases of the ears; pain, pus in the ears, worms, dulness of hearing, a noise, extraneous bodies in the ears,
Of the diseases of the nose,
Of the toothach,
Of the diseases of the tonsils,
Of ulcers of the mouth,
Of ulcers of the tongue,
Of parulides and ulcers in the gums,
Of an inflammation of the uvula,
Of a gangrene of the mouth,
Of parotid swellings,
Of a prominent navel,
Of the diseases of the private parts,
Diseases of the anus, rhagadia, and condylomata,
Of the hæmorrhoides,
Of a prolapsus of the anus or womb, &c.
Of ulcers in the fingers,
PREFACE,
The province of surgery, &c.
CHAP. I.
Of contusions
Of the operations necessary in suppurated tumours
Of the good or bad symptoms of suppurations
Of fistulas, in the ribs, belly, and anus
Of extracting weapons out of the body
Of a ganglion, meliceris, atheroma, steatoma, and other tubercles of the head
Of the diseases of the eyes cured by manual operations; of vesicles in the upper eye-lids
Of a crithe, chalazium, and unguis
Of an encanthis
Of the ancyloblepharon, and the ægilops
Of hairs in the eye-lashes irritating the eye
Of the lagopthalmus
Of an ectropium, and the staphyloma
Description of the eye
Of a cataract
Of a flux of gum, and the requisite operations
Of the operations required in the ears
The operation necessary in a want of substance in the ears, lips, and nose
Of the extirpation of a polypus in the nose
The chirurgical cure of an ozæna
Of the operations in the mouth; of the teeth
Of indurated tonsils, of the uvula
Of the tongue, an abscess under it, and chopt lips
Of the bronchocele
Of the operations performed at the navel
The method of discharging the water in hydropic people
Of wounds in the belly and intestines
Of a rupture of the peritonæum
A description of the testicles, and their diseases
General directions for operations in the foregoing diseases about the testicles
Of the cure of a rupture of the intestine into the scrotum
Of the cure of a rupture of the omentum into the scrotum
Of the cure of a ramex of the scrotum
Of the cure of a sarcocele
Of the cure of a ramex in the groin
The operations requisite in the disorders of the penis
Of the operation necessary in a suppression of urine; and lithotomy
Of a gangrene after cutting for the stone
Of the operations required, when a membrane or flesh obstructs the vagina in women
The method of extracting a dead fœtus out of the womb
The operations required in diseases of the anus
Of varices in the legs
Operations required in cohering and crooked fingers
Of the operation required in a gangrene
CHAP. I.
Of the situation and figure of the bones of the human body
General division of disorders in the bones. Of a blackness and caries, and their treatment
Of the use of the modiolus, and perforator, and other instruments, especially for the bones of the head
Of fractures of the skull
Of fractures of the nose
Of fractures of the ears
Of a fractured maxilla, together with some general observations relating to fractures
Of a fractured clavicle
Of fractures of the ribs and spine
Of fractures of the humerus, fore-arm, thigh, leg, fingers, and toes
Of luxations
Of a luxated maxilla
Roman measures of capacity for things liquid, reduced to english wine measure, the wine pint holding 287/8 solid inches.
No. I.
Possibly No. I. may be better understood in the following form.
No. II.
Roman measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to english corn measure, the english corn pint holding 33 3/5 inches.
No. III.
The same table in another form.
No. IV.
Note, The tables, No. I. and No. III. are exactly copied from Dr Arbuthnot, No. XII. and XIII. I have here gone no higher than the sextarius, as that is the greatest measure mentioned by Celsus; it has its name from making the sixth part of the Roman congius.
I would have taken the table of weights from Dr Arbuthnot also, if he had given one accommodated to Celsus; but as he has not, I have composed the following, No. VI. according to the division of Celsus himself, who tells us[ U ], that he divides the uncia, or ounce, into seven denarii, and the denarius into six sextantes.
Besides these, in several compositions our author uses semuncia and sescuncia, that is half an ounce and ounce and half; and to save the reader the trouble of reduction, I have given them also a place in the table.
The accurate Mr Greaves[ V ], from repeated experiments, concluded the Roman denarius to contain 62 grains English Troy weight, from which the proportions of the other weights are determined.
No. V.
Celsus’s weights compared with apothecaries’ weights.
No. VI.
Note 1st. The Romans divided all integers, as they did their as, into twelve equal parts called unciæ. Thus the sextans was the sixth part of the as, containing two of these unciæ, quadrans one fourth, or three unciæ, triens the third part, or four unciæ, semis one half, or six unciæ, bes or bessis two-thirds, or eight unciæ, dodrans three-fourths being nine unciæ. The weight of these then differs, as the integer is the libra, the uncia, or denarius, which the attentive reader will easily reduce, if he is disposed to calculate the quantities, observing that they are not to be taken for aliquot parts of the denarius, but when they follow the mark of the denarius. The integer preceding, and the nature of the composition will be the best explication.
Note 2. The denarius mark was X or 𐆖, as containing originally ten small asses. This by the copiers has been often confounded with X, denoting the number of ten denarii; so that after all the pains of critics and commentators, the proportions of the ingredients in several compositions seem to be irrecoverably lost. For this reason, I suppose the later editors have thought fit to change it for the common asterisk.
Note 3. The characters for quantities are variously marked in different authors, and the same note has several values. There is one of this uncertainty in Celsus, that is Z, which we are told expresses the libra, the sescuncia, the sextans of a pound, the denarius and the sextans of a denarius[ W ]. Which of these different values it bears in any particular place must be determined by the connection. When it follows the mark of the denarius, it can mean no more than the sextans of a denarius.
Note 4. p. stands for pondo, which is an indeclinable word, and when joined with numbers, signifies libra or a pound; when with other weights, it stands for no more than pondus or weight in general.
For an example of the reduction of Celsus’s weights to ours, the following may serve.
Lib. v. cap. 19. no. 7. Philotas’s plaister contains,
ERRATA,IN THE TEXT.
A. CORNELIUS CELSUS
OF
MEDICINE.
BOOK I.
PREFACE.
As agriculture promises food to the healthy, so medicine promises health to the sick. There is no place in the world, where this art is not found: for even the most barbarous nations are acquainted with herbs, and other easy remedies for wounds and diseases. However it has been more improved by the Greeks than any other people: though not from the infancy of that nation, but only a few ages before our own times; as appears by their celebrating Æsculapius as its most ancient author; who, because he cultivated this science with somewhat more accuracy, which, before him, was rude and of low esteem, was received into the number of their gods.(1) After him his two sons, Podalirius and Machaon, following Agamemnon to the Trojan war, were not a little useful to their fellow soldiers. But even these, according to Homer’s account, did not undertake the plague, nor the other various kinds of diseases, but only cured wounds by incisions, and medicines: from which it appears, that they entirely confined themselves to the chirurgical part of medicine, and that this was the most antient branch. From the same author we may also learn, that diseases were then believed to arise from the anger of the immortal gods,(2) and that relief used to be sought from them. It is also probable, that though there were few remedies for distempers known, men nevertheless generally enjoyed good health from the sobriety of their lives, yet untainted by sloth and luxury. For these two vices, first in Greece, and then among us, rendered men liable to many diseases. And hence that variety of remedies now used, which was neither necessary in ancient times, nor is yet in other nations, scarcely protracts the lives of a few of us to the verge of old age. For the same reason, after those, whom I have mentioned, no men of eminence practised medicine, till learning began to be pursued with greater application; which, as it is of all things most necessary to the mind, so it is no less hurtful to the body. And at first the science of healing was accounted a branch of philosophy; so that the cure of diseases, and the study of nature, owed their rise to the same persons: and for this very good reason, because they, who had impaired their bodies by anxious thought, and nightly watchings, stood most in need of its assistance. And thus we find, that many amongst the philosophers were skilled in this science; of whom the most celebrated were Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus. Hippocrates of Cos, who, according to some authors, was the disciple of the last mentioned of these, and is so justly admired both for his knowledge in this profession, and for his eloquence, was the first worthy of notice, who separated medicine from the study of philosophy. After him, Diocles the Carystian, then Praxagoras and Chrysippus; after these, Herophilus and Erasistratus applied themselves to this art, and differed widely from each other in their methods of cure.
(1) For references 1, 2, 3, &c. see Notes at the end.
During this period, physick was divided into three parts: the first cured by diet, the second by medicines, the third by manual operations: the first they termed, in Greek, Diætetice,[ X ] the second Pharmaceutice,[ Y ] and the third Chirurgice.[ Z ] The most illustrious professors of that branch, which treats diseases by diet, endeavoured to extend their views farther, and took in the assistance of natural philosophy; being persuaded that, without it, medicine would be a weak and imperfect science. After these came Serapion, who first of all maintained, that the rational method of study was foreign to the art of medicine, and confined it to practice and experience. In his steps followed Appollonius and Glaucias, and some time after Heraclides of Tarentum, and others of no small note; who, from the doctrine they asserted, stiled themselves Empiricks[ AA ]. And thus the Dietetick branch was also divided into two parts, one set of physicians pursuing theory, the other following experience alone. However, after these we have enumerated above, no one attempted any thing new, till Asclepiades, who greatly changed the art of medicine. And Themison, one of his successors, has also lately, in his old age, departed from him in some things. And these are the men, to whom we are chiefly indebted for the improvements made in this salutary profession.
As that branch of medicine, which respects the cure of diseases, is the noblest, as well as the most difficult of the three, we shall first treat of that part. And because in this the chief dispute is, that some alledge an acquaintance with experiments to be only requisite, while others affirm experience alone to be insufficient, without a thorough knowledge of the constitution of bodies, and what naturally happens to them; it will be proper to recite the principal arguments on both sides, that we may the more easily deliver our own opinion upon the question.
Those then, who declare for a theory in medicine, look upon the following things as necessary: the knowledge of the occult and constituent causes of distempers; next, of the evident ones; then, of the natural actions; and, lastly, of the internal parts. They call these causes occult, in which we inquire of what principles our bodies are composed, what constitutes health, and what sickness. For they hold it impossible that any one should know how to cure diseases, if he be ignorant of the causes, whence they proceed; and that it is not to be doubted, but one method of cure is required, if the redundancy or deficiency in any of the four principles(3) be the cause of diseases, as some philosophers have affirmed; another, if the fault lie wholly in the humours, as Herophilus thought; another, if in the inspired air, as Hippocrates believed; another, if the blood be transfused into those vessels(4), which are designed only for air, and occasion an inflammation, which the Greeks call phlegmone[ AB ], and that inflammation cause such a commotion as we observe in a fever, which was the opinion of Erasistratus; another, if the corpuscles passing through the invisible pores should stop, and obstruct the passage, as Asclepiades maintained: that he will proceed in the proper method of curing a disease, who is not deceived in its original cause. Nor do they deny experience to be necessary, but affirm, it cannot be obtained without some theory; for that the more ancient practitioners did not prescribe any thing, at hazard, for the sick, but considered what was most suitable, and examined that by experience, to which they had before been led by some conjecture. That it is of no moment in this argument, whether most remedies were discovered by experiment, provided they were at first applied with some rational view: and that this holds in many cases; but new kinds of distempers often occur, in which practice has hitherto given no light; so that it is necessary to observe whence they arose; without which no mortal can find out, why he should make use of one thing, rather than another. And for these reasons they investigate the occult causes. They term those causes evident, in which they inquire, whether the beginning of the distemper was occasioned by heat or cold, fasting or surfeit, and the like. For they say, he will be able to oppose the first appearances, who is not ignorant of their rise. Those actions of the body which they call natural, are inspiration and exspiration, the reception and concoction of our meat and drink, as also the distribution(5) of the same into the several parts of the body. They also inquire how it happens, that our arteries rise and fall; from what causes proceed sleep and watching; without the knowledge of which, they conceive it impossible for any person either to oppose the beginnings of diseases, that depend on these particulars, or cure them when formed. As of all these things they look upon concoction to be of the greatest importance, they insist chiefly upon it; and some of them following the opinion of Erasistratus, affirm that the food is concocted in the stomach by attrition; others, after Plistonicus, the disciple of Praxagoras, by putrefaction; others, upon the credit of Hippocrates, believe concoction is effected by heat. After them follow the disciples of Asclepiades, who hold all these hypotheses to be vain and idle; for that there is no concoction at all, but the matter, crude as it is received, is distributed through the whole body. And in these things they are by no means agreed: however, it is not disputed, that according to the different hypotheses, a different regimen of diet is to be observed by sick people. For if it be performed by attrition, such food is to be chosen, as will most easily be broken to pieces; if by putrefaction, such as most quickly undergoes that change; if heat be the cause of concoction, then such as most effectually cherishes heat. But if there be no concoction at all, then none of these kinds of aliment are to be chosen: but such are to be taken, as are least liable to change from the state in which they are received. And, by the same way of reasoning, when there is a difficulty of breathing, when sleep or watchings oppress, they are of opinion, that the man, who has first learned in what manner these happen, will be capable of curing them. Besides, as pains, and various other disorders, attack the internal parts, they believe no person can apply proper remedies to those parts, which he is ignorant of; and therefore, that it is necessary to dissect dead bodies, and examine their viscera and intestines; and that Herophilus and Erasistratus had taken far the best method for attaining that knowledge, who procured criminals out of prison, by royal permission, and dissecting them alive, contemplated, while they were even breathing, the parts, which nature had before concealed; considering their position, colour, figure, size, order, hardness, softness, smoothness, and asperity(6); also the processes and depressions of each, or what is inserted into, or received by another part; for, say they, when there happens any inward pain, a person cannot discover the seat of that pain, if he have not learned where every viscus or intestine is situated; nor can the part, which suffers, be cured by one, who does not know what part it is; and that when the viscera happen to be exposed by a wound, if one is ignorant of the natural colour of each part, he cannot know what is sound and what corrupted; and for that reason is not qualified to cure the corrupted parts; besides they maintain, that external remedies are applied with much more judgment, when we are acquainted with the situation, figure, and size of the internal parts; and that the same reasoning holds in all the other instances above mentioned. And that it is by no means cruel, as most people represent it, by the tortures of a few guilty, to search after remedies for the whole innocent race of mankind in all ages.
On the other hand, those, who from experience, stile themselves empiricks, admit indeed the evident causes as necessary; but affirm the inquiry after the occult causes and natural actions to be fruitless, because nature is incomprehensible. And that these things cannot be comprehended, appears from the controversies among those, who have treated concerning them, there being no agreement found here either amongst the philosophers or the physicians themselves: for, why should one believe Hippocrates rather than Herophilus? or, why him more than Asclepiades? that if a man inclines to determine his judgment by reasons assigned, the reasons of each of them seem not improbable; if by cures, all of them have restored the diseased to health; and therefore we should not deny credit either to the arguments or authority of any of them. That even the philosophers must be allowed to be the greatest physicians, if reasoning could make them so; whereas it appears, that they have abundance of words, and very little skill in the art of healing. They say also that the methods of practice differ according to the nature of places; thus one method is necessary at Rome, another in Egypt, and another in Gaul. That if the causes of distempers were the same in all places, the same remedies ought also to be used every where. That often too the causes are evident; as for instance in a lippitude(7), or a wound, and nevertheless the method of cure does not appear from them: that if the evident cause does not suggest this knowledge, much less can the other, which is itself obscure. Seeing then this last is uncertain and incomprehensible, it is much better to seek relief from things certain and tried; that is, from such remedies as experience in the method of curing has taught us, as is done in all other arts; for that neither a husbandman nor a pilot is
